I’ve been thinking for a while that our lifetime notation has too many defaults which can be more confusing than helpful. A recent spate of e-mails on rust-dev brought this back to my mind. I’ve been wanting to take a look at these defaults for a while, so I thought I’d write up a quick exploration of the “syntactic space”. A warning: this is not really an exciting post to read. I hope to have a few of those coming up very soon. This one is mostly just a list of syntactic options I wanted to document for future reference and to serve as a starting point for discussion.

Problematic cases

The area that most people find confusing is when you have a borrowed pointer inside of a struct. A recent example was this StringReader struct:

struct StringReader { value: &str, count: uint }

Here, the StringReader contains a borrowed pointer. This means that an instance of StringReader is only valid for as long as its value field is valid. So, every instance of the StringReader must have a lifetime, and that lifetime is the same as the value field within.

The compiler in fact infers which structs contain (directly or indirectly) borrowed pointers and thus must have an associated lifetime. It’s all very automatic. If we were to require a more explicit notation, the declaration of StructReader might look something like this:

struct StringReader/&self { value: &self/str, count: uint }

Here, the trailing /&self that appears after StringReader indicates that instances of the StringReader type are associated with a lifetime “self”. Moreover, the value: &self/str states that the value field is a string with this same lifetime.

What is in fact happening here in terms of the formalism is that the StringReader type has a lifetime parameter named self . In other words, StringReader/&self is a generic type, just like Option<T> , except that it is not generic over a type T but rather over the lifetime self . It is of course possible to have a type like Foo/&self<T> , which is generic over both a lifetime self and a type T .

One thing which would sometimes be useful (but which is currently unsupported) is the ability to have more than one lifetime parameter on a struct. There are no theoretical reasons for this limitation, it’s simply that the syntax and defaults we’ve adopted didn’t seem to scale up to multiple parameters.

Options

There are a fair number of possibilities. I thought rather than write a lot of words, I’ll just enumerate the various options I see. To begin with, here is a program written with the current syntax that demonstrates the various bits of shorthand.

struct StringReader { // Lifetime parameter &self is not declared value: &str, // & in a type decl defaults to self count: uint } impl StringReader { fn new(value: &self/str) -> StringReader/&self { StringReader { value: value, count: 0 } } } fn remaining(s: &StringReader) -> uint { // ^~~~~~~~~~~~~ & in a fn is a fresh lifetime, so this // is shorthand for &x/StringReader. Moreover, // &x/StringReader is short for &x/(StringReader/&x). return s.value.len() - s.count; } fn value(s: &v/StringReader) -> &v/str { // ^~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ &v/StringReader is short // for &v/(StringReader/&v). return s.value; }

Option 2: Fully explicit type declarations but not uses.

struct StringReader/&self { // Note explicit decl here value: &self/str, // And explicit reference here count: uint } impl StringReader { fn new(value: &self/str) -> StringReader/&self { StringReader { value: value, count: 0 } } } fn remaining(s: &StringReader) -> uint { // As in Option 1 return s.value.len() - s.count; } fn value(s: &v/StringReader) -> &v/str { // As in Option 1 return s.value; }

Option 3: Like Option 2, but infer the presence self lifetime parameter on a type decl.

struct StringReader { // No explicit decl value: &self/str, // But explicit reference count: uint } impl StringReader { fn new(value: &self/str) -> StringReader/&self { StringReader { value: value, count: 0 } } } fn remaining(s: &StringReader) -> uint { // As in Option 1 return s.value.len() - s.count; } fn value(s: &v/StringReader) -> &v/str { // As in Option 1 return s.value; }

Option 4: Fully explicit type declarations and uses.

struct StringReader/&self { // As in Option 3 value: &self/str, // As in Option 3 count: uint } impl StringReader { fn new(value: &self/str) -> StringReader/&self { StringReader { value: value, count: 0 } } } fn remaining(s: &StringReader/&) -> uint { // ^~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ Here we require that the // lifetime parameter on StringReader be // "acknowledged" by the trailing `/&`. Interestingly, // this "&" could either refer to a fresh lifetime // (making this equivalent to &x/(StringReader/&y)) or, // more usefully, refer to the enclosing lifetime // &x/(StringReader/&x). The latter is closer to how // things work today. return s.value.len() - s.count; } fn value(s: &v/StringReader/&v) -> &v/str { // ^~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ Fully explicit. return s.value; }

Option 5. Like Option 4, but with alternate syntax that tries to unify lifetime parameters and type parameters. Here the lifetime name goes before the & , as we originally had it. This is required to make parsing unambiguous.

struct StringReader<self&> { value: self& str, // ^~~~~~~~~ self& in place of &self/ count: uint } impl StringReader { fn new(value: self& str) -> StringReader<self&> { StringReader { value: value, count: 0 } } } fn remaining(s: &StringReader<&> -> uint { // ^~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ as in Option 4, we must select // which of the two possible meanings. return s.value.len() - s.count; } fn value(s: v& StringReader<v&>) -> &:v str { return s.value; }

Option 6. Another alternate syntax for Option 4, where the lifetime names are preceded by a : .

struct StringReader<:self> { value: &:self str, count: uint } impl StringReader { fn new(value: &:self str) -> StringReader<:self> { StringReader { value: value, count: 0 } } } fn remaining(s: &StringReader<:>) -> uint { return s.value.len() - s.count; } fn value(s: &:v StringReader<:v>) -> &:v str { return s.value; }

Option 7. Another alternate syntax for Option 4, where region parameters appear in {} .

struct StringReader{self} { value: &{self} str, count: uint } impl StringReader { fn new(value: &{self} str) -> StringReader{self} { // ^~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ I opted // not to include an extra `&`. StringReader { value: value, count: 0 } } } fn remaining(s: &StringReader{}) -> uint { // ^~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ The trailing `{}` indicate we should // use a default lifetime. Again we must decide precisely // what this means. I think the best semantics would be // to take the lifetime of any enclosing `&`. If there // is no enclosing `&`, it could be an error, or else a // fresh lifetime. return s.value.len() - s.count; } fn value(s: &{v} StringReader{v}) -> &{v} str { return s.value; }

Option 8. Like Option 7, but allow the list of region parameters to be omitted on reference to a type if you just want the defaults.

struct StringReader{self} { value: &{self} str, count: uint } impl StringReader { fn new(value: &{self} str) -> StringReader{self} { StringReader { value: value, count: 0 } } } fn remaining(s: &StringReader) -> uint { // ^~~~~~~~~~~~~ Trailing `{}` not required as we will // use defaults. return s.value.len() - s.count; } fn value(s: &{v} StringReader) -> &{v} str { // ^~~~~~~~~~~~~ As above. return s.value; }

Conclusion