As more countries look to the region for resources, the risk of conflict rises.

Conditions in the Arctic remain brutally harsh, but the warming weather is creating new opportunities.

As the ice melts, U.S. prepares for possible threats from Russia and China

Members of the Canadian military attempt to start snow scooters as they train in extreme Arctic temperatures. The fuel pumps often freeze in such conditions. (Kadir van Lohuizen/NOOR)

Gordon Omnik, a hunter in Point Hope, Alaska, watches for bowhead whales. The Inuit community there is allowed to catch 10 per year. (Kadir van Lohuizen/NOOR)

A worker at a drill site near Sabetta on Siberia’s Yamal Peninsula, where a facility for liquid natural gas extraction is being constructed. (Yuri Kozyrev/NOOR)

Army helicopters began flying in and out of the scraggily wilderness near this fishing town in August, surprising even the mayor.

The tan, twin-rotor Chinook aircraft thumped over treeless cliffs and the historic port of Dutch Harbor, parking at a mountainside airstrip too small to land jet airliners.

Soldiers came and went, sometimes staying at the main hotel in town, across the street from a bar called the Norwegian Rat Saloon. Unalaska's mayor, Frank Kelty, said he called the military to find out what was going on but learned little.

“We have these Army helicopters here, and we don’t know what they’re doing or where they’re going,” he said after driving by the airport on the remote Aleutian island and seeing a Chinook resting near the runway.

The mysterious operation was part of the U.S. military’s gradual growth in the Arctic as it grapples with the effects of melting polar ice and Russia’s and China’s increasing assertiveness in the region. The slowly evolving plan has included stationing more fighter jets in Alaska, expanding partnerships with Nordic militaries, increasing cold-weather training and designing a new class of icebreaker ship for the Coast Guard that could be armed.

Median sea-ice extent in Sept. (1980-2010) Sea-ice area on Sept. 5, 2018 Pacific Ocean —Unalaska Anadyr 500 MILES RUSSIA Alaska U.S. Utqiagvik CANADA Norilsk North Pole Yamal P. Resolute Greenland Murmansk (DEN.) Kola P. Oqaatsut Arctic Ocean FIN. Nuuk NOR. Northwest Passage ICELAND Northern Sea Route U.K. Pacific Ocean —Unalaska Bering Sea Sea-ice area on Sept. 5, 2018 Anadyr RUSSIA Median sea-ice extent in September (1980-2010) Alaska U.S. Utqiagvik 500 MILES CANADA Norilsk North Pole Yamal P. Greenland Murmansk (DEN.) Kola P. Arctic Ocean Oqaatsut RUSSIA FIN. Nuuk SWE. NOR. ICELAND Northwest Passage Northern Sea Route U.K. Pacific Ocean Sea-ice area on Sept. 5, 2018 Bering Sea Median sea-ice extent in September (1980-2010) RUSSIA Anadyr Norilsk Yamal Pen. Kotzebue Alaska U.S. RUSSIA North Pole Kola Pen. Murmansk Svalbard (NOR.) CANADA FIN. Resolute Arctic Ocean Greenland SWE. (DEN.) NOR. Oqaatsut ICELAND Nuuk U.K. Atlantic Ocean 500 MILES Northwest Passage Northern Sea route Pacific Ocean Northern Sea route Sea-ice area on Sept. 5, 2018 Median sea-ice extent in September (1980-2010) Bering Sea RUSSIA —Unalaska Anadyr Northwest Passage Norilsk Kotzebue Yamal P. Alaska U.S. RUSSIA North Pole Kola P. Murmansk Svalbard (NOR.) FIN. Resolute CANADA Arctic Ocean Greenland (DEN.) NOR. 500 MILES Oqaatsut Hudson Bay ICELAND Nuuk U.K. Atlantic Ocean Northwest Passage Northern Sea Route —Unalaska Bering Sea Pacific Ocean Anadyr Sea-ice area on Sept. 5, 2018 RUSSIA Alaska Median sea-ice extent in September (1980-2010) U.S. Nome Kotzebue Nizhneyansk Utqiagvik Arctic Ocean CANADA Norilsk North Pole 500 MILES Yamal Pen. Resolute Hudson Bay Greenland Svalbard (NOR.) Murmansk (DEN.) Kola Pen. Tromse Oqaatsut Arctic Ocean RUSSIA FIN. CANADA Nuuk NOR. SWE. ICELAND Northwest Passage Atlantic Ocean Northern Sea Route GEr. St. John’s Institute of Environmental Physics, University of Bremen

The vision could take greater shape by the end of the year: Both the Navy and Coast Guard are working on new Arctic strategies in light of the quickly changing circumstances senior U.S. military officials see.

In October, the USS Harry S. Truman aircraft carrier and its associated ships sailed above the Arctic Circle, the first such unit to do so since the Cold War. The strike group, carrying thousands of sailors, practiced cold-weather operations in the Norwegian Sea, an area where Russian submarines operate.

“Certainly America has got to up its game in the Arctic. There’s no doubt about that,” Defense Secretary Jim Mattis said during a visit to Alaska in June. “The reality is that we're going to have to deal with the developing Arctic, and it is developing.”

The Coast Guard recently opened its forward operating base in Kotzebue, Alaska. The move comes as part of operation “Arctic shield,” which aims to support Coast Guard missions amid increased maritime activity in the region. (Kadir van Lohuizen/NOOR)

Recent upgrades include new sensors on several Aleutian islands for a radar network known as the North Warning System. It was first installed during the Cold War to watch for incoming aircraft and ballistic missiles, but the Pentagon concluded more recently that existing radar did not offer “adequate detection and identification of aircraft operating outside the continental United States,” according to an Air Force assessment.

That prompted the operation involving the helicopters in Unalaska.

A military spokeswoman, Leah Garton, said the mission allowed the aircrews to practice navigating over water and landing in mountainous areas, where the sensors were installed. The new equipment will “assist in flight safety for all civilian and military aircraft in the local area,” she said.

The new Navy and Coast Guard Arctic strategies would follow the national defense strategy released by Mattis in January that made countering Russia and China a priority. Both nations have shown interest in Arctic resources as the ice melts, including fossil fuels, diamonds, and metals like nickel and platinum.

An Arctic boom As the ice melts and technology improves, resources will be more easily extracted from the Arctic. For decades, the natural gas fields on Russia’s Yamal Peninsula were deemed too expensive to develop, but projects there are taking off. The remote archipelago of Svalbard, administered by Norway, was once off-limits to most outsiders; now cruise ships visit regularly. Both China and Russia have moved to tap the Arctic’s vast resources of fossil fuels, diamonds and metals. A nickel refinery, , opened on the Kola Peninsula of Siberia two years ago after production halted at a 74-year-old plant in the Russian city of Norilsk, below. photos for captions Activity in the Arctic is not confined to military drills and resource development. Scientists also have a stake in the region. Glacier samples, known as ice cores, may offer clues to climate change and the planet’s past weather patterns. Tourism has been on the rise as well. Melting ice has made the region easier to navigate and opened it up to oil and gas exploration.

Russia has more than 40 icebreakers — the U.S. military has two working ones — and stationed more troops in the region. China, meanwhile, is building its third polar icebreaker and staked a claim this year as a “near-Arctic” state, further injecting itself into policy debates.

"We're obviously watching both the Russians and the Chinese quite closely," said Vice Adm. Linda L. Fagan, who oversees Coast Guard operations in the Arctic and Pacific. "Russia, on their side of the Arctic in sort of the Northern Sea Route, is investing heavily in commercial infrastructure and in military infrastructure."

Coast Guard Capt. Gregory Tlapa, who commands the lone U.S. military icebreaker traveling to the Arctic each year, said waterways like the frosty Bering Strait are not yet busy with ships, especially when compared with other maritime corridors. Waters are warming, he said, but “somewhat warmer still means mostly frozen.”

But the lack of U.S. military vessels and infrastructure in the Arctic could be problematic, said Tlapa, speaking on the red-hulled USCGC Healy while it refueled in Dutch Harbor in August. Congress recently approved initial funding for six new polar icebreakers, but they are probably still years away from deploying.

The USCGC Healy is one of two working icebreakers in the U.S. fleet. Congress recently approved funding for six more. Russia has 40. (Kadir van Lohuizen/NOOR)

“It’s that school of international realism: If you’re not here, someone else will be,” Tlapa said. “The nation doesn’t have a deep-bench strength in terms of capabilities to operate up here and project power and protect our national interests.”

The potential militarization has raised hope for investment in places like Unalaska and Nome, a port town on Alaska’s western coast.

Unalaska, with nearly 5,000 full-time residents, is perhaps best known as the port in Discovery Channel’s “Deadliest Catch” series. The town processes the largest volume of commercial fishing in the United States each year, with the company UniSea operating hotels, bunkhouses and bars there.

The fishing helps make Unalaska home to hundreds of bald eagles, which scavenge dumpsters, perch on lamp posts and occasionally swoop down to attack people.

The town — which takes its name from the Aleut word “Ounalashka,” meaning “near the peninsula” — has struggled with unemployment, alcoholism and bar fights. But Kelty said that has improved in recent years as the number of full-time residents increases and the success of the fishing industry has helped bankroll paved roads, schools and other municipal projects.

Promise and peril Traditions will be at risk as the temperatures rise. Remote towns and cities like Point Hope, Alaska, may soon be more accessible to commercial ventures. That could bring a host of new problems. Most residents of the tiny settlement of Oqaatsut, Greenland, used to be hunters. But the instability of the sea ice has made searching for whales and seals more difficult. As the Arctic thaw shapes military policy, it is also posing problems for indigenous groups. The government allows the Inuit community in Point Hope to catch 10 whales a year, but the melting ice has made the hunt much harder. photos for captions The nomadic, reindeer-herding Nenets people of Siberia face a challenging environment that could soon become even more precarious. Their location is sparsely populated but strategically important to business and military interests. Scarce sunlight makes tanning beds a necessity in remote parts of Russia, but residents still find ways to have fun. The economic boom has breathed life into struggling regions, but it remains uncertain what life will be like for younger generations, among them the cadets at a naval school in Murmansk.

Echoes of World War II are still obvious across Unalaska. The hull of the SS Northwestern, a ship bombed during a Japanese air raid in 1942, rests upended in a bay, and many World War II-era buildings have been repurposed by the fishing industry. The ruins of an old Army installation, Fort Mears, overlook Dutch Harbor.

Though nothing is planned, Kelty argued that an influx of U.S. troops could bring infrastructure projects that could benefit residents, such as the installation of undersea fiber-optic cables from mainland Alaska that could bring more affordable Internet and cellphone service.

In Nome, the Army Corps of Engineers is studying whether the small city's port can be dug deeper to handle large vessels. Doing so would add another deepwater port on the Bering Sea, 730 miles closer to the Arctic Circle than Unalaska. Both towns are below the circle but are considered a part of the Arctic by the U.S. government because of how connected they are to it.

Despite its distance from the Arctic, Unalaska is the last deepwater port where large ships heading to the Arctic can refuel in the western United States, and the first when returning. However, it is not considered ideal by mariners and pilots because of its limitations, which include no highway connecting it to mainland Alaska, limited communications and wild weather in which thick fog and high winds are common and can maroon visitors for days.

Elsewhere in the Arctic, the Pentagon has begun to expand its presence through training exercises with partner nations. In Europe, the Marine Corps is deepening relationships with Norway, Finland and Sweden, training units of rank-and-file troops in the shadow of Russia. In June, Norway’s government asked the United States to increase the number of Marines there from about 330 to 700, with plans to base them on a rotational basis in the Norwegian Arctic.

Russia vaguely warned Norway that there will be “consequences” to the decision, and U.S. and Norwegian officials have sought to stress that the arrangement is meant to deepen their security partnership and build expertise on existing Arctic training ranges, rather than deter Russian aggression.

The Norwegian navy out on patrol. The United States is deepening military ties with the Nordic nation and others in Europe. (Kadir van Lohuizen/NOOR)

Col. John J. Carroll Jr., the deputy commander of Marine Corps Forces Europe, said commanders want to make sure service members are familiar with the biting cold and can move through the countryside on skis or snowshoes.

“Everything is hard. Everything is more difficult,” Carroll said. “When the wind is blowing at freakin’ 30 miles per hour, it’s dark 24-7, and it’s minus-20 degrees Fahrenheit, and you’ve got to put your gear in your pack, get out of your rack, get out of your sleeping bag, get outside the tent and go do something — everything is hard.”

The Air Force also has sought to strengthen its relationships with Arctic allies, said Iris Ferguson, a civilian analyst for the service. That includes the formation of the Arctic Challenge exercise over Europe that will probably test air-to-air combat and other skills and involve Denmark, Finland, Norway, Sweden and the United States at some point in the future.

“The demands of the region make alliances and partnerships all the more vital,” said Gen. David L. Goldfein, the Air Force’s top officer.

The Air Force is planning to base two squadrons of advanced F-35A fighters in Alaska by 2022, supplementing a fleet of jets that already includes two squadrons of F-22 Raptors, considered the Pentagon’s best in air-to-air combat. The decision will allow the Air Force to take advantage of the Joint Pacific Alaska Range Complex, a sprawling installation that includes 65,000 square miles of space for pilots to train.

“Air power, in particular, plays such a crucial role in this region,” Ferguson said. “The ice is melting, absolutely, but the reality is that it’s incredibly difficult to operate from a surface perspective, either on ocean or on land. That is certainly the case in the near future, and I would argue probably much farther afield as well.”

Unrecognizable terrain The stark landscape conveys a sense of permanent isolation. But as Arctic waterways grow freer of ice, they could soon be crowded with military and commercial vessels. Already, the melting water is forming new streams and rivers, and people whose livelihoods depended on more frigid temperatures are being forced to adjust. What were once mountains of ice are now gushing rivers. photos for captions

The Army and Marine Corps increasingly have trained ground forces in Alaska. In March, a joint force of about 1,500 U.S. troops trained together in an exercise known as Arctic Edge, with some driving armored vehicles across frosty terrain and others moving on foot through frigid, snowy conditions.

Army Maj. Chad Peltier, the commandant of the school at the Northern Warfare Training Center in Black Rapids, said instructors stress to students the things that change when working in extreme subzero temperatures.

“If you bring your weapon from the temperature into a warmer environment — say, inside of a tent — and then you bring it back out into that negative-40, negative-60 temperature, the condensation that has built up is enough to freeze that weapon up,” he said. “That’s a simple thing that can disable a warfighter.”

Canadian service members train in the Arctic, learning about winter survival and receiving guidance from the Canadian Ranger Patrol Group, an Inuit unit. (Kadir van Lohuizen/NOOR)

The elevated profile of Arctic operations at the center has raised the possibility that the Army will replace a tracked personnel carrier known as the small-unit sustainment vehicle, or SUSV. The vehicle, first fielded in the 1980s, rides high on snow and sometimes tows a squad of soldiers on skis behind it, said Jared Sapp, a science adviser to U.S. Army Alaska.

At sea, the Navy has operated submarines in the Arctic since the 1940s and carries out a large training every year with them known as ICEX north of Alaska.

In April, Navy Secretary Richard V. Spencer told the Senate Armed Services Committee that the recent decrease in polar ice has prompted the Navy to begin preparing a new Arctic strategy just four years after the last one was released.

The plan will incorporate “blue-water Arctic operations,” in which ships without icebreaking capability sail in areas that were once more frozen, he said.

Asked by reporters after the hearing what triggered the new review, Spencer was blunt.

“The damn thing melted,” he said.

[What are your questions about the changing Arctic? Join The Post’s live discussion.]

About this story The photo and videos in this presentation by Yuri Kozyrev and Kadir van Lohuizen of NOOR images were created with the support of the Carmignac Photojournalism Award. The Fondation Carmignac award funds the production of an investigative project selected by an international jury. More information can be found on the foundation's website. Yuri Kozyrev traveled extensively across the Russian Arctic for this project. Kozyrev is internationally recognized for his photojournalism and a member of the social documentary photography agency NOOR. He began his career documenting the collapse of the Soviet Union for the Los Angeles Times. For the past 25 years, he has documented multiple conflicts for international publications including more than a decade covering Iraq for Time magazine. Kozyrev recently photographed the ongoing conflict in Eastern Ukraine and the migrant crisis in Europe. Kadir van Lohuizen traveled to Canada, Greenland, Norway and Alaska for this project. Van Lohuizen is an Amsterdam-based freelance photojournalist and a founding member of the social documentary photography agency NOOR. He began his career as a conflict photographer and is internationally recognized for his long-term projects on life along the world's major rivers, the perils of rising sea levels, the blood-diamond industry and the impact of migration in the Americas. Dan Lamothe covers national security for The Washington Post, with an emphasis on the Pentagon and the U.S. military. He joined The Post in 2014, and has traveled extensively since then on assignment. Lamothe has embedded with U.S. troops in combat in Afghanistan multiple times, and also has reported from Iraq, the United Arab Emirates, Oman, the Arctic Circle, Norway, Spain, Belgium, Germany, France, Singapore, Australia, Mexico, Spain and the Republic of Georgia. Photos and videos by Yuri Kozyrev and Kadir Van Lohuizen. Story by Dan Lamothe. Photo editing by Nick Kirkpatrick, Chloe Coleman and MaryAnne Golon. Video editing by Sarah Parnass. Text editing by Tiffany Harness. Additional text by Adam Mowder and Tiffany Harness. Map by Laris Karklis. Design and development by Jason Bernert and Brian Gross. Project managers: Nick Kirkpatrick and Julie Vitkovskaya.