Writing Performant Haskell (5 of 6): Dive Into Text

Edited: August 15, 2017 Thanks to /u/bos and /u/mrkkrp over on Reddit for helping to improve the quality of this post! The previous version was unnecessarily using GHC primops.

Recap

In the previous post, we improved our usage of Builder by introducing a new data type that kept track of a Builder value and its length. We also learned a bit about strictness. Our API looked like this:

class HexShow a where xbuild :: a -> Builder xbuildu :: a -> Builder xshow :: HexShow a => a -> Text.Text xshowp :: HexShow a => a -> Text.Text xshowu :: HexShow a => a -> Text.Text xshowpu :: HexShow a => a -> Text.Text xshowl :: HexShow a => a -> Text.Lazy.Text xshowlp :: HexShow a => a -> Text.Lazy.Text xshowlu :: HexShow a => a -> Text.Lazy.Text xshowlpu :: HexShow a => a -> Text.Lazy.Text

After we improved our usage of Builder , the benchmark report’s summary looked like this:

We chopped off anywhere from roughly 100 to 200 nanoseconds for each of the functions in Hexy ’s public API.

In this post, we finally return to the proposition from the second post that using text gives us more optimization flexibility. We will dive into the internals of the text package and hopefully come out with some seriously fast functions.

text and Arrays

The text package is using packed arrays under the hood. As a reminder, a strict Text is a packed array, while a lazy Text is a list of packed arrays. If arrays drive text ’s performance, it sure would be nice if we could make like a C programmer and malloc precisely the amount of storage we need for our hex strings:

#include <stdint.h> #include <stdlib.h> #include <string.h> const char * xbuild( uint32_t v) * xbuild(v) { char * s = malloc( 2 * sizeof (v) + 1 ); * s = malloc((v) +); // implementation details... return s; s; }

This would allow us to work on fixed-size buffers and the contents of each buffer would be contiguous in memory. An approach like this directly opposes the API we have built so far. Our API leverages Builder and dynamically builds up the hex strings. The user then chooses whether they want a Builder value, a strict Text value, or a lazy Text value. For all instances of our HexShow typeclass, we know exactly how much storage we need for the result strings: Twice the size in bytes of the input type, and maybe a couple characters for the 0x prefix. We are not taking full advantage of this knowledge.

Let’s dig down into the internals of text - I promise we will maintain most of our sanity!

Evolving the API

If we want to get away from Builder and move to manually allocating storage for strict Text values, we need to alter our API. We will scrap returning Builder altogether:

class HexShow a where xshow :: a -> Text.Text xshowp :: a -> Text.Text xshowu :: a -> Text.Text xshowpu :: a -> Text.Text xshowl :: a -> Text.Lazy.Text xshowlp :: a -> Text.Lazy.Text xshowlu :: a -> Text.Lazy.Text xshowlpu :: a -> Text.Lazy.Text {-# MINIMAL xshowp, xshowpu #-}

We have also bundled all our functions under the HexShow typeclass. To implement instances, we only need to implement xshowp and xshowpu then we will get the rest of the functions for free. Remember that xshowp converts its input to a lowercase hex string, zero-padded based on the size of the input type, and prefixed with 0x . xshowpu is identical to xshowp except its returned hex string is uppercase.

In a way, we have turned our API upside-down. Previously, we were building the zero-padded hex string and then, if needed, tacking on the 0x prefix. Now we are requiring that instances implement the functions to build the full zero-padded, 0x -prefixed hex string and then instances will get the remaining variants for free.

This is in line with our goal of allocating just the amount of space we need for the hex string. Going ahead and allocating for the 2 additonal 0x prefix characters regardless of whether or not our users want to use the prefix variants will save us from a possible reallocation for the prefix later.

Sometimes we have to make breaking API changes in the name of performance!

Internal Implementation

Let’s get to hacking on Hexy.Internal . The extremely interesting top portion of the module:

{-# LANGUAGE BangPatterns #-} module Hexy.Internal where import Control.Monad.ST ( ST ) import qualified Data.Char as Char import Data.Int ( Int , Int8 , Int16 , Int32 , Int64 ) import qualified Data.Text as Text import qualified Data.Text.Array as Text.Array import qualified Data.Text.Internal as Text.Internal import qualified Data.Text.Internal.Private as Text.Internal.Private import qualified Data.Text.Internal.Unsafe.Char as Text.Internal.Unsafe.Char import Data.Word ( Word , Word8 , Word16 , Word32 , Word64 ) import Foreign.Storable ( Storable (..)) (..)) import qualified Foreign.Storable as Storable

Below we have a couple new functions that will be core to implementing our HexShow typeclass instances:

showHexTextLower :: ( Integral a, Show a, Storable a) => a -> Text.Text a,a,a) -- a bunch of SPECIALIZE pragmas... = textShowIntAtBase 16 intToDigitLower showHexTextLowertextShowIntAtBaseintToDigitLower showHexTextUpper :: ( Integral a, Show a, Storable a) => a -> Text.Text a,a,a) -- a bunch of SPECIALIZE pragmas... = textShowIntAtBase 16 intToDigitUpper showHexTextUppertextShowIntAtBaseintToDigitUpper

Note that unlike xbuild and xbuildu , these are returning strict Text values.

Let’s go ahead and define those lowercase and uppercase functions:

intToDigitLower :: Int -> Char intToDigitLower i | i >= 0 && i <= 9 = Text.Internal.Unsafe.Char.unsafeChr ( fromIntegral $ Char . ord '0' + i) Text.Internal.Unsafe.Char.unsafeChr (i) | i >= 10 && i <= 15 = Text.Internal.Unsafe.Char.unsafeChr ( fromIntegral $ Char . ord 'a' + i - 10 ) Text.Internal.Unsafe.Char.unsafeChr ( | otherwise = errorWithoutStackTrace ( "Hexy.Internal.intToDigitLower: not a digit " ++ show i) errorWithoutStackTrace (i) intToDigitUpper :: Int -> Char intToDigitUpper i | i >= 0 && i <= 9 = Text.Internal.Unsafe.Char.unsafeChr ( fromIntegral $ Char . ord '0' + i) Text.Internal.Unsafe.Char.unsafeChr (i) | i >= 10 && i <= 15 = Text.Internal.Unsafe.Char.unsafeChr ( fromIntegral $ Char . ord 'A' + i - 10 ) Text.Internal.Unsafe.Char.unsafeChr ( | otherwise = errorWithoutStackTrace ( "Hexy.Internal.intToDigitUpper: not a digit " ++ show i) errorWithoutStackTrace (i)

intToDigitLower is a slightly modified copy of the intToDigit function from base ’s Data.Char module. These functions are comparing the input value against the inclusive 0-9 range and the inclusive 10-15 range. Depending upon which range the input value is in, the function returns the ASCII-adjusted hex Char representation of the Int value.

The unsafeChr function from text converts its input Word16 to a Char value - there is no bounds checking. Think of unsafeChr like a cast from C:

int i = 42 ; i = char c = ( char ) i; c = () i;

Now we will implement our most important function:

textShowIntAtBase :: ( Integral a, Show a, Storable a) => a -> ( Int -> Char ) -> a -> Text.Text a,a,a) -- a bunch of SPECIALIZE pragmas... textShowIntAtBase base toChr n0 | base <= 1 = errorWithoutStackTrace ( "Hexy.Internal.textShowIntAtBase: applied to unsupported base " ++ show base) baseerrorWithoutStackTrace (base) | n0 < 0 = errorWithoutStackTrace ( "Hexy.Internal.textShowIntAtBase: applied to negative number " ++ show n0) n0errorWithoutStackTrace (n0) | otherwise = Text.Internal.Private.runText $ \done -> do Text.Internal.Private.runText\done let ! size = 2 + ( 2 * Storable.sizeOf n0) sizeStorable.sizeOf n0) <- Text.Array.new size bufferText.Array.new size let hexLoop i (n, d) = do hexLoop i (n, d) <- unsafeWriteRev buffer i c i'unsafeWriteRev buffer i c case n of 0 -> pure i' i' _ -> hexLoop i' ( quotRem n base) hexLoop i' (n base) where c = toChr $ fromIntegral d toChr let zeroPadLoop i zeroPadLoop i | i < 2 = pure i | otherwise = do <- unsafeWriteRev buffer i '0' i'unsafeWriteRev buffer i zeroPadLoop i' j <- hexLoop (size - 1 ) ( quotRem n0 base) hexLoop (size) (n0 base) k <- zeroPadLoop j zeroPadLoop j l <- unsafeWriteRev buffer k 'x' unsafeWriteRev buffer k _ <- unsafeWriteRev buffer l '0' unsafeWriteRev buffer l done buffer size

textShowIntAtBase looks a good bit different from the previous incarnation’s buildWordAtBase and is a lot to take in. We will break this down.

Our 2 initial guards are identical to the buildWordAtBase version:

textShowIntAtBase base toChr n0 | base <= 1 = errorWithoutStackTrace ( "Hexy.Internal.textShowIntAtBase: applied to unsupported base " ++ show base) baseerrorWithoutStackTrace (base) | n0 < 0 = errorWithoutStackTrace ( "Hexy.Internal.textShowIntAtBase: applied to negative number " ++ show n0) n0errorWithoutStackTrace (n0)

The otherwise guard is where things get interesting:

| otherwise = Text.Internal.Private.runText $ \done -> do Text.Internal.Private.runText\done -- ...

The runText function is coming from the internals of the text package. Haskell libaries (including Hexy !) often provide a clear divide between what is the public API and what is internal to the library. “Internal to the library” means the functions are used in the library but are not necessarily expected to be used by clients of the library. Any internal modules are subject to change and may not respect invariants so if we decide to use them, we must do so at our own risk!

Package modules are conventionally marked as internal modules via placing them under a subdirectory called Internal or being housed entirely in a Internal.hs module. Authors generally still export these internal modules for client use so users can, for example, eke out more performance or use the package in ways the authors never anticipated. If you are authoring a package, note that choosing to not export internal modules is generally frowned upon in the community as it can limit what users can do with your package.

Fortunately for us, the internal modules in text are exported and clearly marked with an Internal somewhere in the module name, i.e.

Data.Text.Internal Data.Text.Internal.Fusion Data.Text.Lazy.Internal -- and so on...

Have a look at the docs to see the various internal modules.

What does runText do though? Let’s start with its type:

runText :: ( forall s . ( MArray s -> Int -> ST s Text ) -> ST s Text ) -> Text

That type is notably scary and gives rise to a few questions. What is an MArray ? What is ST ? Why is there a forall s ?

At a high level, runText is taking in 1 gnarly parameter and returning a strict Text value. We should break this down further:

The output value, a strict `Text` -------+ output value, a strict | v runText :: ( forall s . ( MArray s -> Int -> ST s Text ) -> ST s Text ) -> Text

+------- The single gnarly input value, this is a single gnarly input value, this is a | function we define function we define v runText :: ( forall s . ( MArray s -> Int -> ST s Text ) -> ST s Text ) -> Text

The function we define must produce a strict Text ------+ function we define must produce a strict in the ST monad | themonad v runText :: ( forall s . ( MArray s -> Int -> ST s Text ) -> ST s Text ) -> Text

+------- Utility function that is passed to the function function that is passed to the function | we define . We call this at the end of the we definecall this at the endthe | function we define to get our Text in ST , function we define to get our | hence why we named it 'done' above . hence why we named it 'done' above v runText :: ( forall s . ( MArray s -> Int -> ST s Text ) -> ST s Text ) -> Text

+------- The mutable array we must build in the mutable array we must buildthe | function we define function we define v runText :: ( forall s . ( MArray s -> Int -> ST s Text ) -> ST s Text ) -> Text

The length of the mutable array ---+ the mutable array | v runText :: ( forall s . ( MArray s -> Int -> ST s Text ) -> ST s Text ) -> Text

The utility function returns the ---------+ utility function returns the Text in ST | result v runText :: ( forall s . ( MArray s -> Int -> ST s Text ) -> ST s Text ) -> Text

+------- Phantom type for the ST monad that prevents for themonad that prevents | the internal state from being accessible the internal state from being accessible | outside of the computation outsidethe computation v runText :: ( forall s . ( MArray s -> Int -> ST s Text ) -> ST s Text ) -> Text

We will not go into details in this blog post series on how the ST monad works, so try not to get hung up on the s type parameter. For our purposes, it suffices to think of ST as a State monad that allows for in-place mutation. Unlike when we are in IO , the mutation we do in ST is not externally visible to other parts of our program, so extracting results from ST is pure.

The mutation we are doing is on MArray s values. These are mutable arrays provided by the text package.

Look out world! We are about to put on our imperative Haskell hats.

Let’s view a bit more of our textShowIntAtBase . The first thing we do is determine the array size we will need. The only difference in our size calculation now versus the one from previous posts is that we now add 2 to account for the 0x prefix:

textShowIntAtBase :: ( Integral a, Show a, Storable a) => a -> ( Int -> Char ) -> a -> Text.Text a,a,a) -- a bunch of SPECIALIZE pragmas... textShowIntAtBase base toChr n0 | base <= 1 = errorWithoutStackTrace ( "Hexy.Internal.textShowIntAtBase: applied to unsupported base " ++ show base) baseerrorWithoutStackTrace (base) | n0 < 0 = errorWithoutStackTrace ( "Hexy.Internal.textShowIntAtBase: applied to negative number " ++ show n0) n0errorWithoutStackTrace (n0) | otherwise = Text.Internal.Private.runText $ \done -> do Text.Internal.Private.runText\done let ! size = 2 + ( 2 * Storable.sizeOf n0) sizeStorable.sizeOf n0) -- implementation details...

Now we allocate an array with the computed size and bind it to buffer . The type of new is Int -> ST s (MArray s) . We give it an Int value representing the size of the array we want and it spits out an uninitialized array of that size.

textShowIntAtBase :: ( Integral a, Show a, Storable a) => a -> ( Int -> Char ) -> a -> Text.Text a,a,a) -- a bunch of SPECIALIZE pragmas... textShowIntAtBase base toChr n0 | base <= 1 = errorWithoutStackTrace ( "Hexy.Internal.textShowIntAtBase: applied to unsupported base " ++ show base) baseerrorWithoutStackTrace (base) | n0 < 0 = errorWithoutStackTrace ( "Hexy.Internal.textShowIntAtBase: applied to negative number " ++ show n0) n0errorWithoutStackTrace (n0) | otherwise = Text.Internal.Private.runText $ \done -> do Text.Internal.Private.runText\done let ! size = 2 + ( 2 * Storable.sizeOf n0) sizeStorable.sizeOf n0) <- Text.Array.new size bufferText.Array.new size -- implementation details...

We then define a hexLoop function with type Int -> (a, a) -> ST s Int . hexLoop is the spiritual successor to buildIt from the previous post. It takes in a write index and the current quotRem result, and in-place writes to buffer as it quotRem ’s down n0 . It uses a function we have not defined yet - unsafeWriteRev - to write each character. unsafeWriteRev returns the write index given to it minus 1, hence the ...Rev suffix. We are writing to the array from back to front. When hexLoop is done, it returns the next index to begin writing to for zero-padding.

textShowIntAtBase :: ( Integral a, Show a, Storable a) => a -> ( Int -> Char ) -> a -> Text.Text a,a,a) -- a bunch of SPECIALIZE pragmas... textShowIntAtBase base toChr n0 | base <= 1 = errorWithoutStackTrace ( "Hexy.Internal.textShowIntAtBase: applied to unsupported base " ++ show base) baseerrorWithoutStackTrace (base) | n0 < 0 = errorWithoutStackTrace ( "Hexy.Internal.textShowIntAtBase: applied to negative number " ++ show n0) n0errorWithoutStackTrace (n0) | otherwise = Text.Internal.Private.runText $ \done -> do Text.Internal.Private.runText\done let ! size = 2 + ( 2 * Storable.sizeOf n0) sizeStorable.sizeOf n0) <- Text.Array.new size bufferText.Array.new size let hexLoop i (n, d) = do hexLoop i (n, d) <- unsafeWriteRev buffer i c i'unsafeWriteRev buffer i c case n of 0 -> pure i' i' _ -> hexLoop i' ( quotRem n base) hexLoop i' (n base) where c = toChr $ fromIntegral d toChr -- implementation details...

Next, we define a zeroPadLoop function with type Int -> ST s Int . zeroPadLoop recursively fills the rest of the array with '0' characters, going from where hexLoop will leave off. zeroPadLoop stops before writing to index 0 and 1, as that is where the 0x prefix will be written. When zeroPadLoop is done, it returns the next index to begin writing to for the 0x prefix.

textShowIntAtBase :: ( Integral a, Show a, Storable a) => a -> ( Int -> Char ) -> a -> Text.Text a,a,a) -- a bunch of SPECIALIZE pragmas... textShowIntAtBase base toChr n0 | base <= 1 = errorWithoutStackTrace ( "Hexy.Internal.textShowIntAtBase: applied to unsupported base " ++ show base) baseerrorWithoutStackTrace (base) | n0 < 0 = errorWithoutStackTrace ( "Hexy.Internal.textShowIntAtBase: applied to negative number " ++ show n0) n0errorWithoutStackTrace (n0) | otherwise = Text.Internal.Private.runText $ \done -> do Text.Internal.Private.runText\done let ! size = 2 + ( 2 * Storable.sizeOf n0) sizeStorable.sizeOf n0) <- Text.Array.new size bufferText.Array.new size let hexLoop i (n, d) = do hexLoop i (n, d) <- unsafeWriteRev buffer i c i'unsafeWriteRev buffer i c case n of 0 -> pure i' i' _ -> hexLoop i' ( quotRem n base) hexLoop i' (n base) where c = toChr $ fromIntegral d toChr let zeroPadLoop i zeroPadLoop i | i < 2 = pure i | otherwise = do <- unsafeWriteRev buffer i '0' i'unsafeWriteRev buffer i zeroPadLoop i' -- implementation details...

Let’s call our hexLoop and zeroPadLoop functions, making sure to respect the write indices they return:

textShowIntAtBase :: ( Integral a, Show a, Storable a) => a -> ( Int -> Char ) -> a -> Text.Text a,a,a) -- a bunch of SPECIALIZE pragmas... textShowIntAtBase base toChr n0 | base <= 1 = errorWithoutStackTrace ( "Hexy.Internal.textShowIntAtBase: applied to unsupported base " ++ show base) baseerrorWithoutStackTrace (base) | n0 < 0 = errorWithoutStackTrace ( "Hexy.Internal.textShowIntAtBase: applied to negative number " ++ show n0) n0errorWithoutStackTrace (n0) | otherwise = Text.Internal.Private.runText $ \done -> do Text.Internal.Private.runText\done let ! size = 2 + ( 2 * Storable.sizeOf n0) sizeStorable.sizeOf n0) <- Text.Array.new size bufferText.Array.new size let hexLoop i (n, d) = do hexLoop i (n, d) <- unsafeWriteRev buffer i c i'unsafeWriteRev buffer i c case n of 0 -> pure i' i' _ -> hexLoop i' ( quotRem n base) hexLoop i' (n base) where c = toChr $ fromIntegral d toChr let zeroPadLoop i zeroPadLoop i | i < 2 = pure i | otherwise = do <- unsafeWriteRev buffer i '0' i'unsafeWriteRev buffer i zeroPadLoop i' j <- hexLoop (size - 1 ) ( quotRem n0 base) hexLoop (size) (n0 base) k <- zeroPadLoop j zeroPadLoop j -- implementation details...

Now we will write the 0x prefix, respecting write indices from unsafeWriteRev :

textShowIntAtBase :: ( Integral a, Show a, Storable a) => a -> ( Int -> Char ) -> a -> Text.Text a,a,a) -- a bunch of SPECIALIZE pragmas... textShowIntAtBase base toChr n0 | base <= 1 = errorWithoutStackTrace ( "Hexy.Internal.textShowIntAtBase: applied to unsupported base " ++ show base) baseerrorWithoutStackTrace (base) | n0 < 0 = errorWithoutStackTrace ( "Hexy.Internal.textShowIntAtBase: applied to negative number " ++ show n0) n0errorWithoutStackTrace (n0) | otherwise = Text.Internal.Private.runText $ \done -> do Text.Internal.Private.runText\done let ! size = 2 + ( 2 * Storable.sizeOf n0) sizeStorable.sizeOf n0) <- Text.Array.new size bufferText.Array.new size let hexLoop i (n, d) = do hexLoop i (n, d) <- unsafeWriteRev buffer i c i'unsafeWriteRev buffer i c case n of 0 -> pure i' i' _ -> hexLoop i' ( quotRem n base) hexLoop i' (n base) where c = toChr $ fromIntegral d toChr let zeroPadLoop i zeroPadLoop i | i < 2 = pure i | otherwise = do <- unsafeWriteRev buffer i '0' i'unsafeWriteRev buffer i zeroPadLoop i' j <- hexLoop (size - 1 ) ( quotRem n0 base) hexLoop (size) (n0 base) k <- zeroPadLoop j zeroPadLoop j l <- unsafeWriteRev buffer k 'x' unsafeWriteRev buffer k _ <- unsafeWriteRev buffer l '0' unsafeWriteRev buffer l -- implementation details...

The final bit we need to complete our function is to call the done utility passed into our function. This utility function will “freeze” up the mutable array we give it, i.e. converting it into an immutable array. It then creates a Text for us in ST using the immutable array and the size:

textShowIntAtBase :: ( Integral a, Show a, Storable a) => a -> ( Int -> Char ) -> a -> Text.Text a,a,a) -- a bunch of SPECIALIZE pragmas... textShowIntAtBase base toChr n0 | base <= 1 = errorWithoutStackTrace ( "Hexy.Internal.textShowIntAtBase: applied to unsupported base " ++ show base) baseerrorWithoutStackTrace (base) | n0 < 0 = errorWithoutStackTrace ( "Hexy.Internal.textShowIntAtBase: applied to negative number " ++ show n0) n0errorWithoutStackTrace (n0) | otherwise = Text.Internal.Private.runText $ \done -> do Text.Internal.Private.runText\done let ! size = 2 + ( 2 * Storable.sizeOf n0) sizeStorable.sizeOf n0) <- Text.Array.new size bufferText.Array.new size let hexLoop i (n, d) = do hexLoop i (n, d) <- unsafeWriteRev buffer i c i'unsafeWriteRev buffer i c case n of 0 -> pure i' i' _ -> hexLoop i' ( quotRem n base) hexLoop i' (n base) where c = toChr $ fromIntegral d toChr let zeroPadLoop i zeroPadLoop i | i < 2 = pure i | otherwise = do <- unsafeWriteRev buffer i '0' i'unsafeWriteRev buffer i zeroPadLoop i' j <- hexLoop (size - 1 ) ( quotRem n0 base) hexLoop (size) (n0 base) k <- zeroPadLoop j zeroPadLoop j l <- unsafeWriteRev buffer k 'x' unsafeWriteRev buffer k _ <- unsafeWriteRev buffer l '0' unsafeWriteRev buffer l -- done :: MArray s -> Int -> ST s Text done buffer size

Below is the definition for unsafeWriteRev . It uses unsafeWrite from text and then returns the preceding write index:

unsafeWriteRev :: Text.Array.MArray s -> Int -> Char -> ST s Int = do unsafeWriteRev buffer i c fromIntegral (Text.Internal.Unsafe.Char.ord c)) Text.Array.unsafeWrite buffer i ((Text.Internal.Unsafe.Char.ord c)) pure (i - 1 ) (i

The last piece of functionality we need to complete our Hexy.Internal module is a means to drop the hex prefix, for use by functions like xshow and xshowu . Here we will use the internal constructor for strict Text values, which takes an immutable array, an offset into the array, and the length of the array:

unsafeDropHexPrefix :: Text.Text -> Text.Text Text.Internal.Text arr _ len) = Text.Internal.Text arr 2 (len - 2 ) unsafeDropHexPrefix (arr _ len)arr(len

Note that we could have used Data.Text ’s drop function from text ’s public API, but the above definition should be a bit faster. Try benchmarking the two different functions to see if there is any difference.

Public API

We will need to update our public API in the Hexy module to use our new internal functions:

module Hexy ( HexShow ( .. ) ) where import Hexy.Internal (showHexTextLower, showHexTextUpper, unsafeDropHexPrefix) (showHexTextLower, showHexTextUpper, unsafeDropHexPrefix) import Data.Int ( Int , Int16 , Int32 , Int64 , Int8 ) import qualified Data.Text as Text import qualified Data.Text.Lazy as Text.Lazy import Data.Word ( Word , Word8 , Word16 , Word32 , Word64 ) class HexShow a where xshow :: a -> Text.Text = unsafeDropHexPrefix . xshowp xshowunsafeDropHexPrefixxshowp xshowp :: a -> Text.Text xshowu :: a -> Text.Text = unsafeDropHexPrefix . xshowpu xshowuunsafeDropHexPrefixxshowpu xshowpu :: a -> Text.Text xshowl :: a -> Text.Lazy.Text = Text.Lazy.fromStrict . xshow xshowlText.Lazy.fromStrictxshow xshowlp :: a -> Text.Lazy.Text = Text.Lazy.fromStrict . xshowp xshowlpText.Lazy.fromStrictxshowp xshowlu :: a -> Text.Lazy.Text = Text.Lazy.fromStrict . xshowu xshowluText.Lazy.fromStrictxshowu xshowlpu :: a -> Text.Lazy.Text = Text.Lazy.fromStrict . xshowpu xshowlpuText.Lazy.fromStrictxshowpu {-# MINIMAL xshowp, xshowpu #-} instance HexShow Word32 where = showHexTextLower xshowpshowHexTextLower = showHexTextUpper xshowpushowHexTextUpper -- remaining instances

Test Check

Our public API has changed so our unit tests need some work. Have a look at the full test suite on GitHub if you like.

Performance Check

In the previous post, our benchmark results looked like this:

Let’s run the benchmarks again:

$ stack bench --benchmark-arguments "--output bench.html" bench --benchmark-arguments

View the full report from this run here. The summary looks like this:

This is our greatest performance improvement yet - all of our functions clock in at approximately 50 nanoseconds! They are roughly 5 times faster than their previous iterations. Our users can call either the strict or the lazy variants with no penalty. Furthermore, our functions are about 2.65 times faster than base ’s showHex and are doing more work via zero-padding and prefixing with 0x

Maintenance

While our performance gains were fantastic, we should take note that the performance comes at a maintenance cost. We have chosen to use the internals of text and text makes no guarantees the functions we have used will be available in future versions. Fortunately, the portions we are using of text ’s internal API have seemingly been stable for quite some time (years), so we feel relatively comfortable with our changes.

Safety

Multiple functions were used above that were prefixed with unsafe... . These functions do not do any bounds checking so we have to be very careful when working with them to avoid access violations. Testing is always important, but it is even more so when we are going imperative like we did above.

Another callout is that text ’s arrays are packed UTF-16. We took advantage of the fact that the hex characters we write have small enough integral values that we can always get away with 1 write instead of 2. If we poke around in the bowels of text , we can see a few places where the code decides whether to write 1 or 2 Word16 values for a given write of 1 Char value. We are not doing this at all in our code.

What’s next?

In the next and final post, we will update our benchmark suite to cover all the data types Hexy supports and take stock of our performance gains overall.

All code in this post is available on GitHub.