Caligula, byname of Gaius Caesar, in full Gaius Caesar Germanicus, (born August 31, 12 ce, Antium, Latium [Italy]—died January 24, 41, Rome), Roman emperor from 37 to 41 ce, in succession after Tiberius. Caligula effected the transfer of the last legion that had been under a senatorial proconsul (in Africa) to an imperial legate, thus completing the emperor’s monopoly of army command. Accounts of Caligula’s reign by ancient historians are so biased against him that the truth is almost impossible to disentangle.

Top Questions What is Caligula best known for? Caligula, considered by many to be a mad and unpredictable tyrant, is also known for transferring the last legion under a senatorial proconsul to an imperial legate, completing the emperor’s monopoly of army command. It was rumoured that he planned to appoint his horse consul before he died. How did Caligula die? In January 41, four months after his return to Rome from Gaul, Caligula was murdered at the Palatine Games by Cassius Chaerea, tribune of the Praetorian Guard, Cornelius Sabinus, and others. Caligula’s wife and daughter were also put to death. He was succeeded as emperor by his uncle Claudius. What was Caligula’s legacy? After his accession, Caligula squandered the vast sums Tiberius had accumulated in the state treasury, executed rivals and supporters alike, made pretensions to divinity, and erected statues of himself. Although the Senate oversaw the destruction of his statues after his death, Caligula’s colourful extravagance and brutality solidified his renown for more than two millennia.

Born Gaius Caesar, he became known as Caligula (“Little Boot”), a childhood nickname bestowed on him by the soldiers of his father, Germanicus Caesar, nephew and adoptive son of Tiberius. The deaths of his father in 19 ce, of his mother, Vipsania Agrippina, in 33, and of his two elder brothers, Julius Caesar Nero in 31 and Drusus Caesar in 23, were popularly ascribed to the machinations of Tiberius. Gaius and his three sisters survived. Adopting his father’s distinguished name, he became Gaius Caesar Germanicus.

He was severely ill seven months after his accession. After this he restored treason trials, showed great cruelty, and engaged in wild despotic caprice; e.g., he bridged the Bay of Naples with boats from Baiae to Puteoli in the summer of 39. In 38 he executed Naevius Sutorius Macro, prefect of the Praetorian Guard, to whose support he owed his accession, and Tiberius Gemellus, grandson of Tiberius, whom he had supplanted in the succession. He made pretensions to divinity and showed extravagant affection for his sisters, especially for Drusilla, who on her death (in 38) was consecrated Diva Drusilla, the first woman in Rome to be so honoured. Some scholars believe that he intended to establish a Hellenistic-type monarchy after the brother-sister marriages of the Ptolemies of Egypt. Others thought that after his illness he was mad; however, much evidence of this is suspect and some—e.g., that he made his horse consul—is untrue. (See Researcher’s Note: Caligula’s horse.) He may have suffered from epilepsy.

Caligula Caligula, marble bust. The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York; Rogers Fund, 1914, 14.37, www.metmuseum.org

Caligula appeared unexpectedly on the Upper Rhine in October 39 and suppressed an incipient revolt, executing Drusilla’s widower M. Aemilius Lepidus and Gnaeus Lentulus Gaetulicus, commander of the Upper Rhine armies. After his accession Caligula quickly squandered the vast sums Tiberius had accumulated in the state treasury. To procure the revenues needed to finance his extravagances, he then resorted to the extortion of prominent Roman citizens and the confiscation of their estates. Early in 40 Caligula marched with an army into Gaul, whose inhabitants he plundered thoroughly. He marched his troops to the northern shoreline of Gaul as a prelude to the invasion of Britain but then ordered them to collect seashells there, which he called the spoils of the conquered ocean.

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Caligula pursued his pretensions to divinity further; in the summer of 40 he ordered his statue to be erected in the Temple at Jerusalem, but, under the suave persuasion of Herod Agrippa, Caligula countermanded this potentially disastrous order. The Roman populace had by now grown weary of this mad and unpredictable tyrant, and several conspiracies were formed against him. In January 41, four months after his return to Rome from Gaul, Caligula was murdered at the Palatine Games by Cassius Chaerea, tribune of the Praetorian guard, Cornelius Sabinus, and others. Caligula’s wife Caesonia and his daughter were also put to death. He was succeeded as emperor by his uncle Claudius.