Introduction

In previous post I have described benefits of inlining and surprising impact of some compilation flags using Find First Set as an example. Today and in the upcoming second part of this post, I will explore function multi-versioning intricacies using Population Count case.

So actually what popcount is? It is quite simple bitwise operation counting set bits (ones) in given word/byte/vector. So for example for:

8456dec => ‭10000100001000‬bin

popcount returns 3.

Operations looks simple but it has surprisingly wide set of use cases:

Implementation

The most basic and naive implementation can look like that:

int popcount ( unsigned x ) { int c ; for ( c = 0 ; x != 0 ; x >>= 1 ) if ( x & 1 ) c ++ ; return c ; }

Its performance will be terrible, but probably for simple solutions it will be enough. Also it is worth to know, because this is a question often appearing on recruitment talks!

There are other, better implementations using different optimization approaches: lookup tables or counting in a tree pattern. Modern CPUs have also dedicated instructions for calculating popcount . The easiest way to access that is, similarly like for fsl , to use compiler builtins. Here are the signatures of builtins provided by GCC:

int __builtin_popcountl ( unsigned long ) int __builtin_popcountll ( unsigned long long )

As usual one is for 32 and other 64bit integers.

A bit of CPU magic

CPUs with SSE4 extension provides dedicated instruction theoretically improving performance of popcount called POPCNT . Most recent processors additionally have vectorized version: VPOPCNTQ , which can count bits in entire 512bits (64 bytes) vector at once! It is available using compiler intrinsic:

__m512i _mm512_popcnt_epi64 ( __m512i __A )

According to gcc flags definition, only Intel CPUs starting from icelake will support this instruction. So it is probably not yet available outside of simulators or pre-production samples. As soon as I will lay my hands on this hardware, I will definitely check it!

There are also other implementations, for example mixing different available vector operations (SSE, AVX) with other optimizations. I started even implementing few examples, but then I found that, as usual, someone on the internet has done it better. There is a great library full of different super-optimized implementations of popcount , based on research and resulting in some papers published done by Wojciech Mula. Below few results from different implementations:

Naive popcount32: 225 MB/s HW popcount32: 6106 MB/s HW popcount64: 13355 MB/s Avx2 assisted popcount: 13355 MB/s Vectorized HW popcount: N/A

Results are not suprising, naive implementation is terribly slow, 64bit version is significantly faster than 32bit one. And AVX512 vectorized popcount is not available on my machine. Source code for benchmark can be found on my GitHub account.

Architecture specific code

Before going further and joining popcount with function multi-versioning, we need to know what all this multi-versioning actually is and why we need that.

Let’s imagine our application is running on a few generations of servers using different architectures of x86 processors, some with and some without hardware support of popcount , AVX, SSE4 etc. All of those servers need to run the same binary - which in most cases is the only sane solution as compiling differently for different architectures is overhead nightmare! How can we do that in single binary than? Let’s start with figuring out how customizing for specific architecture works.

In general case tuning application for specific architecture is done by using march flag. We can provide values like skylake , sandybridge , core2 etc. In case of supporting multiple architectures march has to be set to lowest supported CPU type. This is because the compiler can and usually will emit assembler instructions for configured CPU architecture. If binary will be run on older CPU, it will just not work, crashing immediately when executing not supported instructions. Lets check this on an example of count_if function (function taken from here):

size_t count_if_epi8 ( const std :: vector < int8_t >& v ) { return std :: count_if ( v . begin (), v . end (), []( int32_t x ){ return x == 42 || x == - 1 ;}); }

When compiling for pure x86-64 architecture, resulting assembler code will be:

size_t count_if_epi8 ( std :: vector < signed char , std :: allocator < signed char > > const & ) : mov rsi , QWORD PTR [ rdi + 8 ] mov rdx , QWORD PTR [ rdi ] xor eax , eax cmp rsi , rdx jne . L5 jmp . L6 (...)

but when enabling -march=skylake it is something completely different:

size_t count_if_epi8 ( std :: vector < signed char , std :: allocator < signed char > > const & ) : (...) vmovdqa ymm4 , YMMWORD PTR . LC0 [ rip ] // <-- AXV2 add rcx , rdx vpxor xmm5 , xmm5 , xmm5 vpcmpeqd ymm3 , ymm3 , ymm3 // <-- AXV2 (...)

Notice vmovdqa and vpcmpeqd instructions, which are AVX specific. Those will crash if run on CPU without AVX extension.

Function multi-versioning

Fortunately there is a way to have both: ability to run on older platforms and taking advantage of new CPU extensions. To achieve that we need to use GCC feature called function multi-versioning. Basically what it does is allowing to define multiple versions of function, targeted to different architectures, with some boilerplate code that will recognize architecture at runtime and select proper function. Lets try that with previous example:

__attribute__ (( target ( "avx2" ))) size_t count_if_epi8 ( const std :: vector < int8_t >& v ) { return std :: count_if ( v . begin (), v . end (), []( int32_t x ){ return x == 42 || x == - 1 ;}); }

__attribute__ (( target ( "default" ))) size_t count_if_epi8 ( const std :: vector < int8_t >& v ) { return std :: count_if ( v . begin (), v . end (), []( int32_t x ){ return x == 42 || x == - 1 ;}); }

Target architecture is defined by __attribute__ target , allowed values are similar to those used in march switch. In output from Godbolt there are indeed two functions:

count_if_epi8 ( std :: vector < signed char , std :: allocator < signed char > > const & ). avx2 count_if_epi8 ( std :: vector < signed char , std :: allocator < signed char > > const & ) :

also some code selecting version based on detected CPU is present:

call __cpu_indicator_init mov eax , OFFSET FLAT : count_if_epi8 ( std :: vector < signed char , std :: allocator < signed char > > const & ) mov edx , OFFSET FLAT : count_if_epi8 ( std :: vector < signed char , std :: allocator < signed char > > const & ). avx2 test BYTE PTR __cpu_model [ rip + 13 ], 4

In gcc 6 and later, there is simpler, better, more compact way to create multi-versioned function using __attribute__ target_clones :

__attribute__ (( target_clones ( "avx2" , "default" ))) size_t count_if_epi8 ( const std :: vector < int8_t >& v ) { return std :: count_if ( v . begin (), v . end (), []( int32_t x ){ return x == 42 || x == - 1 ;}); }

So in the end we have what we wanted: possibility to run most optimized code across a range of different architectures in a single binary. But as usual…

It’s not perfect