Comparing the Same Project in Rust, Haskell, C++, Python, Scala and OCaml

During my final term at UWaterloo I took the CS444 compilers class with a project to write a compiler from a substantial subset of Java to x86, in teams of up to three people with a language of the group’s choice. This was a rare opportunity to compare implementations of large programs that all did the same thing, written by friends I knew were highly competent, and have a fairly pure opportunity to see what difference design and language choices could make. I gained a lot of useful insights from this. It’s rare to encounter such a controlled comparison of languages, it’s not perfect but it’s much better than most anecdotes people use as the basis for their opinions on programming languages.

We did our compiler in Rust and my first comparison was with a team that used Haskell, which I expected to be much terser, but their compiler used similar amounts or more code for the same task. The same was true for a team that used OCaml. I then compared with a team that used C++, and as expected their compiler was around 30% larger largely due to headers and lack of sum types and pattern matching. The next comparison was my friend who did a compiler on her own in Python and used less than half the code we did because of the power of metaprogramming and dynamic types. A friend whose team used Scala also had a smaller compiler than us. The comparison that surprised me most though was with another team that also used Rust, but used 3 times the code that we did, because of different design decisions. In the end, the largest difference in the amount of code required was within the same language!

I’ll go over why I think this is a good comparison, some information on each project, and I’ll explain some of the sources of the differences in compiler size. I’ll also talk about what I learned from each comparison. Feel free to use these links to skip ahead to what interests you:

Table of Contents

Why I think this is insightful

Rust (baseline)

Haskell: 1.0-1.6x the size depending on how you count for interesting reasons

C++: 1.4x the size for mundane reasons

Python: half the size because of fancy metaprogramming!

Rust (other group): 3x the size because of different design decisions!

Scala: 0.7x the size

OCaml: 1.0-1.6x the size depending on how you count, similar to Haskell

Why I think this is insightful

Now before you reply that amount of code (I compared both lines and bytes) is a terrible metric, I think that it can provide a good amount of insight in this case for a number of reasons. This is at least subjectively the most well controlled instance of different teams writing the same large program that I’ve ever heard of or read about.

Nobody (including me) knew I would ask this until after we were done, so nobody was trying to game the metric, everyone was just doing their best to finish the project quickly and correctly.

Everyone (with the exception of the Python project I’ll discuss later) was implementing a program with the sole goal of passing the same automated test suite by the same deadlines, so the results can’t be confounded much by some groups deciding to solve different/harder problems.

The project was done over a period of months, with a team, and needed to be gradually extended and pass both known and unknown tests. This means that it was helpful to write clean understandable code and not hack everything together.

Other than passing the course tests, the code wouldn’t be used for anything else, nobody would read it and being a compiler for a limited subset of Java to textual assembly it wouldn’t be useful.

No libraries other than the standard library were allowed, and no parsing helpers even if they’re in the standard library. This means the comparison can’t be confounded by powerful compiler libraries not used by all teams.

There were secret tests which we couldn’t see that were run once after the final submission deadline, which meant there was an incentive to write your own test code and make sure that your compiler was robust, correct and could handle tricky edge cases.

While everyone involved was a student, the teams I talk about are all composed of people I consider quite competent programmers. Everyone has at least 2 years of full time work experience doing internships, mostly at high end tech companies sometimes even working on compilers. Nearly all have been programming for 7-13 years and are enthusiasts who read a lot on the internet beyond their courses.

Generated code wasn’t counted, but grammar files and code that generated code was counted.

Thus I think the amount of code provides a decent approximation of how much effort each project took, and how much there would be to maintain if it was a longer term project. I think the smaller differences are also large enough to rule out extraordinary claims, like the ones I’ve read that say writing a compiler in Haskell takes less than half the code of C++ by virtue of the language.

Rust (baseline)

Me and one of my teammates had each written over 10k lines of Rust before, and my other teammate had written maybe 500 lines of Rust for some hackathon projects. Our compiler was 6806 lines by wc -l , 5900 source lines of code (not including blanks and comments), and 220kb by wc -c .

One thing I discovered is that these measures were related by approximately the same factors in the other projects where I checked, with minor exceptions that I’ll note. For the rest of the post when I refer to lines or amount I mean by wc -l , but this result means it doesn’t really matter (unless I note a difference) and you can convert with a factor.

I wrote another post describing our design, which passed all the public and secret tests. It also included a few extra features that we did for fun and not to pass tests, that probably added around 400 extra lines. Also around 500 lines of our total was unit tests and a test harness.

Haskell

The Haskell team was composed of two of my friends who’d written maybe a couple thousand lines of Haskell each before plus reading lots of online Haskell content, and a bunch more in other similar functional languages like OCaml and Lean. They had one other teammate who I didn’t know well but seems like a strong programmer and had used Haskell before.

Their compiler was 9750 lines by wc -l , 357kb and 7777 SLOC. This team also had the only significant differences between measure ratios, with their compiler being 1.4x the lines, 1.3x the SLOC, and 1.6x the bytes. They didn’t implement any extra features but passed 100% of public and secret tests.

It’s important to note that including the tests is the least fair to this team since they were the most thorough with correctness, with 1600 lines of tests, they caught a few edge cases that our team did not, they just happened to not be edge cases that were tested by the course tests. So not counting tests on both sides (8.1kloc vs 6.3kloc) their compiler was only 1.3x the raw lines.

I also am inclined towards bytes as the more reasonable measure of amount of code here because the Haskell project has longer lines on average since it doesn’t have lots of lines dedicated to just a closing brace, and it’s one-liner function chains aren’t split onto a bunch of lines by rustfmt .

Digging into the difference in size with one of my friends on the team, we came up with the following to explain the difference:

We used a hand-written lexer and recursive descent parsing, where they used a NFA to DFA lexer generator, and an LR parser and then a pass to turn the parse tree into an AST (Abstract Syntax Tree, a more convenient representation of the code). This took them substantially more code, 2677 lines compared to our 1705, for about an extra 1k lines.

They used a fancy generic AST type that transitioned to different type parameters as more information was added in each pass. This is and more helper functions for rewriting are probably why their AST code has about 500 lines more than our implementation where we build with struct literals and mutate Option<_> fields to add information as passes progress.

fields to add information as passes progress. They have about 400 more lines of code in their code generation that are mostly attributable to more abstraction necessary to generate and combine code in a purely functional way where we just use mutation and string writing.

These differences plus the tests explain all of the difference in lines. In fact our files for middle passes like constant folding and scope resolution are very close to the same size. However that still leaves some difference in bytes because of longer average lines, which I’d guess is because they require more code to rewrite their whole tree at every pass where we just use a visitor with mutation.

Bottom line, I’d say setting aside design decisions Rust and Haskell are similarly expressive, with maybe a slight edge to Rust because of ability to easily use mutation when it’s convenient. It was also interesting to learn that my choice to use a recursive descent parser and hand-written lexer paid off, this was a risk since it wasn’t what the professor recommended and taught but I figured it would be easier and was right.

Haskell fans my object that this team probably didn’t use Haskell to its fullest potential and if they were better at Haskell they could have done the project with way less code. I believe that someone like Edward Kmett could write the same compiler in substantially fewer lines of Haskell, in that my friend’s team didn’t use a lot of fancy super advanced abstractions, and weren’t allowed to use fancy combinator libraries like lens. However, this would come at a cost to how difficult it would be to understand the compiler. The people on the team are all experienced programmers, they knew that Haskell can do extremely fancy things but chose not to pursue them because they figured it would take more time to figure them out than they would save and make their code harder for the teammates who didn’t write it to understand. This seems like a real tradeoff to me and the claim I’ve seen of Haskell being magical for compilers devolves into something like “Haskell has an extremely high skill cap for writing compilers as long as you don’t care about maintainability by people who aren’t also extremely skilled in Haskell” which is less generally applicable.

Another interesting thing to note is that at the start of every offering of the course the professor says that students can use any language that can run on the school servers, but issues a warning that teams using Haskell have the highest variance in mark of any language, with many teams using Haskell overestimating their ability and crashing and burning then getting a terrible mark, more than any other language, while some Haskell teams do quite well and get perfect like my friends.

C++

Next I talked to my friend who was on a team using C++, I only knew one person on this team, but C++ is used in multiple courses at UWaterloo so presumably everyone on the team had C++ experience.

Their project was 8733 raw lines and 280kb not including test code but including around 500 lines of extra features. Making it 1.4x the size of our non-test code that also had around 500 lines of extra features. They passed 100% of public tests but only passed 90% of secret tests, presumably because they didn’t implement the fancy array vtables required by the spec, which take maybe 50-100 lines of code.

I didn’t dig very deeply into these differences with my friend. I speculate that it’s mostly explained by:

Them using an LR parser and tree rewriter instead of a recursive descent parser

The lack of sum types and pattern matching in C++, which we used extensively and were very helpful.

Needing to duplicate all the signatures in header files, which Rust doesn’t have.

Another thing we compared was compile times. On my laptop our compiler takes 9.7s for a clean debug build, 12.5s for clean release, and 3.5s for incremental debug. My friend didn’t have timings on hand for their C++ build (using parallel make) but said those sounded quite similar to his experience, with the caveat that they put the implementations of a bunch of small functions in header files to save the signature duplication at the cost of longer times (this is also why I can’t measure the pure header file line count overhead).

Python

I have one friend who is an extraordinarily good programmer who chose to do the project alone and in Python. She also implemented more extra features (for fun) than any other team including an SSA intermediate representation with register allocation and other optimizations. On the other hand because she was working alone and implementing a bunch of extra features, she dedicated the least effort to code quality, for example by throwing an undifferentiated exception for all errors (relying on backtraces for debugging) instead of having error types and messages like we did.

Her compiler was 4581 raw lines and passed all public and secret tests. She also implemented way more extra features than any other team I compare with, but it’s hard to determine how extra code that took because many of her extra features were more powerful versions of simple things everyone needed to implement like constant folding and code generation. The extra features probably account for 1000-2000 lines at least though, so I’m confident her code was at least twice as expressive as ours.

One large part of this difference is likely dynamic typing. Our ast.rs alone has 500 lines of type definitions, and there are many more types defined throughout our compiler. We also are always constrained in what we do by the type system. For example we need infrastructure for ergonomically adding new info to our AST as it progresses through passes and accessing that later. Whereas in Python you can just set new fields on your AST nodes.

Powerful metaprogramming also explains part of the difference. For example although she used an LR parser instead of a recursive descent parser, in her case I think it needed less code, because instead of a tree rewriting pass, her LR grammar included Python code snippets to construct the AST, which the generator could turn into Python functions using eval . Part of the reason we didn’t use an LR parser is because constructing an AST without a tree rewriting pass would require a lot of ceremony (either generating Rust files or procedural macros) to tie the grammar to snippets of Rust code.

Another example of the power of metaprogramming and dynamic typing is that we have a 400 line file called visit.rs that is mostly repetitive boilerplate code implementing a visitor on a bunch of AST structures. In Python this could be a short ~10 line function that recursively introspects on the fields of the AST node and visits them (using the __dict__ attribute).

As a fan of Rust and statically typed languages in general I’m inclined to point out that the type system is very helpful for avoiding bugs and for performance. Fancy metaprogramming can also make it more difficult to understand how code works. However, this comparison surprised me in that I hadn’t expected the difference in the amount of code to be quite so large. If the difference in general is really close to needing to write twice the amount of code, I still think Rust is worth the tradeoff, but 2x is nothing to sneeze at and in the future I’ll be more inclined to hack something together in Ruby/Python if I just need to get it done quickly without a team and then throw it away after.

Rust (other group)

The last comparison I did and also the most interesting to me was with my friend who did the project in Rust with one teammate (who I didn’t know). My friend had a good amount of Rust experience having contributed to the Rust compiler and done lots of reading, I don’t know about his teammate.

Their project was 17,211 raw lines, 15k source lines, and 637kb not including test code and generated code. It had no extra features and passed only 4/10 secret tests and 90% of the public code generation tests, because they didn’t find the time before the final deadline to implement fancier pieces of the spec. This is 3 times the size of our compiler written in the same language, but with strictly less functionality!

This result was really surprising to me and dwarfed all the between-language differences I had investigated thus far. So we compared wc -l file size listings, as well as spot checking how we each implemented some specific things that had very different code sizes.

It seems to come down to consistently making different design decisions. For example, their front end (lexing, parsing, AST building) is 7597 raw lines to our 2164. They used a DFA-based lexer and LALR(1) parser, but the other groups did similar things without as much code. Looking at their weeder file, I noticed a number of different design decisions:

They chose to use a fully typed parse tree instead of the standard string-based homogeneous parse tree. This presumably required a lot more type definitions and additional transformation code in the parsing stage or a more complex parser generator.

They used TryFrom trait implementations for converting between the parse tree types and the AST types while validating their correctness. This lead to tons of 10-20 line impl blocks. We used functions that returned Result types to accomplish the same thing, which had less line overhead and also freed us from the type structure a bit more, making parameters and re-use easier. Some things that for us were single line match branches were 10 line impl statements for them.

trait implementations for converting between the parse tree types and the AST types while validating their correctness. This lead to tons of 10-20 line blocks. We used functions that returned types to accomplish the same thing, which had less line overhead and also freed us from the type structure a bit more, making parameters and re-use easier. Some things that for us were single line branches were 10 line impl statements for them. Our types were structured in a way that required less copy-pasting. For example they used separate is_abstract , is_native and is_static fields whose constraint checking code needed to be copy-pasted twice, once for their void-typed methods and once for their methods with a return type, with slight modifications. Whereas for us void was just a special type, and we came up with a taxonomy of modifiers into mode and visibility enums that enforced the constraints at the type level and constraint errors were generated in the default case of the match statement that translated the modifier sets to the mode and visibility.

I didn’t look at the code of the analysis passes of their compiler, but they are similarly large. I talked to my friend and it seems they didn’t implement anything like the visitor infrastructure that we did. I’m guessing this along with some other smaller design differences account for the size difference of this part. The visitor allowed our analysis passes to only pay attention to the parts of the AST they needed instead of having to pattern match down through the entire AST structure, saving a lot of code.

Their code generation is 3594 lines where ours is 1560. I looked at their code for this and it seems that nearly all of the difference is that they chose to have an intermediate data structure for assembly instructions, where we just used string formatting to directly output assembly. This required defining types and output functions for all the instructions and operand types they used. It also meant that constructing assembly instructions took way more code, where we might have a formatting statement that used terse instructions like mov ecx, [edx] , they needed a giant statement rustfmt split over 6 lines which constructed the instruction with a bunch of intermediate nested types for the operands involving 6 levels of nested parentheses at its deepest. We could also output blocks of related instructions like a function preamble in one formatting statement, where they had to do the full construction for each instruction.

Our team considered using such an abstraction. It would make it easier to have the option of either outputting textual assembly or directly emitting machine code, however that wasn’t a requirement of the course. The same thing could also be accomplished with less code and better performance using an X86Writer trait with methods like push(reg: Register) . Another angle we considered was that it might make debugging and testing easier, but we realized that looking at the generated textual assembly would actually be easier to read and test with snapshot testing as long as we inserted comments liberally. But we (apparently correctly) predicted that it would take a lot of extra code, and there wasn’t any real benefit given what we knew we were going to need, so we didn’t bother.

A good comparison is with the intermediate representation the C++ group used as an extra feature, which only took them closer to 500 extra lines. They used a very simple structure (making for simple type definitions and construction code) that used operations close to what Java required. This meant that their IR was much smaller (and thus required less construction code) than the resulting assembly, since many language operations like calls and casts expanded into many assembly instructions. They also say it really helped debugging since it cut out a lot of the cruft and was easy to read. The higher level representation also allowed them to do some simple optimizations on their IR. The C++ team came up with a really nice design which got them much more benefit with much less code.

Overall it seems like the overall 3x size multiplier is due to consistently making different design decisions both large and small in the direction of larger code. They implemented a number of abstractions that we didn’t which added more code, and missed out on some of the abstractions we implemented which lead to less code.

This result really surprised me, I knew design decisions mattered but I wouldn’t have guessed beforehand that they would lead to any differences this large, given that I was only surveying people that I consider strong competent programmers. Of all the results from this comparison, this is the one I learned the most from. Something that I think helped was that I had read a lot about how to write compilers before I took the course, so I could take advantage of clever designs other people had come up with and found worked well like AST visitors and recursive descent parsing even when they weren’t taught in the course.

One thing this really made me think about is the cost of abstraction. Abstractions may make things easier to extend in the future, or guard against certain types of errors, but they need to be considered against the fact that you may end up with 3 times the amount of code to understand and refactor, 3 times the amount of possible locations for bugs and less time left to spend on testing and further development. Our course was unlike the real world in that we knew exactly what we needed to implement and that we’d never touch the code afterwards, which eliminates the benefits of pre-emptive abstraction. However if you were going to challenge me to extend a compiler with an arbitrary feature you’d tell me later, and I had to pick which compiler I’d start from, I’d choose ours even setting aside familiarity. Because there’d simply be much less code that I’d need to understand how to change, and I could potentially choose a better abstraction for the requirements (like the C++ team’s IR) once I knew how I needed to extend things.

It also solidified the taxonomy in my head of abstractions that you expect to remove code given only your current requirements, like our visitor pattern, and abstractions you expect to add code given only your immediate requirements, but that may provide extensibility, debuggability or correctness benefits.

Scala

I also talked to a friend of mine who did the project in a previous term using Scala, but the project and tests were the exact same ones. Their compiler was 4141 raw lines and ~160kb of code not counting tests. They passed 8/10 secret tests and 100% of public tests and didn’t implement any extra features. So comparing with our 5906 lines without extra features and tests, their compiler is 0.7x the size.

One design factor in their low line count was that they used a different approach to parsing. The course allowed you to use a command line LR table generator tool that the course provided, which this team used but no other team I mention did. This saved them having to implement an LR table generator. They also managed to avoid writing the LR grammar using a 150 line Python script which scraped a Java grammar web page they found online and translated it into the input format of the generator tool. They still needed to do some tree building in Scala but overall their parsing stage came in at 1073 lines to our 1443, where most other teams use of LR parsing lead to larger parsers than our recursive descent one.

The rest of their compiler was similarly smaller than ours though without any obvious large design differences, although I didn’t dig into the code. I suspect this is probably due to differences in expressiveness between Scala and Rust. Scala and Rust have similar functional programming features helpful for compilers, like pattern matching, but Scala’s managed memory saves on code required to make the Rust borrow checker happy. Scala also has more miscellaneous syntactic sugar than Rust.

OCaml

Since my team had all interned at Jane Street the other language we considered using was OCaml, we decided on Rust but I was curious about how OCaml might have turned out so I talked to someone else I knew had interned at Jane Street and they indeed did their compiler in OCaml with two other former Jane Street interns.

Their compiler was 10914 raw lines and 377kb including a small amount of test code and no extra features. They passed 9/10 secret tests and all public tests.

Like other groups it looks like a lot of the size difference is due to them using an LR parser generator and tree rewriting for parsing, as well as a regex->NFA->DFA conversion pipeline for lexing. Their front-end (lexing+parsing+AST construction) is 5548 lines where ours is 2164, with similar ratios for bytes. They also used expect tests for their parser where we used similar snapshot tests that put the expected output outside the code, so their parser tests were ~600 lines of that total where ours were ~200.

That leaves 5366 lines (461 lines of which is interface files with just type declarations) for the rest of their compiler and 4642 for ours, only 1.15x larger if you count interface files and basically the same size if you don’t count them. So it looks like setting aside our parsing design decisions, Rust and OCaml seem similarly expressive except that OCaml needs interface files and Rust doesn’t.

Conclusion

Overall I’m very glad I did this comparison, I learned a lot from it and was surprised many times. I think my overall takeaway is that design decisions make a much larger difference than the language, but the language matters insofar as it gives you the tools to implement different designs.