Over the last week or so, I’ve been working on an update to Rayon, my experimental library for data parallelism in Rust. I’m pretty happy with the way it’s been going, so I wanted to write a blog post to explain what I’ve got so far.

Rayon’s goal is to make it easy to add parallelism to your sequential code – so basically to take existing for loops or iterators and make them run in parallel. For example, if you have an existing iterator chain like this:

let total_price = stores .iter () .map (| store | store .compute_price ( & list )) .sum ();

then you could convert that to run in parallel just by changing from the standard “sequential iterator” to Rayon’s “parallel iterator”:

let total_price = stores .par_iter () .map (| store | store .compute_price ( & list )) .sum ();

Of course, part of making parallelism easy is making it safe. Rayon guarantees you that using Rayon APIs will not introduce data races.

This blog post explains how Rayon works. It starts by describing the core Rayon primitive ( join ) and explains how that is implemented. I look in particular at how many of Rust’s features come together to let us implement join with very low runtime overhead and with strong safety guarantees. I then explain briefly how the parallel iterator abstraction is built on top of join .

I do want to emphasize, though, that Rayon is very much “work in progress”. I expect the design of the parallel iterator code in particular to see a lot of, well, iteration (no pun intended), since the current setup is not as flexible as I would like. There are also various corner cases that are not correctly handled, notably around panic propagation and cleanup. Still, Rayon is definitely usable today for certain tasks. I’m pretty excited about it, and I hope you will be too!

Rayon’s core primitive: join

In the beginning of this post, I showed an example of using a parallel iterator to do a map-reduce operation:

let total_price = stores .par_iter () .map (| store | store .compute_price ( & list )) .sum ();

In fact, though, parallel iterators are just a small utility library built atop a more fundamental primitive: join . The usage of join is very simple. You invoke it with two closures, like shown below, and it will potentially execute them in parallel. Once they have both finished, it will return:

// `do_something` and `do_something_else` *may* run in parallel join (|| do_something (), || do_something_else ())

The fact that the two closures potentially run in parallel is key: the decision of whether or not to use parallel threads is made dynamically, based on whether idle cores are available. The idea is that you can basically annotate your programs with calls to join to indicate where parallelism might be a good idea, and let the runtime decide when to take advantage of that.

This approach of “potential parallelism” is, in fact, the key point of difference between Rayon’s approach and crossbeam’s scoped threads. Whereas in crossbeam, when you put two bits of work onto scoped threads, they will always execute concurrently with one another, calling join in Rayon does not necessarily imply that the code will execute in parallel. This not only makes for a simpler API, it can make for more efficient execution. This is because knowing when parallelism is profitable is difficult to predict in advance, and always requires a certain amount of global context: for example, does the computer have idle cores? What other parallel operations are happening right now? In fact, one of the main points of this post is to advocate for potential parallelism as the basis for Rust data parallelism libraries, in contrast to the guaranteed concurrency that we have seen thus far.

This is not to say that there is no role for guaranteed concurrency like what crossbeam offers. “Potential parallelism” semantics also imply some limits on what your parallel closures can do. For example, if I try to use a channel to communicate between the two closures in join , that will likely deadlock. The right way to think about join is that it is a parallelization hint for an otherwise sequential algorithm. Sometimes that’s not what you want – some algorithms are inherently parallel. (Note though that it is perfectly reasonable to use types like Mutex , AtomicU32 , etc from within a join call – you just don’t want one closure to block waiting for the other.)

Example of using join: parallel quicksort

join is a great primitive for “divide-and-conquer” algorithms. These algorithms tend to divide up the work into two roughly equal parts and then recursively process those parts. For example, we can implement a parallel version of quicksort like so:

fn quick_sort < T : PartialOrd + Send > ( v : & mut [ T ]) { if v .len () > 1 { let mid = partition ( v ); let ( lo , hi ) = v .split_at_mut ( mid ); rayon :: join (|| quick_sort ( lo ), || quick_sort ( hi )); } } fn partition < T : PartialOrd + Send > ( v : & mut [ T ]) -> usize { // see https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quicksort#Lomuto_partition_scheme }

In fact, the only difference between this version of quicksort and a sequential one is that we call rayon::join at the end!

How join is implemented: work-stealing

Behind the scenes, join is implemented using a technique called work-stealing. As far as I know, work stealing was first introduced as part of the Cilk project, and it has since become a fairly standard technique (in fact, the name Rayon is an homage to Cilk).

The basic idea is that, on each call to join(a, b) , we have identified two tasks a and b that could safely run in parallel, but we don’t know yet whether there are idle threads. All that the current thread does is to add b into a local queue of “pending work” and then go and immediately start executing a . Meanwhile, there is a pool of other active threads (typically one per CPU, or something like that). Whenever it is idle, each thread goes off to scour the “pending work” queues of other threads: if they find an item there, then they will steal it and execute it themselves. So, in this case, while the first thread is busy executing a , another thread might come along and start executing b .

Once the first thread finishes with a , it then checks: did somebody else start executing b already? If not, we can execute it ourselves. If so, we should wait for them to finish: but while we wait, we can go off and steal from other processors, and thus try to help drive the overall process towards completion.

In Rust-y pseudocode, join thus looks something like this (the actual code works somewhat differently; for example, it allows for each operation to have a result):

fn join < A , B > ( oper_a : A , oper_b : B ) where A : FnOnce () + Send , B : FnOnce () + Send , { // Advertise `oper_b` to other threads as something // they might steal: let job = push_onto_local_queue ( oper_b ); // Execute `oper_a` ourselves: oper_a (); // Check whether anybody stole `oper_b`: if pop_from_local_queue ( oper_b ) { // Not stolen, do it ourselves. oper_b (); } else { // Stolen, wait for them to finish. In the // meantime, try to steal from others: while not_yet_complete ( job ) { steal_from_others (); } result_b = job .result (); } }

What makes work stealing so elegant is that it adapts naturally to the CPU’s load. That is, if all the workers are busy, then join(a, b) basically devolves into executing each closure sequentially (i.e., a(); b(); ). This is no worse than the sequential code. But if there are idle threads available, then we get parallelism.

Performance measurements

Rayon is still fairly young, and I don’t have a lot of sample programs to test (nor have I spent a lot of time tuning it). Nonetheless, you can get pretty decent speedups even today, but it does take a bit more tuning than I would like. For example, with a tweaked version of quicksort, I see the following parallel speedups on my 4-core Macbook Pro (hence, 4x is basically the best you could expect):

Array Length Speedup 1K 0.95x 32K 2.19x 64K 3.09x 128K 3.52x 512K 3.84x 1024K 4.01x

The change that I made from the original version is to introduce sequential fallback. Basically, we just check if we have a small array (in my code, less than 5K elements). If so, we fallback to a sequential version of the code that never calls join . This can actually be done without any code duplication using traits, as you can see from the demo code. (If you’re curious, I explain the idea in an appendix below.)

Hopefully, further optimizations will mean that sequential fallback is less necessary – but it’s worth pointing out that higher-level APIs like the parallel iterator I alluded to earlier can also handle the sequential fallback for you, so that you don’t have to actively think about it.

In any case, if you don’t do sequential fallback, then the results you see are not as good, though they could be a lot worse:

Array Length Speedup 1K 0.41x 32K 2.05x 64K 2.42x 128K 2.75x 512K 3.02x 1024K 3.10x

In particular, keep in mind that this version of the code is pushing a parallel task for all subarrays down to length 1. If the array is 512K or 1024K, that’s a lot of subarrays and hence a lot of task pushing, but we still get a speedup of 3.10x. I think the reason that the code does as well as it does is because it gets the “big things” right – that is, Rayon avoids memory allocation and virtual dispatch, as described in the next section. Still, I would like to do better than 0.41x for a 1K array (and I think we can).

Taking advantage of Rust features to minimize overhead

As you can see above, to make this scheme work, you really want to drive down the overhead of pushing a task onto the local queue. After all, the expectation is that most tasks will never be stolen, because there are far fewer processors than there are tasks. Rayon’s API is designed to leverage several Rust features and drive this overhead down:

join is defined generically with respect to the closure types of its arguments. This means that monomorphization will generate a distinct copy of join specialized to each callsite . This in turn means that when join invokes oper_a() and oper_b() (as opposed to the relatively rare case where they are stolen), those calls are statically dispatched, which means that they can be inlined. It also means that creating a closure requires no allocation.

is defined generically with respect to the closure types of its arguments. This means that monomorphization will generate a distinct copy of . This in turn means that when invokes and (as opposed to the relatively rare case where they are stolen), those calls are statically dispatched, which means that they can be inlined. It also means that creating a closure requires no allocation. Because join blocks until both of its closures are finished, we are able to make full use of stack allocation. This is good both for users of the API and for the implementation: for example, the quicksort example above relied on being able to access an &mut [T] slice that was provided as input, which only works because join blocks. Similarly, the implementation of join itself is able to completely avoid heap allocation and instead rely solely on the stack (e.g., the closure objects that we place into our local work queue are allocated on the stack).

As you saw above, the overhead for pushing a task is reasonably low, though not nearly as low as I would like. There are various ways to reduce it further:

Many work-stealing implementations use heuristics to try and decide when to skip the work of pushing parallel tasks. For example, the Lazy Scheduling work by Tzannes et al. tries to avoid pushing a task at all unless there are idle worker threads (which they call “hungry” threads) that might steal it.

And of course good ol’ fashioned optimization would help. I’ve never even looked at the generated LLVM bitcode or assembly for join , for example, and it seems likely that there is low-hanging fruit there.

Data-race freedom

Earlier I mentioned that Rayon also guarantees data-race freedom. This means that you can add parallelism to previously sequential code without worrying about introducing weird, hard-to-reproduce bugs.

There are two kinds of mistakes we have to be concerned about. First, the two closures might share some mutable state, so that changes made by one would affect the other. For example, if I modify the above example so that it (incorrectly) calls quick_sort on lo in both closures, then I would hope that this will not compile:

fn quick_sort < T : PartialOrd + Send > ( v : & mut [ T ]) { if v .len () > 1 { let mid = partition ( v ); let ( lo , hi ) = v .split_at_mut ( mid ); rayon :: join (|| quick_sort ( lo ), || quick_sort ( lo )); // <-- oops } }

And indeed I will see the following error:

test.rs:14:10: 14:27 error: closure requires unique access to `lo` but it is already borrowed [E0500] test.rs:14 || quick_sort(lo)); ^~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

Similar errors arise if I try to have one closure process lo (or hi ) and the other process v , which overlaps with both of them.

Side note: This example may seem artificial, but in fact this is an actual bug that I made (or rather, would have made) while implementing the parallel iterator abstraction I describe later. It’s very easy to make these sorts of copy-and-paste errors, and it’s very nice that Rust makes this kind of error a non-event, rather than a crashing bug.

Another kind of bug one might have is to use a non-threadsafe type from within one of the join closures. For example, Rust offers a non-atomic reference-counted type called Rc . Because Rc uses non-atomic instructions to update the reference counter, it is not safe to share an Rc between threads. If one were to do so, as I show in the following example, the ref count could easily become incorrect, which would lead to double frees or worse:

fn share_rc < T : PartialOrd + Send > ( rc : Rc < i32 > { // In the closures below, the calls to `clone` increment the // reference count. These calls MIGHT execute in parallel. // Would not be good! rayon :: join (|| something ( rc .clone ()), || something ( rc .clone ())); }

But of course if I try that example, I get a compilation error:

test.rs:14:5: 14:9 error: the trait `core::marker::Sync` is not implemented for the type `alloc::rc::Rc<i32>` [E0277] test.rs:14 rayon::join(|| something(rc.clone()), ^~~~~~~~~~~ test.rs:14:5: 14:9 help: run `rustc --explain E0277` to see a detailed explanation test.rs:14:5: 14:9 note: `alloc::rc::Rc<i32>` cannot be shared between threads safely

As you can see in the final “note”, the compiler is telling us that you cannot share Rc values across threads.

So you might wonder what kind of deep wizardry is required for the join function to enforce both of these invariants? In fact, the answer is surprisingly simple. The first error, which I got when I shared the same &mut slice across two closures, falls out from Rust’s basic type system: you cannot have two closures that are both in scope at the same time and both access the same &mut slice. This is because &mut data is supposed to be uniquely accessed, and hence if you had two closures, they would both have access to the same “unique” data. Which of course makes it not so unique.

(In fact, this was one of the great epiphanies for me in working on Rust’s type system. Previously I thought that “dangling pointers” in sequential programs and “data races” were sort of distinct bugs: but now I see them as two heads of the same Hydra. Basically both are caused by having rampant aliasing and mutation, and both can be solved by the ownership and borrowing. Nifty, no?)

So what about the second error, the one I got for sending an Rc across threads? This occurs because the join function declares that its two closures must be Send . Send is the Rust name for a trait that indicates whether data can be safely transferred across threads. So when join declares that its two closures must be Send , it is saying “it must be safe for the data those closures can reach to be transferred to another thread and back again”.

Parallel iterators

At the start of this post, I gave an example of using a parallel iterator:

let total_price = stores .par_iter () .map (| store | store .compute_price ( & list )) .sum ();

But since then, I’ve just focused on join . As I mentioned earlier, the parallel iterator API is really just a pretty simple wrapper around join . At the moment, it’s more of a proof of concept than anything else. But what’s really nifty about it is that it does not require any unsafe code related to parallelism – that is, it just builds on join , which encapsulates all of the unsafety. (To be clear, there is a small amount of unsafe code related to managing uninitialized memory when collecting into a vector. But this has nothing to do with parallelism; you’ll find similar code in Vec . This code is also wrong in some edge cases because I’ve not had time to do it properly.)

I don’t want to go too far into the details of the existing parallel iterator code because I expect it to change. But the high-level idea is that we have this trait ParallelIterator which has the following core members:

pub trait ParallelIterator { type Item ; type Shared : Sync ; type State : ParallelIteratorState < Shared = Self :: Shared , Item = Self :: Item > + Send ; fn state ( self ) -> ( Self :: Shared , Self :: State ); ... // some uninteresting helper methods, like `map` etc }

The idea is that the method state divides up the iterator into some shared state and some “per-thread” state. The shared state will (potentially) be accessible by all worker threads, so it must be Sync (sharable across threads). The per-thread-safe will be split for each call to join , so it only has to be Send (transferrable to a single other thread).

The ParallelIteratorState trait represents some chunk of the remaining work (e.g., a subslice to be processed). It has three methods:

pub trait ParallelIteratorState : Sized { type Item ; type Shared : Sync ; fn len ( & mut self ) -> ParallelLen ; fn split_at ( self , index : usize ) -> ( Self , Self ); fn for_each < OP > ( self , shared : & Self :: Shared , op : OP ) where OP : FnMut ( Self :: Item ); }

The len method gives an idea of how much work remains. The split_at method divides this state into two other pieces. The for_each method produces all the values in this chunk of the iterator. So, for example, the parallel iterator for a slice &[T] would:

implement len by just returning the length of the slice,

by just returning the length of the slice, implement split_at by splitting the slice into two subslices,

by splitting the slice into two subslices, and implement for_each by iterating over the array and invoking op on each element.

Given these two traits, we can implement a parallel operation like collection by following the same basic template. We check how much work there is: if it’s too much, we split into two pieces. Otherwise, we process sequentially (note that this automatically incorporates the sequential fallback we saw before):

fn process ( shared , state ) { if state .len () is too big { // parallel split let midpoint = state .len () / 2 ; let ( state1 , state2 ) = state .split_at ( midpoint ); rayon :: join (|| process ( shared , state1 ), || process ( shared , state2 )); } else { // sequential base case state .for_each (| item | { // process item }) } }

Click these links, for example, to see the code to collect into a vector or to reduce a stream of values into one.

Conclusions and a historical note

I’m pretty excited about this latest iteration of Rayon. It’s dead simple to use, very expressive, and I think it has a lot of potential to be very efficient.

It’s also very gratifying to see how elegant data parallelism in Rust has become. This is the result of a long evolution and a lot of iteration. In Rust’s early days, for example, it took a strict, Erlang-like approach, where you just had parallel tasks communicating over channels, with no shared memory. This is good for the high-levels of your application, but not so good for writing a parallel quicksort. Gradually though, as we refined the type system, we got closer and closer to a smooth version of parallel quicksort.

If you look at some of my earlier designs, it should be clear that the current iteration of Rayon is by far the smoothest yet. What I particularly like is that it is simple for users, but also simple for implementors – that is, it doesn’t require any crazy Rust type system tricks or funky traits to achieve safety here. I think this is largely due to two key developments:

“INHTWAMA”, which was the decision to make &mut references be non-aliasable and to remove const (read-only, but not immutable) references. This basically meant that Rust authors were now writing data-race-free code by default.

references be non-aliasable and to remove (read-only, but not immutable) references. This basically meant that Rust authors were now writing data-race-free code by default. Improved Send traits, or RFC 458, which modified the Send trait to permit borrowed references. Prior to this RFC, which was authored by Joshua Yanovski, we had the constraint that for data to be Send , it had to be 'static – meaning it could not have any references into the stack. This was a holdover from the Erlang-like days, when all threads were independent, asynchronous workers, but none of us saw it. This led to some awful contortions in my early designs to try to find alternate traits to express the idea of data that was threadsafe but also contained stack references. Thankfully Joshua had the insight that simply removing the 'static bound would make this all much smoother!

Appendix: Implementing sequential fallback without code duplication

Earlier, I mentioned that for peak performance in the quicksort demo, you want to fallback to sequential code if the array size is too small. It would be a drag to have to have two copies of the quicksort routine. Fortunately, we can use Rust traits to generate those two copies automatically from a single source. This appendix explains the trick that I used in the demo code.

First, you define a trait Joiner that abstracts over the join function:

trait Joiner { /// True if this is parallel mode, false otherwise. fn is_parallel () -> bool ; /// Either calls `rayon::join` or just invokes `oper_a(); oper_b();`. fn join < A , R_A , B , R_B > ( oper_a : A , oper_b : B ) -> ( R_A , R_B ) where A : FnOnce () -> R_A + Send , B : FnOnce () -> R_B + Send ; }

This Joiner trait has two implementations, corresponding to sequential and parallel mode:

struct Parallel ; impl Joiner for Parallel { .. } struct Sequential ; impl Joiner for Sequential { .. }

Now we can rewrite quick_sort to be generic over a type J: Joiner , indicating whether this is the parallel or sequential implementation. The parallel version will, for small arrays, convert over to sequential mode: