This is the first of two articles about Linux terminals. By the end of the two articles, we should be able to:

describe the main components in the terminal subsystem

know the difference between TTY, PTY and Shell

answer what happens when we press a key in a Terminal (like Xterm, etc.)

build a simple remote terminal application using golang

Or at least I hope so :)

What's a terminal?

Generally speaking a terminal is a relatively dumb electromechanical device with an input interface (like a keyboard) and an output interface (like a display or sheet of paper).



It is connected to another device (like a computer) via two logical channels, and all it does is:

send the keystrokes down the first line

read from the second line and print them on a sheet of paper

The commercial name for this type of device is teletypewriter, Teletype or TTY (remember this word as it will come up

again later). The machines would provide a user interface to early mainframe computers and minicomputers, sending typed

data to the computer and printing the response.

Historical note: Initially teletypewriter were used in telegraphy, which developed in the late 1830s and 1840s as the first use of electrical engineering.

Instead of building new devices to interact with computers, pragmatic people at the time decided to reuse existing teletypes to connect to them. I’m not talking here about the computer we are familiar with, I’m talking about huge machines located in their own room to which you had no access if you were not cool enough.



By ArnoldReinhold - Own work, CC BY-SA 3.0, Link

To understand how a modern Terminal works we need to dwell just a bit on how teletypes used to work.

Each machine is connected via two cables: one to send instructions to the computer and one to receive output from the computer.

These cables are connected to the computer through a serial cable plugged into a Universal Asynchronous Receiver and Transmitter (UART).



The computer has an UART driver to read for the hardware device.

The sequence of characters is passed to TTY driver which applies the line discipline. The line discipline is in charge of converting special characters (like end of line, backspaces), and echoing what has been received back to the teletype, so that the user can see what it has been typed (line disciplines will be discussed in the next post of the series).

It is also responsible to buffer the characters.

When enter is pressed, the buffered data is passed to the foreground process for the session associated with the TTY. As a user, you can execute several processes in parallel, but only interact with one at a time, letting the others working (or waiting) in the background.

The whole stack as defined above is called a TTY device.

The foreground process is a computer program called Shell.

Gotcha: The words terminal and TTY device are basically interchangeable as they mean the same thing

What's a shell?

Shells are user space applications that use the kernel API in just the same way as it is used by other application programs. A shell manages the user–system interaction by prompting users for input, interpreting their input, and then handling an output from the underlying operating system (much like a read–eval–print loop, REPL).

For example, if the input is 'cat file | grep hello', bash will interpret that and figure it needs to run the program cat passing 'file' as parameter and pipe the output to grep.



It also controls programs execution (feature called job control): kills them (CTRL + C), suspends them (CTRL + Z), sets them to run in the foreground (fg) or in the background (bg).

They can also run in non interactive mode, via script which contains a sequence of commands.

Bash, Zsh, Fish and sh are all different flavors of shells.

What's a terminal emulator?

Let's move to more recent times. Computers started becoming smaller and smaller, with everything packed in one single box.

For the first time the terminal was not a physical device connected via UART to the computer. The terminal became a computer program in the kernel which would send characters directly to the TTY driver, read from it and print to the screen.



That is, the kernel program would emulate the physical terminal device, thus the name terminal emulator.

Note that, although emulated they were and are still called Teletypes.

Don't get fooled by the word emulator. A terminal emulator is as dumb as the physical terminals used to be, it listens for events coming from the keyboard and sends it down to the driver. The difference is that there is no physical device or cable which is connected to the TTY driver. How do I see a terminal emulated TTY?



If you run a Linux OS on your machine press Ctrl+Alt+F1. You'll get a TTY emulated by the kernel! You can get other TTYs by pressing Ctrl+Alt with the function keys from (F2 to F6). By pressing Ctrl+Alt+F7 you'll get back to the GUI (X session).

Let's recap the main concepts so far:

Terminal and TTY can be used interchangeably

Teletypes (TTY) is physical electromechanical originally designed for telegraphy, then adapted to send input and get output from mainframes

A Teletype can be emulated by a computer program running as a module in the kernel

What's a pseudo terminal (PTY)?

It's Teletype emulated by a computer program running in the user land.

Compare that with a TTY: the difference is where the program runs; it's not a kernel program but one that runs in the user land.

I won't (and probably couldn't) give a complete description of kernel vs user land, I am just going to say that stuff which runs in the kernel have access to a privileged mode. That allows the kernel to access the hardware of the machine.

Programs in user land instead interact only with the kernel, not directly with the hardware.

If something goes wrong with a kernel module, all the system might be compromised, whereas if something goes wrong with a program in user land, only that program is impacted; in the worst case a reboot will bring the system back to normal.

This is definitively a good argument to move terminal emulation in user land. It is easier for developers to build one.

I guess the main reason why PTY exists is to facilitate moving the terminal emulation into user land, while still keeping the TTY subsystem (session management and line discipline) intact.

How does it work? (High level)

Terminal emulator (or any other program) can ask the kernel for a pair of characters files (called PTY master and PTY slave).

On the master side you have the terminal emulator, while on the slave side you have a Shell.

Between master and slave sits the TTY driver (line discipline, session management, etc.) which copies stuff from/to PTY master and slave.

Let's see what happens when...

you type something in a terminal emulator in the user land like XTerm or any any other application you use to get a terminal.

Usually we say we open 'the terminal' or we open 'a bash', but what it actually happens is:

a GUI which emulates the terminal starts (like the Terminal or Xterm UI application).

it draws the UI to the video and requests a pty from the OS.

launches bash as subprocess

The std input, output and error of the bash will be set to be the pty slave.

XTerm listens for keyboard events and sends the characters to the pty master

The line discipline gets the character and buffers them. It copies them to the slave only when you press enter. It also writes back its input to the master (echoing back). Remember the terminal is dumb, it will only show stuff on the screen if it comes from the pty master. Thus, the line discipline echoes back the character so that the terminal can draw it on the video, allowing you to see what you just typed.

When you press enter, the TTY driver (it's 'just' a kernel module) takes care of copying the buffered data to the pty slave

bash (which was waiting for input on standard input) finally reads the characters (for example 'ls -la'). Again, remember that bash standard input is set to be the PTY slave.

At this points bash interprets the character and figures it needs to run 'ls'

It forks the process and runs 'ls' in it. The forked process will have the same stdin, stdout and stderr used by bash, which is the PTY slave.

ls runs and prints to standard output (once again, this is the pty slave)

the tty driver copies the characters to the master(no, the line discipline does not intervene on the way back)

XTerm reads in a loop the bytes from the pty master and redraws the UI

I think we made it! That's roughly what happens when we run a command in a terminal emulator. The drawing should help consolidate the workflow:

As an experiment, run the 'ps' command in new instance of a terminal.

If you did not run any process yet, you will see that the only two programs associated with the terminal are 'ps' and 'bash'.

'ps' is the program we just started and 'bash' was started by the terminal. 'pts/0' which you see in the results is the PTY slave we talked about.



> ps PID TTY TIME CMD 26113 pts/0 00:00:00 ps 30985 pts/0 00:00:00 bash

Let's what happens when...

you start a program that reads from the standard input from a terminal emulator. The program can be as simple as reading from standard input and writing it to the standard output, like the following.



package main import ( "bufio" "fmt" "os" ) func main () { reader := bufio . NewReader ( os . Stdin ) fmt . Print ( "Enter text: " ) text , _ := reader . ReadString ( '

' ) fmt . Println ( text ) }

> go build -o simple-program > ./simpleprogram Enter text:

Try to write something while the program is awaiting for input, but instead of pressing enter press 'CTRL + W'.

You would see that the word you wrote gets deleted. Why?

'Ctrl + W' are the characters assigned to a line discipline rule called werase. Look back at the drawing. Characters typed get send to the PTY master and from there to the TTY driver which implements the line discipline. When the line discipline reads the characters 'CTRL + W', it removes the last word from its internal buffer and send to the PTY master the instructions to set the cursor back N position (where N is the length of the word) and to delete the characters from the display along the way

(we shall see how these instructions look like in a moment).

Try the same experiment, but this time instead of typing characters, press the arrow keys.

What are those weird characters ^[A^[B^[C^[D ?

As we said, the terminal is simply sending keystrokes to the master. But what about keys that do not have a character representation,like our arrows?

When that happens, the terminal encodes them using multiple characters; for example the up arrow is encoded with ^[A , where ^[ is called escape sequence.

Thus, what happens when you press the arrows key is exactly what happens when you press any other key, it's just that what it gets echoed back looks weird because it was encoded that way when it was sent to the PTY master.

I hear you saying...but wait, when I press the arrows keys in the terminal with no program running I get the bash history!

This is because the ^[A ends in the bash program which interprets them as a request to get the current entry in the job history. It prints to standard out the code to clear the current line (to delete whatever was echoed so far, including the ^[A characters for the Up key) and then print the bash history line. I guess we do not see the encoded character because everything happens really fast.

The takeaway here is that the line discipline does not handle keys like Up, Left, Down, Right.

How can a program control the terminal

A shell, the TTY driver and a program we write can instruct the terminal to do stuff for us: move the cursor back or one line down, print the next line read and clear screen.

The way for programs to control the terminal is standardized by the ANSI escape codes. When the terminal reads them from the pty master will perform the operation associated with the code.

Want to change the color of the text from your program?

Just print to standard out the ANSI escape code for coloring the text.

Standard out is the PTY slave, TTY driver copies the character to the PTY master, terminal gets the code and understands it needs to set the color to print the text on the screen. Voilà'!

This is a simple program which instruct the terminal emulator to print the line using the red color. As you'll see it's as simple sending to standard out the ANSI code for changing the color to red (\033[1;31m), the string we want to write and the ANSI code to reset the color (\033[0m).



package main import "fmt" const redColor = " \0 33[1;31m%s \0 33[0m" func main () { fmt . Printf ( redColor , "Error" ) fmt . Println ( "" ) }

ANSI code could be a whole different article, by itself, but I am going to stop here. Want to have some fun with ANSI Code? Take a look at this article.

Conclusions

I believe this to be a good point to stop.

We have talked about TTY and PTY and seen what's their relationship with a shell.

In the next article of the series we will take a closer look at the line discipline, talk about what happens when we use programs like vim and finally write a simple golang program to create our own remote terminal.