Presentation on theme: "Chapter 5: Memory: Models and Research Methods"— Presentation transcript:

1 Chapter 5: Memory: Models and Research Methods

2 Some Questions of Interest

What are some of the tasks used for studying memory? What is the traditional model of memory? What are some of the alternative models? What have psychologists learned by studying both exceptional memory and the physiology of the brain?

3 But first, a test! Let’s generate some words…

4 Processes in Memory Encoding Storage Retrieval

Types of encoding is covered in detail in Ch 6

5 Which type of test would you rather have?

An essay or a multiple-choice exam? Most students prefer a multiple-choice exam. Ask them why. Typically, they say it is easier to recognize the correct answer. You then can lead the discussion to the difference between recall and recognition tests.

6 Demonstration The 7 Dwarfs

7 Methods Used to Study Memory

Recall Serial recall Free recall Cued recall Recognition = these are explicit memory tasks

8 Implicit memory Remember priming? Procedural memory, too

9 Implicit Memory Tasks Participants are exposed to a word list Tiger

Lion Zebra Panda Leopard Elephant After a delay… Participants then complete word puzzles; they are not aware this is a type of memory test Word fragment completion: C_E_TA_ E_E_ _A_ N_ _ E _ R A Word stem completion: Mon _____ Pan_____ No connection is made to the previously studied list. Participants are simply asked to make a word out of the word fragment. Some of the answers will be words the participant has seen before. Some of the fragments will be words they have not seen. Fragment completion rates of the previously seen words are then compared to completion rates of unseen words. The difference between the scores indicates memory. Answers to word fragment completion: cheetah, elephant, zebra; word stem completion answers: monkey, panda.

10 Procedural Memory Knowing how to do something Ride a bike Skateboard

Ski

11 Methods to Assess Procedural Memory

Rotary-pursuit task Keep stylus on a dot on a rotating disk Mirror-tracing task Watch mirror image to trace a figure

12 Models of Memory Represent ways that memory has been conceptualized

Atkinson & Shiffrin’s three-stage model Craik & Lockhart’s level of processing model Baddeley’s working memory model Tulving’s multiple memory systems model McClelland & Rumelhart’s connectionist model

13 Traditional Model of Memory

Atkinson & Shiffrin (1968) three-stage model Transfer from STM to LTM covered in detail in ch 6

14 Sperling Sensory Memory Demonstration: CogLab Partial Report

A matrix of 12 letters and numbers briefly flash on the next few slides As soon as you see the information, write down everything you can remember in its proper location The following demonstration was created by Thomas P. Pusateri (2004) for Thomson/Wadsworth.

15 Sperling’s Results

16 Averbach & Coriell (1961) Iconic Memory Research

N M L C W D P Q A X I N Y K J U - Showed matrix for 50 msec - Placed a small mark above a letter at different delays Found that as many as 12 letters could be stored in sensory memory Backward visual masking was also discovered with this technique Demonstration and discussion of Averbach & Coriell (1961) study. Just click, and the demonstration will begin. See if students can correctly recall the letter F. Click again to see the full matrix and discuss the experiment.

17 G E U L M F S X W P M B D H J Y Second Demonstration

- Showed matrix for 50 msec - Placed a small mark above a letter at different delays Found that as many as 12 letters could be stored in sensory memory Backward visual masking was also discovered with this technique Demonstration and discussion of Averbach & Coriell (1961) study. Just click, and the demonstration will begin. See if students can correctly recall the letter F. Click again to see the full matrix and discuss the experiment.

18 Sensory Stores Iconic store or visual sensory register

Holds visual information for 250 msec longer Information held is pre-categorical Capacity: up to 12 items Information fades quickly Econ or auditory sensory register Holds auditory information for 2-3 seconds longer to enable processing

19 Short-Term Memory Attention Rehearsal Retrieval Rehearsal

Attend to information in the sensory store, it moves to STM Rehearsal Repeat the information to keep maintained in STM Retrieval Access memory in LTM and place in STM Short-Term Memory (STM) Transfer from STM to LTM and mnemonic techniques covered in detail in ch 6 Attention Storage & Retrieval

20 Demonstration: STM span

Use the “MSUM” demo; serial position curve in ch 6 and mnemonics there also

21 Research on Short-Term Memory

Miller (1956) Examined memory capacity 7+/- 2 items or “chunks” Chunking: organize input into larger units Exceeds capacity Reorganize by chunking Student using a chunking strategy can use LTM of important dates to remember a longer string of numbers. College graduation Birth year HS graduation

22 Long-Term Memory Capacity Duration Thus far limitless

Potentially permanent Long-Term Memory (LTM) Retrieval from LTM covered in detail in ch 6; forgetting and decay in ch 6

23 Bahrick’s Research on Very Long-Term Memory

High school yearbooks containing student names and photos 392 high school graduates (17-74) took four different memory tests For some of the participants, it was as long as 48 years since they graduated Free recall of the names Photo recognition test, where they were asked to identify former classmates Name recognition test Name and photo matching test Bahrick, H. P., Bahrick, P.O., & Wittlinger, R. P. (1975). Fifty years of memory for names and faces: A cross-sectional approach. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 104(1),

24 Bahrick et al. (1975) Results

90% accuracy in face and name recognition after 34 years 80% accuracy for name recognition after 48 years 40% accuracy for face recognition after 48 years 60% accuracy for free recall after 15 years 30% accuracy for free recall after 30 years Note how the recognition results differ from the free recall results.

25 Levels of Processing Model of Memory

Craik & Lockhart (1972) Deep processing leads to better memory Elaborating according to meaning leads to a strong memory Shallow processing emphasizes the physical features of the stimulus The memory trace is fragile and quickly decays Distinguished between maintenance rehearsal and elaborative rehearsal Craik, F.I.M., & Lockhart, R.S. (1972). Levels of processing. A framework for memory research. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behaviour, 11,

26 Support for Levels of Processing

Craik & Tulving (1975) Participants studied a list in three different ways Structural: Is the word in capital letters? Phonemic: Does the word rhyme with dog? Semantic: Does the word fit in this sentence? “The ______ is delicious.” A recognition test was given to see which type of processing led to the best memory

27 Craik & Tulving (1975) Results

28 cogLab: levels of processing

29 Self-Reference Effect

Rogers, Kuiper, & Kirker (1977) Encoding with respect to oneself increases memory Capital Rhymes Means the Describes letters? with? same as? you? I. Self-reference effect Rogers, Kuiper, & Kirker (1977) Used a design like Craik and Tulving’s LOP experiment with adjectives and an additional question that asked participants “Does this word describe you?” Self-reference questions produced the best recall, about twice as high as semantic processing (meaning of word) Also didn’t matter whether people felt that the word did or did not describe them. They explained the advantages of self-reference during encoding as a function of the more elaborative processes individuals used to relate target information to their own self, making self-referential information more salient in memory.

30 Baddeleys’ Working Memory Model

Baddeley’s model of working memory contains several elements: A central executive, auditory working memory, visuo-spatial working memory, and an episodic Buffer. Material can also enter conscious workspace from long-term memory.

31 Working Memory Model Phonological Loop Visuo-spatial sketch pad

Used for acoustic rehearsal Visuo-spatial sketch pad Used for visuo-spatial information Episodic buffer Used for storage of a multimodal code, holding an integrated episode between systems using different codes Central executive Focuses attention Plans sequence of tasks, switches attention between different parts

32 Working Memory Model Support

Baddeley (1986) Participants studied two different list types 1 syllable: wit, sum, harm, bay, top 5 syllables: university, opportunity, aluminum, constitutional, auditorium Reading rate seemed to determine recall performance Supports conceptualization of an articulatory loop

33 Working Memory Model Support

Visuo-spatial sketch pad Dual-task paradigm Sketchpad can be disrupted by requiring participants to repeatedly tap a specified pattern of keys or locations while using imagery at the same time

34 Neuroscience and Working Memory

35 Tulving’s Multiple-Memory Systems Model

Semantic memory General knowledge Facts, definitions, historical dates Episodic memory Event memories (first kiss, 6th birthday)

36 Multiple-Memory Systems Model Support

Nyberg, Cabeza, & Tulving (1996) Asked people to engage in semantic or episodic memory tasks while being monitored by PET Results Left (hemisphere) frontal lobe differentially active in encoding (both) and in semantic memory retrieval Right (hemisphere) frontal lobe differentially active in retrieval of episodic memory Nyberg, L., Cabeza, R., & Tulving, E. (1996). PET studies of encoding and retrieval: The HERA model. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 3,

37 Connectionist Perspective

Parallel distributed processing model Memory uses a network Meaning comes from patterns of activation across the entire network Spreading activation network model Supported by priming effects

38 Exceptional Memory Case studies of mnemonists

Studies of skilled memory

39 Memory Movies Take any character from a movie who has a memory deficit, and, using terms from the chapters, explain what the memory problem is and why it occurs Johnny Mnemonic; 50 First Dates; Memento; Total Recall; Bourne Identity; Dark City; Manchurian Candidate; Overboard; The Changeling; Eternal Sunshine of the Spotless Mind; The Majestic: Mulholland Drive; The Notebook; Paycheck; Sommersby; The Vow

40 Case Studies S. (Luria, 1968) Rajan Mahadevan Long strings of words

Remembered over years Rajan Mahadevan Can recite pi to 31,811 places No forgetting on matrices up to 20 x 20 digits The brain modules: mnemonist; clive wearing also Extraordinary autobiographial memory case study is in chapter 6

41 Deficient Memory Amnesias Retrograde amnesia Infantile amnesia

Loss of memory for events that occurred before the trauma Infantile amnesia Inability to recall events of young childhood Anterograde amnesia No memory for events that occur after the trauma Do clive wearing here; also H.M.

42 Amnesia Studies Amnesiacs show normal priming (implicit), but poor recognition memory (explicit) They did not remember having seen the word list, but completed the word fragments at the same rate as normals

43 Hippocampus and Memory

Critical for integration and consolidation Essential for declarative memory Without the hippocampus, only the learning of skills and habits, simple conditioning, and the phenomenon of priming can occur

44 Alzheimer’s Disease Symptoms (gradual, continuous, and irreversible)

Memory loss Problems doing familiar tasks Problems with language Trouble knowing the time, date, or place Poor or decreased judgment Problems with abstract thinking Misplacing things often, such as keys Changes in mood, behavior, and personality These symptoms could be an early sign of Alzheimer’s when it affects daily life

45 Alzheimer’s Disease and the Brain

Atrophy of the cortical tissue Alzheimer’s brains shows abnormal fibers that appear to be tangles of brain tissue and senile plaques (patches of degenerative nerve endings) The resulting damage of these conditions may lead to disruption of impulses in neurons