After a long break, we made our first paper Scalability! But at what COST? by Frank McSherry, Michael Isard, and Derek Murray. It is fairly short paper published in HotOS’15 which raises some interesting questions about distributed systems research, and the focus on scalability as the holy grail of performance.

In this post, I’ll go over some of the paper’s main arguments, and then give a summary of the reading group’s thoughts and questions about the paper. We are hoping to get around to another paper in two weeks’ time, but after that we might take a summer break and return in September.

Paper summary

The paper is, at its heart, a criticism of how the performance of current research systems are evaluated. The authors focus on the field of graph processing, but their arguments extend to most distributed computation research where performance is a key factor. They observe that most systems are currently evaluated in terms of their scalability, how their performance changes as more compute resources are used, but that this metric is often both useless and misleading.

Without going into too much detail (you can find that in the paper), the crux of their argument is that if a system has significant, but easily parallelizeable overhead, the system will appear to scale well, even if its absolute performance is quite poor. To demonstrate this point, the authors write single-threaded implementations for algorithms that are commonly used to evaluate state-of-the-art graph processing systems. They then run these implementations on the same datasets as those used to evaluate several well-known systems in the field (Spark, GraphLab, GraphX, etc.), and compare the total runtime against the numbers published for those other systems.

In almost all cases, the single-threaded implementation outperforms all the others, sometimes by an order of magnitude, despite the distributed systems using 16-128 cores. Several hundred cores were generally needed for state-of-the-art systems to rival the performance of their single-threaded program. This threshold is what the authors refer to as a system’s COST. Some systems never got better than the authors’ implementations, giving them effectively infinite COST.

It is clear that the authors are not trying to pick on these systems in particular. Instead, they seek to highlight a shortcoming in how current research into distributed systems is evaluated. It is not merely enough for a system to be better than its predecessors — it needs to be faster or “better” compared to some sensible baseline that represents what someone skilled in the field would come up with. For example, Hilbert curves and Union-Find are examples of tricks that it seems reasonable for a well-versed author to employ. Crucially, this is not just about researchers reporting these kinds of results, but also about reviewers demanding them. A system that is twice as fast as some previous system, but slower than a much simpler system, should probably not be accepted.

Discussion

This paper spawned a fair bit of discussion at our meeting, though we were mostly in agreement with each other, and with the authors. Broadly speaking, we talked about three main aspects of the paper: how did we get here, will this trigger any changes, and what other fields are affected? I’ll summarize each one below:

How did we get here?

As far as we understand it, this paper came about following a sense of annoyance with state-of-the-art graph research — the graph most people operate on just aren’t that large. As long as the data fits on a couple of SSDs, single-machine, or even single-thread programs can be sufficient. Crucially, the data doesn’t need to fit in RAM to outperform a distributed system (which has to pay network communication cost despite keeping all the data in memory).

The results also follow from Amdahl’s law. The law states that, given s compute resources, and p as the fraction of the computation that is parallelizeable, the expected system speedup is:

Given this, it should be clear that the way to achieve a higher speedup as the number of compute resources increases is to increase the fraction of the program that is parallelizeable. However, there are two ways of doing this. You can either change the program such that more of it is parallelizeable, or you can slow down or blow up the amount of parallelizeable code, so that it accounts for a larger fraction. This latter technique would “improve” the correlation between s and speed-up, but does not actually make the program any faster than the original.

Usually, it is pretty sensible to compare research systems to prior systems. The transitive argument that “we’re good because they’re good and we’re better” is generally sufficient. However, this is only true if one of those prior systems have been shown to be good for the use-case you are trying to solve. In graph processing, the stage was set by Google using Map/Reduce to compute PageRank over the web graph (which is arguably one of the few real, large graphs out there). Due to the graph’s sheer size, distribution was necessary, but this also meant the system was fairly slow if you didn’t have access to the same amount of compute resources as Google does.

Unfortunately, the systems that then followed all compared themselves to PageRank on M/R, even for smaller problems. The Twitter graph, or the uk-2007-05 graph referred to in the paper, which have been used to evaluate countless graph processing systems, simply do not require distribution anywhere near the scale of the web graph. By sacrificing scalability (i.e., distribution), better algorithms can be used, which can speed up the computation significantly, but the follow-up systems did not compare themselves against that. And neither did the systems that followed on from those.

Are things going to change?

One might argue that the reviewers of these papers should have caught the “lie” — that they should have demanded to see why the massive scalability was necessary, and why a smaller, but “smarter” solution wasn’t the right choice instead. We suspect that part of the reason they didn’t is that it can be quite hard to judge just how large a problem is. If a graph has 100 million edges, is that big? Does it fit in RAM? Does it fit on a single disk? If it doesn’t fit in RAM, is the computation going to be excruciatingly slow? The reviewers assumed that the researchers were right about the problem necessitating the use of many machines, possibly because they knew it was true for PageRank on the web graph. And then the transitive argument was applied from there.

The authors are trying to argue, among other things, that researchers should think more carefully about the algorithm they use. In many cases, that is much more important than whether you can use a given graph processing framework. Restricting yourself to “think like a vertex” can make you lose out on significant performance gains, which could in turn mean you can make do with a single machine, rather than a hundred-machine cluster.

Despite this, the paper is not really targeted at end-users. It is targeted at researchers and reviewers, and trying to make them apply more rigorous standards to their work. Given that this might introduce substantial work for researchers, we suspect that the process will need to be reviewer driven. A researcher might be hesitant to invest lots of time into writing a single-threaded implementation just for baseline comparison, but if the reviewers start demanding it, they will be forced to. At the very least, reviewers should require that the paper argues why a simple, relatively naïve implementation is not good enough for the problem at hand. One should not add a requirement to have access to a huge compute cluster lightly, just because a few companies have access to them!

One good compromise might be for researchers to look at the algorithms that exist, and visit the papers that introduced them. They will generally give the real complexity of the algorithm (i.e., not just the big-O upper bound), which could be used as an interesting comparison for the system’s scaling properties.

Where else does this problem appear?

The authors make their point in the context of graph processing systems, but their COST metric also applies to a variety of other distributed systems. One that immediately came to mind is distributed storage systems such as GFS. It would be interesting to see what performance a system that targeted GFS-like features (concurrent writers with append-record semantics) on a single machine with many disks could achieve, and how that translates into overhead incurred by the distribution in, say, GFS. Many users, though obviously not the likes of Google or Facebook, could probably get away with using such a system, and might be able to reap significant benefits.

There are also contexts in which we believe the argument does not apply. For example, for long-running, incremental-computation systems (such as databases) that have request-side scalability (e.g., support many concurrent readers), it is not clear that comparing to a system that only supports one-request-at-the-time is an apples-to-apples comparison.

In systems with strict requirements for latency, it might also be necessary to pay the COST in order to hit the latency target. It could be that a single-threaded implementation simply cannot achieve the required latency, whereas a scalable system can reach it with hundreds or thousands of cores. The price may be steep (and knowing what it is is important), but it might be one that you are required to pay.