Tajikistan / Pixabay

In Sanskrit texts, ancient India’s northern lands beyond the Himalayas are called Uttarakuru (in the east) and Uttaramadra (in the west). These lands do not figure in the earliest Vedic books. The name “Kuru” is found just once in Ṛgveda 10.33.4 where there is a reference to Kuruśravaṇa Trasadasyu, who is a king of the Pūrus. The Kurus are mentioned in late books such as the Aitareya Brāhmaṇa and the Mahābhārata. Later another name Śākadvīpa is used for this entire region.

The Purāṇas speak of four regions of Jambudvīpa, Ketumāla, Bhadrāśva and Uttarakuru. Jambudvīpa is India proper, Ketumāla represents the Oxus region, Bhadrāśva is the Jaxartes region and Uttarakuru denotes the country beyond it. In the Mahābhārata, Uttarakuru is paired with Dakṣiṇakuru to the south of the Himalayas. The distance between these regions can be estimated from the military campaign of Arjuna described in the Sabhāparvan सभापर्व. After crossing the White Mountain (Śvetaparvata), Arjuna marches through Haimavata and reaches the Mānasarovara Lake in the country of the Hāṭakas, dominated by the Gandharvas. From there he enters the region called Harivarṣa, beyond which lies Uttarakuru. Clearly, by this time the name Uttarakuru had subsumed Uttaramadra.

As described in the Ṛgveda, the region of Dṛṣadvatī, Sarasvatī and Āpayā was where the Bharata kings ruled. In the Āprī hymns, Sarasvatī River is Bhāratī, the glory of the Bhāratas. This region became known as Kurukṣetra later, when the Kurus became its rulers.

In the Aitareya Brāhmaṇa (8. 14), it is stated that the Uttarakurus consecrate their kings by Vedic rites. Later, in the same text (8. 23), Vāsiṣṭha Sātyahavya anoints Jānaṃtapi Atyarāti according to the ritual of Aindra Mahābhiṣeka, who, in consequence goes out to conquer the world.

Some scholars see the Kurus sweep further into Persia and later into Sogdia, Anatolia and beyond. Another section of the Kurus, called Prātipeyas, are known as Bāhlikas since one of the sons of Pratīpa was called Bāhlika, indicating association with Bactria.

A passage in the Bhīṣmaparvan of the Mahābhārata, explains that Śākadvīpa, a land that includes Uttarakuru and Uttaramadra, is organized in classes just like India: “In that region are four countries, Maga, Maśaka, Mānasa and Mandaga. Maga is mainly inhabited by Brahmins who love their tasks; in Maśaka there are virtuous Kṣatriyas who are generous; in Mānasa the Vaiśyas are brave, devoted to the wishes of all, bent on dharma and artha; and the Śūdras in Mandaga, for their part, are constantly pious.”

In Vāyu Purāṇa 45.116–7, Vāhlīkas, Vatadhanas, Ābhīras, Aparītas, Madras, Pahlavas, Gāndhāras, Yavanas, Sindhus, Sauvīras, Bhadrakas, Śaka are called Kṣatriyas and thus part of Indic people.

According to the Sāmba Purāṇa, the Maga Brahmins, also called Bhojaka or Śākadvīpīya, came to India from Śākadvīpa.

Expansion of the Vedic people westwards

The languages and the vocabularies of the Śākadvīpa tell us some about their connections with India, and they also illuminate the history of Sanskrit and Prakrit languages. For this one must check material in Avestan, Pahlavi, Gāndhāri, Sogdian, and Śāka languages.

A Puranic legend provides another important clue. It tells us that Vaivasvata Manu had nine sons, including Ikṣvāku, and a daughter, Iḷā or Ilā. The descendants of Ikṣvāku are members of the Sūryavaṃśī solar dynasty and Rāma of Rāmāyaṇa fame was born in this line.

Budha, the son of Candra, and Ilā had a son named Purūravas (also in Ṛgveda 10.95.18). Subsequently, thanks to a boon Ilā became a man named Sudyumna. The descendants of Ilā/Sudyumna are thus called Aila or Candravaṃśī (lunar dynasty). According to Puranic accounts, Purūravas ruled Uttarakuru as part of the Kuru Empire. The famous story of Purūravas falling in love with Urvaśī is found in the Ṛgveda (10.95.1–18) and the Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa (11.5.1).

Purūravas’s great-grandson was Yayāti who had five sons: Yadu and Turvasu/Turvaṣa, sons by his wife Devayānī, and Druhyu, Anu and Pūru, sons by his wife Śarmiṣṭhā. The Pūrus ruled around Kurukṣetra, the Anus to their north, the Druhyus to the west, the Yadus to their south, and the Turvasus to the east of the Yadus.

At the end of the Ten-kings (dāśarājña) battle of the Ṛgveda, the Pūrus expand westwards and Anus push outwards into Afghanistan leading to a further northwards push to the Druhyus who went out into Central Asia. The migration of these tribes westward from India is to be found in Vāyu P. 99.11‐12, Brahmāṇḍa P. 3.74.11‐12, Matsya P. 48.9, Viṣṇu P. 4.17.5, Bhāgavata 9.23.15‐16.

Shrikant Talageri has adduced much evidence from the Ṛgveda in support of such movement out of India’s western borders. According to him, the Anu are the ancestors of the Iranians and the Druhyu are the ancestors of Greek and European peoples and of the Druids.

Ptolemy’s Geography refers to Ottorokorai (Uttarakuru) tribe, Ottorokora as a city, and Ottorokoras as a river. Other scholars believe that the Tokhari (Tukharas) are the same as the Rishikas (Ṛṣika), who are mentioned in Sanskrit texts.

Languages in the Northern Lands

I have previously written on the languages of East Śākadvīpa, that is Khotan and Xinjiang so I will only provide a brief summary here. Many people in this region spoke Sanskritic languages such as Gāndhārī, which has Dardic features that it shares with Kashmiri, and the closely related Khotanese Saka.

West Śākadvīpa, that is Bactria and lands beyond, also used Aryan languages. I speak not only of Avestan and Pahlavi but also the language of the Kushan Emperor Kanishka in his Rabatak Inscription. Further north, in the vast region with cities like Samarkand and Bukhara, the Sogdian language was most influential.

I am in the middle of compiling a dictionary of Sogdian words and here’re some randomly chosen words from the list:

[Sogdian] : [Sanskrit]

1=ēw: one ईव,एक

ēw-žwānē: one life ईव-जीवनी

3 ǝѳrē: three त्रि

12 = δǝwātǝs: dawātas, twelve द्वादस, द्वादश

100 stu: a hundred शत

āγǝt: āgat, to bring आगत

āγund- āγust: to cover, आगुन्द, Hindi गूंधना

āstǝnē: initial, first आस्तीन

ātar-: fire आतर, आथर्व

āwart-: to turn hither आवर्त

ǝβžirēnē: made of diamonds; अवज्रिनि from वज्र

ǝδu (ǝδǝw): two द्वि

āfrīn- āfrīt: bless आप्री

ǝftǝmi: first, first of all, prathami, प्रथमी

ǝftǝmīk: first, 1st prathamik, प्रथमिक

ēžǝndē: worthy एजंदे. यजत yajanta, यजन्त

ǝktānē: sin akartva अकर्त्व

ǝktǝspās: obliging अक्त

ǝktē, ǝktč: done कर्त्य

ǝkǝtyā: act, deed कर्त्य

ǝkut, plur. ǝkutīšt: dog अकुत (कुत्ता)

ambēr-: to fill अम्भर

anwēž: to gather अन्वेष

anxǝr: star, constellation नक्षत्र

anxǝrkǝsē: astrologer अंखरकसी

anxǝstē: goaded ankushta, अंकुश

aryān wēžǝn: the Aryan Expanse आर्यन विशान

ǝstǝkanǰǝl: of bone अष्टिकञ्जर

ǝškamb: world (~ loka) अस्कम्भ

šm’r-(ǝ)šmārt: to think स्मर स्मृति

ǝšmārā: thought अस्मार

ōsuγd: to be purified ओषधि

xšēѳ: ruler क्षत्र

ēžǝn: worthy यजन

βǝγpǝšē: son of gods bhagapashi भगपुत्र

βǝγistān: place of gods भगिस्थान

čǝxr: wheel चक्र

δβǝr: door, gate दबर द्वार

δβyš δβēš: harm दबीश द्वेश

δβyšny δβēšenē: harmful द्वेशनी

δrjy’wr žyāwǝr: heart ह्रदयवार

friy: dear प्रिय

frītāt: love, charity प्रियतात

frī-rǝwān: soul-loving, प्रिय उर्वन

fǝsāč-: to teach प्रशास्ति

γandāk: bad, foul गन्द

γandā(k)kǝrē: evil-doer गन्दकरी

γǝr: mountain गर. गिरि

γǝrāmē: wealth गरामि, गरिमा

γǝrān: heavy गराम, गुरु

žǝnā: knowledge जेना, ज्ञान

žǝw-: to live जिव

žǝwān fem.: life जीवन

žūkyā: (good) health सुख्य. सुख

žwandē: living जीवन्त

kōtǝr: family कोतर (Skt gotra) गोत्र

kutsār: where(to)

kōtī: (zillion) कोटि

nǝnǝ-δβāmbǝn: Goddess Nana नना देवी अम्बा. Nanā, नना, is the name for goddess (as in Ṛgveda 9.112.3 कारुरहं ततो भिषगुपलप्रक्षिणी नना), speech (Vāc), and daughter in Sanskrit.

More interesting words

Given that the Sogdian words have much connections with Sanskrit and Prakrit, here are the hidden histories of a few other words.

A.

Hindi सुनसान (sunsān) means desolate, lonely, empty, and lifeless. Scholars have traced the history of this word to Sauraseni Prakrit (suṇṇasāṇa), from Sanskrit (śūnyasthāna, “empty place”), from (śūnya, “empty”) + (sthāna, “place”).

Gujarati ઘમસાણ (ghamsāṇ), Marathi घमशान (ghamśān). I see these words derived from Sanskrit gharmasthāna, a place of fierce fighting. Cognate to these is Hindi घमासान • ghamāsān, a fierce fight or battle; slaughter. 2. fierce, murderous.

Farsi Khorasan (or Khurasan) خراسان‎ (Xorâsân), which we know from earlier usages in the area to be from earlier خوراسان‎ (xwarâsân), from Middle Persian hwlʾsʾn’ (xwarāsān, literally “sunrise; east”). The Sassanian and post-Islamic Persian name for the region of Parthia located in north east of Iran, sometimes covering also parts of Central Asia and Afghanistan; the Greater Khorasan.

If we go back to Avesta that arose in a region next to Northwest India, we know that Sanskrit svar स्वर् means the “sun” and the “heaven of light” as early as in the Ṛgveda.The word svara स्वर literally means “going” and it normally stands for sound or voice and it also means a vowel, the number seven, an accent and so on.

In Avesta, the Sanskrit svar became modified by sound change to xwara or even khar, as we see in that last name. Thus svar-sthāna, स्वरस्थान, the place of the sun (or sunrise) became in the Avestan pronunciation of the word as खोरसान and खुरासान.

B.

The word हिम hima means cold and we see hemaka stands for gold. We have another word for beings called यक्ष Yakṣa who live in cold climates. The chief Yakṣa is Kubera कुबेर, the god of wealth; he is represented as having three legs and eight teeth.

There are two tadbhava forms of yakṣa: yakh (cold) and yaccha (Kashmiri for Yakṣa, just like Lakṣmī in its tadbhav forms become either Lakhmi or Lacchmi). From there to Avestan (aēxa-, “frost, ice”), Persian یخ‎ (yakh).

C

Farsi Khurshed = Sun . History of its derivation: Sanskrit svara स्वर (Sun) => hvare (Avestan) kṣaita क्षैत(m. radiant, prince) => xshaeta hvarexshaêtahe [hvare-xshaêta]= radiant sun in Avestan => Khwarshēd (in Middle Persian) => Khurshēd/Khorshīd in Modern Persian.