Meaghan Edwards had just finished reading children's books to her son's third-grade class when the teacher announced that students could have free time before lunch. Instead of playing cards, talking with friends or reading more, the students pulled out their iPads.

“They were zoned out like little zombies,” recalled Ms Edwards, whose children attended school in the Eanes Independent School District in Austin, Texas.

The school system is one of many coast to coast that have spent millions of dollars on initiatives aimed at putting computers or tablets in the hands of every student, sometimes as early as kindergarten.

The largest school district in Virginia, Fairfax County Public Schools, announced last year plans to provide Dell laptops to students starting in third grade. Less wealthy school systems have issued bonds to purchase devices, borrowing millions of dollars for laptops, iPads and Chromebooks.

But some parents in parts of the country where the programmes are in place want to scale back, saying the devices are harming the way young children learn.

World news in pictures Show all 50 1 /50 World news in pictures World news in pictures 14 September 2020 Japan's Prime Minister Shinzo Abe, Chief Cabinet Secretary Yoshihide Suga, former Defense Minister Shigeru Ishiba and former Foreign Minister Fumio Kishida celebrate after Suga was elected as new head of the ruling party at the Liberal Democratic Party's leadership election in Tokyo Reuters World news in pictures 13 September 2020 A man stands behind a burning barricade during the fifth straight day of protests against police brutality in Bogota AFP via Getty World news in pictures 12 September 2020 Police officers block and detain protesters during an opposition rally to protest the official presidential election results in Minsk, Belarus. Daily protests calling for the authoritarian president's resignation are now in their second month AP World news in pictures 11 September 2020 Members of 'Omnium Cultural' celebrate the 20th 'Festa per la llibertat' ('Fiesta for the freedom') to mark the Day of Catalonia in Barcelona. Omnion Cultural fights for the independence of Catalonia EPA World news in pictures 10 September 2020 The Moria refugee camp, two days after Greece's biggest migrant camp, was destroyed by fire. Thousands of asylum seekers on the island of Lesbos are now homeless AFP via Getty World news in pictures 9 September 2020 Pope Francis takes off his face mask as he arrives by car to hold a limited public audience at the San Damaso courtyard in The Vatican AFP via Getty World news in pictures 8 September 2020 A home is engulfed in flames during the "Creek Fire" in the Tollhouse area of California AFP via Getty World news in pictures 7 September 2020 A couple take photos along a sea wall of the waves brought by Typhoon Haishen in the eastern port city of Sokcho AFP via Getty World news in pictures 6 September 2020 Novak Djokovic and a tournament official tends to a linesperson who was struck with a ball by Djokovic during his match against Pablo Carreno Busta at the US Open USA Today Sports/Reuters World news in pictures 5 September 2020 Protesters confront police at the Shrine of Remembrance in Melbourne, Australia, during an anti-lockdown rally AFP via Getty World news in pictures 4 September 2020 A woman looks on from a rooftop as rescue workers dig through the rubble of a damaged building in Beirut. A search began for possible survivors after a scanner detected a pulse one month after the mega-blast at the adjacent port AFP via Getty World news in pictures 3 September 2020 A full moon next to the Virgen del Panecillo statue in Quito, Ecuador EPA World news in pictures 2 September 2020 A Palestinian woman reacts as Israeli forces demolish her animal shed near Hebron in the Israeli-occupied West Bank Reuters World news in pictures 1 September 2020 Students protest against presidential elections results in Minsk TUT.BY/AFP via Getty World news in pictures 31 August 2020 The pack rides during the 3rd stage of the Tour de France between Nice and Sisteron AFP via Getty World news in pictures 30 August 2020 Law enforcement officers block a street during a rally of opposition supporters protesting against presidential election results in Minsk, Belarus Reuters World news in pictures 29 August 2020 A woman holding a placard reading "Stop Censorship - Yes to the Freedom of Expression" shouts in a megaphone during a protest against the mandatory wearing of face masks in Paris. Masks, which were already compulsory on public transport, in enclosed public spaces, and outdoors in Paris in certain high-congestion areas around tourist sites, were made mandatory outdoors citywide on August 28 to fight the rising coronavirus infections AFP via Getty World news in pictures 28 August 2020 Japanese Prime Minister Shinzo Abe bows to the national flag at the start of a press conference at the prime minister official residence in Tokyo. Abe announced he will resign over health problems, in a bombshell development that kicks off a leadership contest in the world's third-largest economy AFP via Getty World news in pictures 27 August 2020 Residents take cover behind a tree trunk from rubber bullets fired by South African Police Service (SAPS) in Eldorado Park, near Johannesburg, during a protest by community members after a 16-year old boy was reported dead AFP via Getty World news in pictures 26 August 2020 People scatter rose petals on a statue of Mother Teresa marking her 110th birth anniversary in Ahmedabad AFP via Getty World news in pictures 25 August 2020 An aerial view shows beach-goers standing on salt formations in the Dead Sea near Ein Bokeq, Israel Reuters World news in pictures 24 August 2020 Health workers use a fingertip pulse oximeter and check the body temperature of a fisherwoman inside the Dharavi slum during a door-to-door Covid-19 coronavirus screening in Mumbai AFP via Getty World news in pictures 23 August 2020 People carry an idol of the Hindu god Ganesh, the deity of prosperity, to immerse it off the coast of the Arabian sea during the Ganesh Chaturthi festival in Mumbai, India Reuters World news in pictures 22 August 2020 Firefighters watch as flames from the LNU Lightning Complex fires approach a home in Napa County, California AP World news in pictures 21 August 2020 Members of the Israeli security forces arrest a Palestinian demonstrator during a rally to protest against Israel's plan to annex parts of the occupied West Bank AFP via Getty World news in pictures 20 August 2020 A man pushes his bicycle through a deserted road after prohibitory orders were imposed by district officials for a week to contain the spread of the Covid-19 in Kathmandu AFP via Getty World news in pictures 19 August 2020 A car burns while parked at a residence in Vacaville, California. Dozens of fires are burning out of control throughout Northern California as fire resources are spread thin AFP via Getty World news in pictures 18 August 2020 Students use their mobile phones as flashlights at an anti-government rally at Mahidol University in Nakhon Pathom. Thailand has seen near-daily protests in recent weeks by students demanding the resignation of Prime Minister Prayut Chan-O-Cha AFP via Getty World news in pictures 17 August 2020 Members of the Kayapo tribe block the BR163 highway during a protest outside Novo Progresso in Para state, Brazil. Indigenous protesters blocked a major transamazonian highway to protest against the lack of governmental support during the COVID-19 novel coronavirus pandemic and illegal deforestation in and around their territories AFP via Getty World news in pictures 16 August 2020 Lightning forks over the San Francisco-Oakland Bay Bridge as a storm passes over Oakland AP World news in pictures 15 August 2020 Belarus opposition supporters gather near the Pushkinskaya metro station where Alexander Taraikovsky, a 34-year-old protester died on August 10, during their protest rally in central Minsk AFP via Getty World news in pictures 14 August 2020 AlphaTauri's driver Daniil Kvyat takes part in the second practice session at the Circuit de Catalunya in Montmelo near Barcelona ahead of the Spanish F1 Grand Prix AFP via Getty World news in pictures 13 August 2020 Soldiers of the Brazilian Armed Forces during a disinfection of the Christ The Redeemer statue at the Corcovado mountain prior to the opening of the touristic attraction in Rio AFP via Getty World news in pictures 12 August 2020 Young elephant bulls tussle playfully on World Elephant Day at the Amboseli National Park in Kenya AFP via Getty World news in pictures 11 August 2020 French Prime Minister Jean Castex is helped by a member of staff to put a protective suit on prior to his visit at the CHU hospital in Montpellier AFP via Getty World news in pictures 10 August 2020 Locals harvest their potatoes as Mount Sinabung spews volcanic ash in Karo, North Sumatra province, Indonesia Antara Foto/Reuters World news in pictures 9 August 2020 Doves fly over the Peace Statue at Nagasaki Peace Park during the memorial ceremony held for the 75th anniversary of the atomic bombing EPA World news in pictures 8 August 2020 Anti-government protesters try to remove concrete wall that installed by security forces to prevent protesters reaching the Parliament square, during a protest against the political elites and the government after this week's deadly explosion in Beirut AP World news in pictures 7 August 2020 A protester throws a stone towards Israeli forces in the village of Turmus Aya, north of Ramallah in the occupied West Bank, following a march by Palestinians against the building of Israeli settlements AFP via Getty World news in pictures 6 August 2020 A woman yells as soldiers block a road for French President Emmanuel Macron's visit the Gemmayzeh neighborhood. The area in Beirut suffered extensive damage from the explosion at the seaport AP World news in pictures 5 August 2020 Damage at the site of Tuesday's blast in Beirut's port area, Lebanon Reuters World news in pictures 4 August 2020 A large explosion in the Lebanese capital Beirut. The blast, which rattled entire buildings and broke glass, was felt in several parts of the city AFP via Getty World news in pictures 3 August 2020 A general view shows the new road bridge in Genoa, Italy ahead of its official inauguration, after it was rebuilt following its collapse on August 14, 2018 which killed 43 people Reuters World news in pictures 2 August 2020 Empty stall spaces are seen hours before a citywide curfew is introduced in Melbourne, Australia EPA World news in pictures 1 August 2020 People take part in a demonstration by the initiative "Querdenken-711" with the slogan "the end of the pandemic - the day of freedom" to protest against the current measurements to curb the spread of COVID-19 in Berlin, Germany AFP via Getty World news in pictures 31 July 2020 Pilgrims circumambulating around the Kaaba, the holiest shrine in the Grand mosque in Mecca. Muslim pilgrims converged today on Saudi Arabia's Mount Arafat for the climax of this year's hajj, the smallest in modern times and a sharp contrast to the massive crowds of previous years Saudi Ministry of Media/AFP World news in pictures 30 July 2020 The Mars 2020 Perseverance mission lifts off at the Kennedy Space Centre in Florida. The mission is part of the USA's largest moon to Mars exploration. Nasa will attempt to establish a sustained human presence on and around the moon by 2028 through their Artemis programme EPA World news in pictures 29 July 2020 A woman refreshes herself in a outdoor pool in summer temperatures in Ehingen, Germany dpa via AP World news in pictures 28 July 2020 Malaysia's former prime minister Najib Razak speaks to the media after he was found guilty in his corruption trial in Kuala Lumpur AFP via Getty World news in pictures 27 July 2020 North Korean leader Kim Jong Un poses for a photograph after conferring commemorative pistols to leading commanding officers of the armed forces on the 67th anniversary of the "Day of Victory in the Great Fatherland Liberation War". Which marks the signing of the Korean War armistice KCNA via Reuters

From northern Virginia to Shawnee, Kansas, to Norman, Oklahoma, parents have demanded schools reduce or eliminate use of digital devices, provide alternative “low-screen” classwork and allow parents to say they do not want their children glued to glowing screens. Some families have even transferred their children to schools that are not so smitten with technology.

Maryland health and education officials released guidelines on using digital devices in school that include reminding students to take eye and stretch breaks and that encourage educators to offer collaborative learning assignments on and off the devices.

Virginia lawmakers are considering a similar proposal that would require the state to seek advice from medical professionals to set guidelines on the use of digital devices in schools.

Many parents fear that time spent on screens is eroding the quality of classroom instruction, causing skills such as math and handwriting to atrophy. Others worry that laptops and tablets are damaging children's eyes and posture. And others have shared stories about students viewing pornographic or other inappropriate material on school-issued devices.

They wonder what is lost when so much of childhood is spent staring at a screen instead of conversing with classmates or spending time more creatively. They say that schools are usurping the authority of parents who may limit screen time at home or monitor their children's internet activity on personal devices.

In March, Ms Edwards was called to her 6-year-old son's school after other students reported seeing scantily clad and topless women on her son's iPad in class. Her son and a friend, she said, had taken screen shots and saved images of the “naked ladies that they liked” to their devices.

A spokeswoman for the Eanes Independent School District said the school system added more Internet security measures after the incident with Ms Edwards's son.

The school system prevents students in the fifth grade and younger from searching for images on Google, said Claudia McWhorter, the spokeswoman. The district also prevents those students from accessing YouTube and blocks search results for mature content.

“We know that no technology is impenetrable, but we are constantly working to research new technologies and methods we can implement to further safeguard our students,” Ms McWhorter said.

But Ms Edwards still does not believe her children should use iPads in schools. She and her husband had rented a home in the West Lake Hills suburb for the schools. Now, they are home-schooling their children until they can find a school less reliant on technology.

“It's causing strife in families because the school districts are infiltrating our parenting styles,” Ms Edwards said. “We're moving out of the district. We're getting rid of our house.”

Laptops began appearing in classrooms in the mid-1990s, as their cost began dropping, said Larry Cuban, a professor emeritus at Stanford University's Graduate School of Education who has spent decades researching education technology.

Equipping every student with a laptop quickly became a goal among educators and technology companies, spurred by the idea that performance would soar and therefore assuage concerns raised in a seminal 1983 report about the nation potentially falling behind in science and technology.

“The idea was that when every kid had his or her own device, then academic achievement would go up; both kids and teachers would learn more, faster and better,” Mr Cuban said. “That was the dream of the technology vendors and educators who jumped aboard that bandwagon.”

That never quite came to fruition, and Mr Cuban said the rationale behind bolstering classroom laptop supplies began to change. Nowadays, school systems are more likely to argue that providing students with computers is necessary for developing everyday skills. In communities where laptops are used for standardised testing, educators say students must acclimate to the devices to prepare for exams.

“The question is not whether they're beneficial or harmful,” Mr Cuban said. “The question is much more focused on how they're used in the classrooms.”

Research on the effects of computers and tablets on learning is far from conclusive. A 2015 report found that countries making large investments in technology showed no improvements on student performance in reading, math or science.

But a Michigan State University researcher found that when school systems properly supported initiatives providing students with computers, higher test scores resulted.

Jennifer Zosh, an associate professor of human development and family studies at Penn State University at Brandywine, co-authored a report on the use of educational apps.

There were 80,000 apps marked “educational” that could be downloaded from Apple's App Store when the study was published in 2015. Most apps were untested at that time, Professor Zosh said, adding that she does not believe any were regulated.

Professor Zosh said apps that are most effective for learning have four qualities: active thinking, engagement, meaningfulness and social interaction. She sees value in an activity that requires students to create a video, for example, but she does not see the same worth in an app that rewards students with a game for answering questions correctly.

Gavin Williamson pledges to 'supercharge' education in bid to beat Germany

In the Eanes Independent School District, Ms Chorter, the spokeswoman, said equipping each student with a device has allowed teachers to easily personalise learning materials for students.

She added that iPads are essential for teaching early lessons in coding and other science, technology, engineering and math programmes. The devices also help students master state standards for technology, she said.

When Arlington Public Schools in northern Virginia announced a digital learning initiative, parents were sold on the vision that students would be building Lego robots and writing code, parent Kelly Alexis recalled. More than five years later, she said, the school system pulled a “bait and switch.”

Instead, her sons have used their school-issued iPads to take multiple-choice tests and, from her perspective, not much else.

Her younger son was issued an iPad in second grade, and the mother said she has not seen her son perform the same level of handwriting or reading in elementary school as his older brother, who is in ninth grade.

Alexis and her younger son visited the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum a few years ago, she said. Standing in the exhibit for Daniel's Story, which chronicles a young boy's life growing up in Nazi Germany, Alexis said, her son could not read the handwriting in the diary entries featured on the walls.

Alexis started an online petition calling on the school system to provide a “low-screen” track for students 14 and under that would involve fewer multiple-choice tests while requiring daily writing assignments across subjects and “meaningful” digital learning.

Children were losing basic communication skills, she said in the petition, and their education was being shortchanged.

“This all adds up to a program that launched without a true plan of implementation, or a vision to compensate for basic skills that may have been lost with the transition,” she wrote.

Arlington Public Schools commissioned a study from North Carolina State University's College of Education that examined the school system's iPad and laptop initiative. Roughly half of class time is spent on the devices, with elementary school students using them 40 percent of the time and high school students 58 percent of the time, according to the study's preliminary findings.

The school system gives students an iPad or MacBook starting in third grade.

The devices are commonly used for quizzes and standardised tests, Internet searches and presentations, according to teacher and student surveys. Those who were surveyed said the devices have several advantages - they make learning more interesting, allow students to move at their own pace and boost collaboration.

At Arlington's Discovery Elementary School, younger students use a classroom set of iPads about 14 minutes a day, fewer than three days a week, according to the school. Students in third grade and beyond use iPads for instruction about 90 minutes each day and are barred from using them during lunch and recess.

Keith Reeves, a technology coach at Discovery, works with teachers and other school employees to develop ways to incorporate technology in class lessons.

Reeves said many complaints he fields from parents are not rooted in research and that devices can enhance learning when used properly.

“Technology, like everything else, has its pros and cons. It's how you use it,” Reeves said. “My responsibility is to teach children the best I can, using every tool at my disposal.”

But he acknowledged the rollout in Arlington has not been perfect.

The school system does not have a director who oversees the program across the district. Teachers and other staff were not given training for using the devices in class when they were issued more than five years ago, and, Reeves said, the school system has had to play catch-up ever since.

He said he feels Arlington schools suffer from the “absence of educational technology leadership.”

Two years ago, another Arlington parent, Ann Marie Douglass, said her daughter created an elaborate online presentation on Cleopatra for class. She decorated the presentation by playing with font colour and sizes, Ms Douglass recalled, but her daughter struggled to answer questions about Egypt.

“It was very fancy, but when I asked her questions about Egypt, she just couldn't answer them,” she said. “I wanted to see her writing and acquiring more knowledge.”

Glaucoma and myopia, or nearsightedness, runs in Ms Douglass's family, and she said she fears time spent on devices will damage her children's eyes. The family's ophthalmologist has recommended her children spend no more than one hour each day on smartphones, tablets and laptops.

Ms Douglass has asked teachers to limit the time her son and daughter spend on the devices in class, and she has opted her daughter out of using the iPad. She does math homework from a workbook, unlike most of the other seventh-grade students.

A subcommittee on screen use in the Arlington school system that Ms Douglass chairs issued a report to the school board last year suggesting that the system allow parents to ask for a limit on screen time or no computer use at all, scheduling breaks from devices and improving teacher training.

“I want them to be tech savvy. I want them to be exposed to this. I don't want their data collected. I don't want their eyes burned out,” Ms Douglass said. “And I want them to still be empowered by the pen.”