This investigation focuses on the North Andes and includes discussion of monumental stone sculpture in the environs of San Agustín, Colombia, as well as Muisca, Quimbaya, and Darién (Sinú) goldworking traditions. Through formal and iconographic analyses of ceremonial paraphernalia, this paper shows that the primary ideologies of the cultures of this region involved the use of several psychoactive plants.

Major Psychoactive Plants Used in the North Andes Numerous psychoactive plants were available to the pre-Columbian indigenous people of the Northern Andes (Cordy-Collins, 1980; Furst, 1974; Ott, 1996; Plowman, 1984; Schultes & Hofmann, 1980; Sharon, 2000; Wilbert, 1987). Plants likely to have been used during pre-Hispanic times include several species within the following genera: Trichocereus (huachuma, San Pedro), Anadenanthera (vilca, yopo), Brugmansia (borrachero, floripondio, misha), Nicotiana (tobacco), and Erythroxylum (coca). These plants have been briefly discussed in the following sections. Cactaceae Trichocereus pachanoi The genus Trichocereu comprises approximately 40 species of cacti distributed throughout the Andes. Several Trichocereus species (T. peruvianus and T. bridgesii) are used as ritual inebriants, although most documentation refers to T. pachanoi, known in Peru as huachuma or San Pedro. Mescaline is the principal psychoactive alkaloid present in these cacti, and has been found in 12 Trichocereus species (Ott, 1996, p. 88). Potions based on T. pachanoi are apparently restricted to the central and north coast of Peru and adjacent highland areas. The earliest evidence for its ritual use was found at Las Aldas, on the north–central coast of Peru (ca. 2000–1500 B.C.). It is prominently represented in Cupisnique ceramics (ca. 1500–500 B.C.), and in Chavín stone sculpture (900–300 B.C.; Sharon, 2000, pp. 1–2). This cactus is still used in shamanic rites in Peru and Ecuador. Erythroxylaceae Erythroxylon coca The coca shrub belongs to the genus Erythroxylum. It consists of ca. 200 species found mostly in the American tropics; it is also present in Africa, India, tropical Asia, and Oceania. However, only two species are the sources of all cultivated South American coca, each having two varieties: E. coca var. coca, E. coca var. ipadú, E. novogranatense var. truxillense, and E. novogranatense var. novogranatense (Plowman, 1984). Together with tobacco, coca is the most important ritual plant in South America. It is employed by millions of natives in the Andes and the Amazon Basin. The carefully dried leaves are placed in the mouth accompanied by an alkaline substance (normally calcined shells or of ashes of certain plants). It plays an important role in many ceremonies and is related to the origin myths of several South American native groups. Offerings of coca leaves, tobacco, and fermented beverages are of common occurrence; its use in divination is also frequent. Most importantly, coca is an integral part of social interaction, from simple conversations to more complex exchanges, such as political meetings and festivities. Sustained and prolonged chewing of the leaves (with the addition of lime) significantly modifies consciousness. The earliest evidence of it use come from the sites of Culebras (ca. 2000 B.C.) Ancash Dept., Peru (Engel, 1957, pp. 67–68), and Asia (ca. 1800 B.C.) on the central Peruvian coast (Engel, 1963, p. 77). Fungi Psilocybe About 40 species are now recognized, including Psilocybe caerulescens, Psilocybe mexicana, Psilocybe aztecorum, Psilocybe zapotecorum, Psilocybe semilanceata, and Psilocybe cubensis. The active principles of the mushrooms (the teonanácatl of the Aztecs) are psilocybin and psilocin (Stamets, 1996). Ritual ingestion of Psilocybe mushrooms still exists among the Mazatecs (Wasson, 1980, p. 3). Ritual mushroom use is depicted in the Mixtec deer hide screenfold (14th century) known as the Vienna Codex (Wasson, 1980, pp. 105–109). Evidence of mushroom use in South America is sparse. Leguminosae Anadenanthera This genus of South American tropical and subtropical leguminous trees is composed of two species, A. peregrina and A. colubrina, each with two varieties. The two varieties of Anadenanthera peregrina are A. peregrina var. peregrina and A. peregrina var. falcata. The varieties of A. colubrina are A. colubrina var. colubrina and A. colubrina var. cebil. A. peregrina var. peregrina, and A. colubrina var. cebil are the two species employed as the source of psychoactive preparations, most notably in the form of snuff powders. A powerful psychoactive snuff is prepared from its seeds. A. peregrina snuff is known as yopo (niopo) in northern South America. This type of snuff powder was in use in the Greater Antilles during the arrival of Christopher Columbus, where it was known as cohoba. A. colubrina snuff preparations are known as vilca in Peru and in Northern Chile. Anadenanthera-based snuff powders are rich in bufotenine (5–OH–DMT) and other tryptamine derivatives (Torres & Repke, 2006). The earliest evidence for its use was found at the site of Inca Cueva (ca. 2100 B.C.), located in the Puna de Jujuy, northwest Argentina (Fernández Distel, 1980). Malpighiaceae Banisteriopsis This is a tropical American genus numbering about 100 species of vines. Several species of Banisteriopsis (e.g., B. caapi and B. inebrians), as well as other plants, are involved in the preparation of a potion known in the Amazon Basin as ayahuasca, yagé, or caapi. Frequent additives to the Banisteriopsis preparation include Psychotria viridis (chacruna) and Diplopterys cabrerana. Dimethyltryptamine (DMT), harmine, and harmaline are the most important alkaloids present in ayahuasca or yagé potions. Ayahuasca is still drunk by native groups of the Amazon Basin such as the Tukano, as well as by healers of the Peruvian Amazon (Luna, 1986). However, evidence for its use in an archeological context is lacking. Solanaceae Brugmansia These small trees (about 10–20 feet tall) are closely related to Datura, but are classified as a distinct genus. All species of Brugmansia are South American in origin; none is known to occur in the wild, suggesting great antiquity for its ritual use. Several species of Brugmansia have been ritually used in Andean America since antiquity; among these, the most frequently used are Brugmansia aurea, Brugmansia sanguinea, and Brugmansia suaveolens. Brugmansia contains tropane alkaloids, most notably scopolamine and atropine. Brugmansia is usually prepared as an infusion of leaves and stems. It is frequently added to other brews, such as San Pedro and ayahuasca (for a thorough description of Brugmansia, see Hay, Gottschalk, & Holguín, 2012). Nicotiana Tobacco has played a central role in American shamanism. There are at least 64 species of tobacco, but only a few were of widespread use during pre-Columbian times. Snuffing was a frequent method of use, but tobacco was also chewed and smoked, or applied to the skin as an ointment. Nicotiana rustica and Nicotiana tabacum were the species widely cultivated. N. rustica is hardier and it is higher in alkaloid content; it is also the older of the two as well as having a wider geographical distribution. N. tabacum did not extend beyond the tropics during pre-Columbian times (Wilbert, 1987, pp. 4–8). The use of tobacco in the ancient Andes has been clearly determined and it is mentioned by Garcilaso de la Vega, and in the compilations of Jimenez de la Espada. Wild specimens of Nicotiana are reported from the early Peruvian coastal site of Caral (2200–1200 B.C.), and from Chiripa (1500–100 B.C.), in the Bolivian altiplano (Oyuela-Caycedo & Kawa, 2015, p. 32). A leather pouch containing tobacco was found at Niño Korin, Bolivia (ca. 300–500 A.D.; Bondeson, 1972).

North Andean Metallurgy Complex goldworking traditions developed in the North Andes provide unique examples of snuffing and coca chewing paraphernalia, as well as suggestive evidence for the use of psychoactive mushrooms. Colombian pre-Hispanic goldwork is comprised of diverse regional styles. It is classified into two broad and distinct categories referred to as regions and horizons (Plazas & Falchetti, 1979, pp. 7–9). Regions are defined by the presence of objects with coherent stylistic and technological characteristics. Muisca and Quimbaya represent two major regions. Co-existing with the local styles are foreign objects that appear in several goldworking regions, and are considered to be an international “Goldworking Horizon.” The mushroom-headed Darién pendants represent such a Horizon.