I. Introduction

Christianity is a religion that is deeply rooted in history, and at its heart is the resurrection — an event proclaimed by Jesus’ disciples, who claimed that he appeared to them shortly after his death. The resurrection is the bedrock of the Christian faith. If the resurrection did not happen, then Christianity is false. Likewise, if the resurrection did happen, then Christianity is true. As St. Paul wrote the Christian community at Corinth some 2,000 years ago: “And if Christ has not been raised, our preaching is worthless, and so is your faith” (1 Cor 15:14). As a result, whether or not the resurrection happened should concern every Christian and every seeker of truth.

However, to this, someone might say: “This is an event that supposedly happened some 2,000 years ago, how can we be certain that it did or did not happen?”. The answer to this, of course, is that we cannot know with certainty if the resurrection did or did not happen. As it is with other events of history, we are dealing with probabilities. This does not mean, however, that we cannot come to a confident conclusion as to what likely happened. By examining the historical evidence we have available to us and weighing the possible explanations for a given set of historical facts, we can come to the conclusion — assuming that the evidence points firmly in one direction — that a historical hypothesis clearly is “the best explanation of the evidence”. As I will argue in this series of posts, that Jesus rose from the dead is clearly the best explanation of the evidence as to what happened that first Easter Sunday. The resurrection hypothesis enjoys a preponderance of evidence for it. Furthermore, unlike the resurrection hypothesis, all other possible explanations suffer from serious difficulties when subjected to critical scrutiny.

Catering to a skeptical audience, we will not assume the reliability of the gospels for this argument. The argument to be presented will work even if we view the gospels with skepticism. This is possible because we will work with four events that are recognized by the majority of scholars as historical, and put forward evidence and historical reasoning to establish their historicity (i.e. viewing the gospels as regular historical documents that can be examined). These events are (1) Jesus’ death by crucifixion, (2) the sincere belief of Jesus’ disciples in his post-mortem or “after-death” appearances, (3) that Jesus’ tomb was found empty shortly after his burial and (4) the emergence of resurrection belief among Jesus’ disciples, which will be later referred to as “The Origin of the Christian Faith”. After providing the evidence for the above four events and establishing their historicity, we will then examine the possible explanations for the above four facts: (a) conspiracy, (b) hallucination or (c) resurrection — weigh the merits of the above explanations, and show why the resurrection truly does stand out as a superior hypothesis following a historical examination of the evidence.

Before I lay out the historical evidence, I would like to point out that the evidence for the resurrection has been recognized by Christians and non-Christians alike as potent and impressive. Frank Morrison, an English writer and atheist, and inspired by the liberal biblical criticism of his time, set out to write a book to prove the story of Jesus’ resurrection as a myth. After examining the gospels critically, he ended up converting to Christianity. His book, “Who Moved the Stone”, ended up arguing for the historicity of the resurrection and is now a classic apologetic work. Leading Catholic Thomist philosopher Edward Feser and Canadian polymath Allister McGrath (theologian, historian, scientist and public intellectual) both noted how the evidence for the resurrection played a significant role in their conversion to Christianity from atheism.[1] After surveying the historical evidence, Jewish scholar Pinchas Lapide also came to recognize the historicity of the resurrection saying:

“I accept the resurrection of Jesus not as an invention of the community of disciples, but as an historical event”.[2]

One more example would be Anthony Flew, one of the most influential atheist philosophers in the 20th century and convert to deism in 2004 (particularly, to the God of Aristotle). Prior to his death in 2010, Flew had been studying Christianity and he ended up developing a profound respect for the religion, saying:

“I think that the Christian religion is the one religion that most clearly deserves to be honoured and respected whether or not its claim to be a divine revelation is true. There is nothing like the combination of a charismatic figure like Jesus and a first-class intellectual like St. Paul…If you’re wanting Omnipotence to set up a religion, this is the one to beat”.[3]

On the resurrection in particular, Flew commented:

“The evidence for the resurrection is better than for claimed miracles in any other religion. It’s outstandingly different in quality and quantity”.[4]

With all that said, let us proceed to examine the historical evidence.

II. ESTABLISHING THE FACTS

A. Jesus’ death by crucifixion

Jesus’ death by crucifixion is strongly supported by a number of Christian and non-Christian sources. When it comes to Christian sources, the four gospels, Acts and the New Testament epistles all mention Jesus’ death and crucifixion. As for non-Christian sources, historians Josephus (Jewish) and Tacitus (pagan) both report that Jesus was crucified by the order of Pontius Pilate.[5] In the end, Jesus’ death by crucifixion is recognized by virtually all scholars. As skeptical scholar John Dominic Crossan notes: “Jesus’ death by crucifixion under Pontius Pilate is as sure as anything historical can ever be”.[6]

B. The sincere belief of the disciples in Jesus’ post-mortem appearances

In discussing the historicity of the disciples’ sincere belief in Jesus’ post mortem appearances, I will discuss the evidence for (1) the post-mortem appearances of Jesus, (2) the sincere belief of Jesus’ disciples in these appearances and (3) Paul’s exposition in 1 Corinthians 15 regarding the reality of the resurrection — followed by a conclusion.



The evidence for the above three points combine to form a powerful case for the disciple’s sincere belief in Jesus’ post mortem appearances — so much so that there is a virtual consensus among scholars (even skeptical ones) that the disciples did not lie about their “resurrection experiences” but experienced them, and genuinely came to believe in their authenticity.[7]

1. The post-mortem appearances

Following Jesus’ death, many of his followers, as individuals and in groups, had experiences wherein Jesus appeared to them.[8] This is supported by a number of Christian sources: Matthew, Luke, John, Acts and 1 Corinthians.[9] The earliest and most valuable of these sources is the appearance tradition found in 1 Corinthians 15:3-7. However, for the purposes of completeness, I will include Paul’s testimony in verse 8 in the quotation below (Pauline additions are italicized):

3 For I delivered to you as of first importance what I also received: that Christ died for our sins in accordance with the Scriptures, 4 that he was buried, that he was raised on the third day in accordance with the Scriptures, 5 and that he appeared to Cephas [Peter], then to the twelve. 6 Then he appeared to more than five hundred brothers at one time, most of whom are still alive, though some have fallen asleep. 7 Then he appeared to James, then to all the Apostles. 8 Last of all, as to one untimely born, he appeared also to me.

When it comes to the above verses, scholars recognize that Paul is passing on tradition. This is because Paul himself says as much in the first half of 1 Corinthians 15:3. In doing so, Paul uses the words “delivered” (paredoka) and “received” (parelabon), which were known technical words in rabbinical circles and Hellenistic schools during Paul’s day for the receiving and handing on of tradition.[10]

The reason 1 Corinthians 15 is our most valuable source for Jesus’ post mortem appearances is because of its origin in the Jerusalem church (which was the first “headquarters” of the early Church) and its very early dating, 2-3 years after the death of Jesus. The value of the tradition is also enhanced because it comes to us from Paul, who knew other eyewitnesses and was deep within the Christian movement.

In the discussion of the post-mortem appearances below, let us examine the 1 Corinthians 15 tradition (its Jerusalem origin, 2-3 year dating after the death of Jesus and its being conveyed by Paul), Paul’s testimony in 1 Corinthians 15:8 and the other appearance traditions in the gospels and Acts. Afterward, we will close with a conclusion on the post-mortem appearances.

1 Corinthians 15:3-7 and its roots in the Jerusalem Church

It is widely held among scholars that the 1 Corinthians 15:3-7 tradition finds its roots in the Jerusalem Church.[11] There are a number of reasons behind this position.

When it comes to 1 Corinthians 15:3-5, virtually all scholars agree that these verses contain a primitive Christian creed that finds its roots in the Jerusalem Church.[12] This is because a) the verses are written in stylistic form, which aids in memorization, b) there are traces of Aramaic in these verses, the language of the Jerusalem church and c) the verses display many non-Pauline characteristics. These include, “for our sins”, “according to the Scriptures”, “he has been raised”, “on the third day”, “he was seen”, and “by the Twelve”.[13]

As for 1 Corinthians 15:6-7, some scholars include these verses in the creed while others believe that Paul is combining other traditions he received.[14] In any case, there is also widespread agreement among scholars that the tradition in 1 Corinthians 15:6-7 finds its roots in the Jerusalem Church. There are a number of reasons for this behind this position. One, there is good evidence that 1 Corinthians 15:6-7 is also a part of the creed.[15] Two, Paul’s information-gathering trip to Jerusalem three years after his conversion is the most likely period when he received these traditions.[16] As Paul says in Galatians 1:15-19, he goes to Jerusalem three years after his conversion to visit Peter and gather information, and he stays with him for over two weeks:

“But when God, who set me apart from my mother’s womb and called me by His grace, was pleased to reveal His Son in me so that I might preach Him among the Gentiles, I did not rush to consult with flesh and blood, nor did I go up to Jerusalem to the apostles who came before me, but I went into Arabia and later returned to Damascus. Only after three years did I go up to Jerusalem to confer with Cephas, and I stayed with him fifteen days. But I saw none of the other apostles except James, the Lord’s brother”.[17]

The term Paul uses to describe what he did during his trip to Jerusalem, “historesai” (which is translated to “confer” in English in the above-quoted passage), literally means “to visit and get information”.[18] Whatever information Paul sought to obtain by visiting Peter, the leader of the apostles, after his conversion, it certainly had to do with Jesus and the Christian movement. Jesus’ resurrection appearances, which stand at the center of the Christian movement, must have been talked about, especially since Paul witnessed an appearance from Jesus himself. In addition to meeting Peter during this trip, it must also be noted that Paul mentions meeting James, the same disciple and leader in the Christian movement who is mentioned in 1 Corinthians 15:7 (“Then he appeared to James…”). Three, right after listing the appearance traditions in 1 Corinthians 15:3-7, Paul indicates in 1 Corinthians 15:9-11 that his preaching is in line with those of the apostles:

9 For I am the least of the apostles and do not even deserve to be called an apostle, because I persecuted the church of God.



10 But by the grace of God I am what I am, and his grace to me was not without effect. No, I worked harder than all of them—yet not I, but the grace of God that was with me.



11 Whether, then, it is I or they, this is what we preach, and this is what you believed.

In verse 11, Paul refers to the apostles (“they”, and the apostles together with himself, “we”) and states that they preach the same message. This points towards a Jerusalem origin for the traditions and Paul’s unity with the Jerusalem Church. Four, Paul held tradition in high regard and had ample opportunity to receive and verify tradition from leaders and members of the Jerusalem Church. Paul’s high regard for tradition is evident throughout his writings. He stresses the importance of holding firmly to tradition (1 Corinthians 11:2, Philippians 4:9 and 2 Thess 2:15) and is even careful in distinguishing his opinion from tradition (1 Cor 7:10-13). Paul even describes himself back when he was a Pharisee as being “extremely zealous” in the traditions of his fathers (Gal 1:14). Paul also had many opportunities to receive and verify tradition from leaders and members of the Jerusalem Church. In addition to his initial trip to Jerusalem, we know from his own letters and Acts that Paul spent considerable time with Barnabas and Silas (Acts 11:25-30; 12:25-16:40; 15:40-17:14; 18:5-11), leaders in the early Christian movement who were among the Jerusalem Christians. We also know that he met Peter when he visited Antioch (Gal 2:11) and that he visited Jerusalem at least two more times, one of them being to attend the first Church council of Jerusalem (Acts 11:27-30; 15:1-29 and Gal 2:1-10). Paul’s high regard for tradition and his familiarity with leaders and members of the Jerusalem church highly guarantee that the 1 Corinthians 15:3-7 tradition comes from and is in line with the Jerusalem church. As scholar Michael Licona said on Paul:

“his constant interaction with these leaders in and outside of Jerusalem coupled with his high regard for tradition virtually guarantees that the details of the traditions in 1 Corinthians 15:3-7 are precisely in line with what the Jerusalem leadership was preaching”.[19]

For all of the above reasons, it is widely held among scholars that the 1 Corinthians 15:1-7 tradition stem from the Jerusalem Church.

1 Corinthians 15:3-7 and its dating 2-3 years after the death of Jesus.

As for the dating of the 1 Corinthians 15 tradition, it is also widely held among scholars to date within 2-3 years after the death of Jesus.[20] This 2-3 year dating period is supported by two “markers” which point towards such an early dating.

The first marker is Paul’s initial trip to Jerusalem. The reason why scholars date the 1 Corinthians 15 tradition no later than 5 years after the death of Jesus is because, as mentioned earlier, the most likely period where Paul received this tradition was when he went to Jerusalem three years after his conversion to visit Peter and gather information. As a result, the tradition must be dated before Paul’s trip to Jerusalem. Assuming the majority view that Jesus died in 30 AD and that Paul converted in 32 or 33 AD, Paul’s trip to Jerusalem would be placed, at the latest, at 36 AD. Since the tradition must have been in circulation prior to Paul’s trip to Jerusalem, 1 Corinthians 15:3-7 must date within 5 years after the death of Jesus. It must also be noted that if Paul did not receive the tradition during his initial trip to Jerusalem, as held by the vast majority of scholars, then the next likely place where he received the tradition would be immediately after his conversion experience in Damascus, 2-3 years after the death of Jesus (even earlier!).[21]

The second marker is Paul’s conversion. The reason why the 1 Corinthians 15 tradition dates within 2-3 years after the death of Jesus is because Jesus’ post mortem appearances had already taken root in the Christian community by the time Paul converted in 32 or 33 AD. This is precisely why Paul was persecuting the early Christian movement, their proclamation of a risen Christ. As stated by agnostic scholar and co-founder of the radical Jesus seminar Robert Funk:

“The conviction that Jesus had risen from the dead had already taken root by the time Paul was converted about 33 C.E. On the assumption that Jesus died about 30 C.E., the time for development was thus two or three years at most”.[22]

As a result, the 1 Corinthians 15 tradition must be dated prior to Paul’s conversion — within 2-3 years after the death of Jesus. Furthermore, according to the New Testament texts, Jesus’ post mortem appearances took place over a period of forty days almost immediately after his death, with the exception of Jesus’ appearance to Paul, which is the only appearance to take place outside of and after this period. This would make Jesus’ appearance to Paul the last. It is no surprise then that after Paul conveys the 1 Corinthians 15 tradition, he ends by mentioning Jesus’ appearance to him saying: “Last of all, as to one untimely born…”, indicating that Jesus’ appearance to him followed all others. In the end, the evidence firmly points towards the elements in the 1 Corinthians 15 tradition dating within 2-3 years after the death of Jesus. As stated by prominent atheist scholar Gerd Ludemann:

“the elements in the tradition are to be dated to the first two years after the crucifixion of Jesus…not later than three years…the formation of the appearance traditions mentioned in 1 Cor.15.3-8 falls into the time between 30 and 33 CE”.[23]

1 Corinthians 15:3-7 — conveyed by Paul

The value of the 1 Corinthians 15 tradition is further enhanced by the fact that it comes to us from Paul, who personally knew other eyewitnesses and was deep within the Christian movement.[24] This means that Paul had the opportunity to verify these traditions and learn more about the events behind them.

Related to this point of Paul knowing other eyewitnesses and being deep within the Christian movement is Paul’s knowledge of most of the 500 brothers who had witnessed Jesus appear to them on one occasion in 1 Corinthians 15:6, as still being alive some 25 years after the supposed event (1 Corinthians was written between 53-57 A.D.). As Paul himself comments: “…most of whom are still alive, though some have fallen asleep”. As scholar Richard Bauckham notes:

“The explicitness of this detail — which looks like one that Paul has added to the traditional form — shows that he intends it to be a kind of authentication: if anyone wishes to check this tradition, a very large number of eyewitnesses are still alive and can be seen and heard”.[25]

Scholar C.H. Dodd similarly comments:

“There can hardly be any purpose in mentioning the fact [that most of the 500 are still alive] unless Paul is saying, in effect, ‘The witnesses are there to be questioned”.[26]

In addition to Paul’s use of an authentication, Paul knowing that most of the 500 brothers are still alive is also an example of “in-group knowledge”, or knowledge that is known to members of a group. A good analogy of this would be a young professional several years out of college knowing that most of his batchmates have gotten married, though some still have not gotten married. The young professional is aware of this information because he is in touch with his high school batch and everyone in the group is interested in such information (it is a subject of importance and relevance to the group). If a member in the batch proposes or is proposed to, information of that proposal will spread within the group. Similarly, when the marriage actually happens, knowledge of this information will spread within the group as well. In the same way that this young professional knows how many of his batchmates are married and not married, Paul knew that most of the 500 brothers who had seen the risen Jesus on one occasion, were still alive some 25 years later — due to his being a member of the Christian movement. The subject of how many eyewitnesses to Jesus’ resurrection were still alive was an important subject within the early Church not only because they knew each other in friendship, but also because the death of eyewitnesses had important implications for the early Church. It meant, particularly, a decrease in capacity to provide firsthand testimony about Jesus and his resurrection, and also, an increase in urgency to put into writing what they knew about him.

Conclusion on 1 Corinthians 15:3-7

In conclusion, the strength of the 1 Corinthians 15 tradition — its Jerusalem origin, its 2-3 year dating after the death of Jesus, and the fact that it comes to us from Paul, an individual who knew other eyewitnesses and was deep within the Christian movement — is very impressive. As leading scholar N.T. Wright put it, 1 Corinthians 15:3-7 is ”the kind of foundation-story with which a community is not at liberty to tamper”. It is “unalterable Christian bedrock”.[27]

The appearances in 1 Corinthians 15:3-7

According to the 1 Corinthians 15 tradition, Jesus appeared to many people, as individuals and in groups.

He appeared to Cephas. In addition to being mentioned in the 1 Corinthians 15 tradition, the appearance to Cephas (or Peter), is also mentioned in a tradition embedded in the account of Jesus’ appearance to two disciples on the road to Emmaus — Luke 24:34 — “The Lord has really risen, and has appeared to Simon!” (Jesus renamed Simon name to Peter, see Matt 16:17-19). It is also vouched for by Paul himself, who personally met Peter and stayed with him for over two weeks.

Then to the Twelve.[28] This refers to the original group of 12 disciples who had been chosen by Jesus during his ministry minus Judas, whose death did not affect the group’s formal title. Besides being mentioned in the 1 Corinthians 15 tradition, this group appearance is also attested to in the gospels of Luke and John (Luke 24:36-42 and John 20:19-20). It is also vouched for by Paul, who had personal contact with at least some members of the Twelve (e.g. Peter and John) as he himself states in Galatians 1:18 and Galatians 2:9.

Then he appeared to more than five hundred brothers at one time. In addition to being mentioned in the 1 Corinthians 15 tradition, this appearance to an impressive group of people is vouched for by Paul who knew other eyewitnesses and was deep within the Christian movement. As mentioned earlier, Paul’s comment on the tradition, “most of whom are still alive, though some have fallen asleep”, serves to underscore its reliability and is also a display of “in-group knowledge”.

Then he appeared to James. This is one of the most amazing appearances of all. What makes this appearance so amazing is that James and the other brothers of Jesus (cousins, see footnote 29) were skeptical of Jesus and his ministry (Mark 3:20-34, Mark 6:1-4 and John 7:2-9).[29] As stated succinctly in John 7:5: “For even his own brothers did not believe in him”. This strongly satisfies one particular criterion of historicity — the criterion of embarrassment. The accounts in Mark and John of Jesus’ own brothers not believing in him are embarrassing details that are not flattering to Jesus. As a result, the likelihood of their historicity is high. In any case, after the resurrection, we see James suddenly assuming a key role in the early Church, as leader of the church in Jerusalem (Acts 21:18). Paul also notes James’ importance in the Church in his letters, saying that he is one of the “three pillars” of the Jerusalem church (Gal 2:9).

Paul’s mention of Jesus’ brothers in 1 Corinthians 9:5 also suggests that at least some of Jesus’ brothers (and at most, all of them) became believers. Jesus’ brothers in general are also mentioned in Acts 1:12-14 as being found praying with the apostles and other followers of Jesus after the resurrection. Outside of the New Testament, we also have testimony from two early Church fathers, Hegesippus and Eusebius, that two other brothers of Jesus, Simon and Judas (who are mentioned in Mark 6:1-3), became Christians.[30] As a result, we have strong evidence for the conversion of James and at least some of Jesus’ other brothers from skeptics to followers of Jesus.

In closing, the appearance to James, in addition to being mentioned in the 1 Corinthians 15 tradition, is also vouched by Paul who met James personally. For the above reasons, the majority of scholars recognize the historicity of the appearance to and conversion of James.[31]

Then to all the apostles. This refers to an appearance or a series of appearances to a wider group of Jesus’ followers beyond the Twelve. Once again, this appearance is vouched for by Paul who was deep within the Christian movement and knew many of its leaders and members. This appearance may be attested to wholly — in the case of Luke 24:50-51 and Acts 1:1-10 — or partially, in a number of the appearance traditions in the gospels and Acts (that is, overlapping).

1 Corinthians 15:8 — Jesus’ appearance to Paul

Like the appearance to James, the appearance to Paul is one of the most amazing appearances of all. What makes this appearance so amazing is that Paul, a devout Jew and respected Pharisee, was a fierce enemy of the early Church. As Paul himself admits in his letters, he strongly persecuted the early Christian movement (Galatians 1:23). Acts also recounts the first persecution of Christians by the Jews and Paul’s involvement in it (Acts 8:1-4 and Acts 9:1-2).

According to Paul, he converted to Christianity because Jesus appeared to him. As he testifies in 1 Corinthians 15:8: “Last of all, as to one untimely born, he appeared also to me.” An account of Paul’s conversion experience along the road to Damascus is also recounted in Acts (Acts 9:1-19).[32]

Looking at the way Paul lived the rest of his life, the strength and authenticity of his faith is also evident. He left his position as a respected Jewish leader due to what he perceived to be an authentic appearance of Jesus to him, to join what was then a small, persecuted and controversial movement — early Christianity. After joining the movement, Paul would endure great suffering and persecution (1 Cor 15:30-32, 2 Cor 4:8-12; 6:3-10; 11:23-28; 12:5-10, etc), and work tirelessly to promote the gospel. Eventually, he would die a martyr’s death during the persecution of Christians by Nero in 64 A.D.

In the end, the conversion of Paul, a respected Pharisee and fierce enemy of the early church to Christianity is a historical fact that is recognized by virtually all scholars. The appearance to Paul is likewise historically undisputed.[33]

Other appearances outside of 1 Corinthians 15:3-8

Besides the appearances mentioned in 1 Corinthians 15:3-8, the gospels of Matthew, Luke and John, as well as Acts, record other appearances of Jesus to his followers. These include an appearance to women disciples (Matt 28:9 and John 20:11-17), an appearance to two disciples on the road to Emmaus (Mark 16:12 and Luke 24:13-31), an appearance to the apostles with Thomas (John 20:24-29), an appearance to the disciples on a mountain in Galilee (Mark 16:7 and Matthew 28:16), an appearance to seven disciples on the Sea of Galilee (John 21:1-13) and an appearance near Bethany prior to his assumption (Luke 24:50-51 and Acts 1:1-10). Lastly, although not an appearance account, Acts begins with a summary of what happened after Jesus’ death — that Jesus “presented himself” to his apostles, “gave [them] many convincing proofs that he was alive” and “spoke to them about the kingdom of God” — and that all of this occurred over a period of forty days (Acts 1:3).

2. The sincere belief of Jesus’ disciples

Jesus’ disciples also displayed a sincere belief in their resurrection experiences. This is evidenced by the fact that they suffered serious hardship and persecution, and in some cases, martyrdom for their beliefs.[34] As liberal scholar E.P. Sanders put it himself, when it came to the disciples and Jesus’ resurrection: “they believed this, they lived it, and they died for it”.[35]

When it comes to the sincere belief of Jesus’ disciples, we will examine the two persecutions experienced by the first generation of Christians (one by the Jews and another by the Romans under Nero), as well as the martyrdoms that occurred during these efforts. Afterward, we will look into the suffering the first generation of Christians endured as attested to by the apostolic and early Church fathers. Then, we will examine the hardships the first generation of Christians undertook in their tremendous missionary efforts.

Persecution by the Jews

Acts 9:1-3 mentions how the murder of Stephen, the first Christian martyr, marked the beginning of a great persecution against the early Christian movement by the Jews:

“On that day [the day Stephen was stoned] a great persecution broke out against the church in Jerusalem, and all except the apostles were scattered throughout Judea and Samaria. Godly men buried Stephen and mourned deeply for him. But Saul began to destroy the church. Going from house to house, he dragged off both men and women and put them in prison”.

This persecution by the Jews was also mentioned by Paul himself, who admits his own participation in it in his letter to the Galatians:

“For you have heard of my previous way of life in Judaism, how intensely I persecuted the church of God and tried to destroy it” (Gal 1:13).

As a result of this persecution, the early Christian movement suffered greatly.

Acts mentions how the apostles of Jesus were persecuted (e.g. beaten, flogged, imprisoned, driven out of towns, etc) for preaching a resurrected Christ (Acts 4:1-3; 5:33-42; 13:48-51; 14:19-20, etc) — a message that was met with strong hostility and controversy by many Jews. Ironically, after converting to Christianity, Paul would become subject to persecution from his fellow Jews as well, and in his letters, he would recount the sufferings he endured (2 Cor 11:24-31). Lastly, we also have testimony from Josephus, Hegesippus and Clement of Alexandria that James the brother of Jesus and leader of the Jerusalem church, was martyred by the Sanhedrin.[36]

Persecution under Nero

Then, three decades after the persecution of Christians by the Jews began, Emperor Nero led another terrible persecution against the early Christian movement, blaming them for a fire that broke out in Rome. As Roman senator and historian Tacitus reports in his Annals:

Nero fastened the guilt and inflicted the most exquisite tortures on a class hated for their abominations [cannibalism for the eucharist and incest for the practice of calling fellow Christians “brothers and sisters in Christ”][37], called Christians by the populace. Christus, from whom the name has its origin, suffered the extreme penalty during the reign of Tiberius at the hands of one of our procurators, Pontius Pilatus, and a most mischievous superstition, thus checked for the moment, again broke out not only in Judaea, the first source of the evil, but even in Rome, where all things hideous and shameful from every part of the world find their centre and become popular. Accordingly, an arrest was first made of all who pleaded guilty; then, upon their information, an immense multitude was convicted, not so much of the crime of firing the city, as of hatred against mankind. Mockery of every sort was added to their deaths. Covered with the skins of beasts, they were torn by dogs and perished, or were nailed to crosses, or were doomed to the flames and burnt, to serve as a nightly illumination, when daylight had expired (Annals, XV.44).

This brutal persecution of Christians by Nero resulted in the martyrdoms of Peter and Paul, as recorded by several Christian writers — Clement of Rome, Dionysius of Corinth, Tertullian and Origen.[38]

Apostolic and early Church fathers: the hardships and suffering of Jesus’ disciples

Having discussed so far the persecutions of Christians by the Jews and by the Romans under Emperor Nero, let us now examine writings from the apostolic and early church fathers on the suffering the first generation of Christians experienced.

Clement (ca. 30-100), the bishop of Rome and a second generation Christian who knew the apostles (he was even ordained by Peter)[39], reports the sufferings Peter and Paul endured in their lives, as well as their martyrdoms:

“[L]et us take the noble examples of our own generation. Through jealousy and envy the greatest and most righteous pillars of the Church were persecuted and contended unto death. Let us set before our eyes the good apostles: Peter, who because of unrighteous jealousy suffered not one or two but many trials, and having thus given his testimony went to the glorious place which was his due. Through jealousy and strife Paul showed the way to the prize of endurance; seven times he was in bonds, he was exiled, he was stoned, he was a herald both in the East and in the West, he gained the noble fame of his faith, he taught righteousness to all the world, and when he had reached the limits of the West he gave his testimony before the rulers, and thus passed from the world and was taken up into the Holy Place, the greatest example of endurance”.[40]

Polycarp (ca. 69-155), the bishop of Turkey and a second generation Christian who was instructed by the apostles as well[41], urges the Philippian church in a letter to practice “unlimited endurance”, as the Christians before (e.g. Paul, the apostles, and others) and among them have exercised:

Let us, therefore, become imitators of his (Jesus’) patient endurance, and if we should suffer for the sake of his name, let us glorify him. For this is the example he set for us in his own person, and this is what we have believed.



I urge all of you, therefore, to obey the teaching about righteousness and to exercise unlimited endurance, like that which you saw with your own eyes not only in the blessed Ignatius and Zosimus and Rufus but also in others from your congregation and in Paul himself and the rest of the apostles. Be assured that all these did not run in vain but with faith and righteousness, and that they are now in the place due them with the Lord, with whom they also suffered. For they did not love the present world but the one who died on our behalf and was raised by God for our sakes.[42]

Ignatius (ca. 35-108 AD), bishop of Antioch and a second generation Christian, also notes that the disciples of Jesus did not fear death as a result of their resurrection experiences. As he says in his letter to the church in Turkey (where Polycarp was bishop):

“And when [Jesus] came to those with Peter, he said to them: ‘Take, handle me and see that I am not a bodiless demon’. And immediately they handled him and believed, having known his flesh and blood. Because of this they also despised death [like Jesus did]; but beyond death they were found”.[43]

As scholar Gary Habermas notes, the Greek word for “despised” which Ignatius uses above is better translated as “cared nothing for” or “disregarded”.[44]

It is also worth noting (since they are mentioned already) that the two individuals just quoted above, Polycarp and Ignatius, were themselves martyred during the third persecution of Christians by Rome under Emperor Trajan.[45] Ignatius’ above-quoted letter to the church in Turkey was written, literally, en route to his martyrdom in Rome. Although neither Polycarp nor Ignatius are first generation Christians (they are second generation Christians), the strength of their convictions reflects well on the witness of the first generation of Christians who preceded them in terms of the testimony that they gave and the way that they lived their life.

Origen (ca. 184-253 AD), an early church father, also notes in his Contra Celsum the danger the disciples assumed in preaching the gospel and their fearless disposition in doing so:



“But clear and unmistakable proof of the fact I hold to be the undertaking of His disciples, who devoted themselves to the teaching of a doctrine which was attended with danger to human life…[the disciples] not only prepared others to despise death, but were themselves the first to manifest their disregard for its terrors”.[46]

Origen, later in the same work, also notes:

“Jesus, who has both once risen Himself, and led His disciples to believe in His resurrection and so thoroughly persuaded them of its truth, that they show to all men by their sufferings how they are able to laugh at all the troubles of life, beholding the life eternal and the resurrection clearly demonstrated to them in both word and deed”.[47]

In the end, the disciples publicly proclaimed a risen Christ, despite the danger and suffering it entailed for themselves. This is very strong evidence that they genuinely believed that Jesus rose from the dead and appeared to them. As stated by scholar Licona:

“After Jesus’ death, the disciples endured persecution, and a number of them experienced martyrdom. The strength of their conviction indicates that they were not just claiming Jesus had appeared to them after rising from the dead. They really believed it. They willingly endangered themselves by publicly proclaiming the risen Christ.”[48]

Tremendous missionary efforts

In addition to the persecution experienced by Jesus’ disciples as a result of their missionary efforts, they also spent tremendous amounts of effort in propagating the gospel. The esteemed academician Fr. Robert Spitzer S.J. noted the impressiveness of the early Church in this regard:

“[after the death of Jesus] the early Church organized herself into a missionary community that not only went beyond the boundaries of Israel but also to the very frontiers of the Roman Empire…With a crucified Messiah as her head, the early Church formed one of the most dynamically expansive communities in history”.[49]

Looking at Paul and his letters, for example, we know that his missionary journeys took him to portions of the Middle East, Europe and Asia. This exemplifies how seriously the early church took its missionary work, at a time where traveling was much more arduous and dangerous than it is today too. As a result of these missionary efforts, Christianity grew “rapidly”.[50]

From the point of view of a Christian believer, the tremendous missionary efforts of the disciples also call to mind the Great Commission, where Jesus, in an appearance to the Eleven in Galilee, calls them to spread the gospel to “all nations” (Matt 28:16-20).

3. Paul’s exposition on the resurrection: 1 Corinthians 15

In addition to discussing Jesus’ post mortem appearances and the sincere belief of Jesus’ apostles, let us examine the exposition Paul puts forward in 1 Corinthians 15, in order to stress the reality of the resurrection to the Christians at Corinth. In doing so, Paul also shows that he and the apostles are sincere and trustworthy witnesses.

“If Christ has not been raised, then our preaching is in vain and your faith is in vain. We are even found to be misrepresenting God because we testified of God that he raised Christ…



If the dead are not raised at all…why am I in peril every hour? I protest, brethren, by my pride in you which I have in Christ Jesus our Lord, I die every day! … If the dead are not raised, “Let us eat and drink, for tomorrow we die”. (1 Corinthians 15:14-15; 30)

The most trustworthy witness, as dictated by law and common sense, is one who has nothing to gain and everything to lose. In the above verses, Paul shows that he and the apostles are credible witnesses of this sort.

First, Paul says that if Christ had not been raised, then his preaching and those of the apostles are in vain. That is to say that all of their missionary efforts would be worthless. Likewise, if Christ had not been raised, Paul also says that the faith of their Christian audience would also be worthless. In the end, Paul is saying that if Christ has not been raised then “all of this” would be “a big waste of time”.

Second, and even worse, Paul says that if Christ had not been raised, then he and the apostles would be guilty of misrepresenting God. Assuming deliberate misrepresentation, they would be guilty of a lie of such immense gravity, saying that God raised Jesus from the dead when He did not do so, that it would make any earnest Jew tremble — not only out of love for not wanting to offend God but also out of fear of His judgment, and the serious jeopardy it would put one’s salvation in. Assuming non-deliberate misrepresentation, they would still be making a grave mistake, spreading falsehood about Jesus and God and leading others into serious religious error.

Third, Paul also asks why he and the apostles (who are in the same situation as he is) would expose themselves to so much danger just to proclaim the gospel — if Christ had not been raised? Why would they proclaim a risen Christ when doing so opened one up to persecution and controversy? Why would they travel great distances with all the risks and dangers it entailed? As Paul said, his proclaiming a risen Christ put him constantly in danger — “I am in peril every hour”.

In laying out the above arguments, Paul shows that his testimony and those of the apostles are true and genuine. Why, after all, would they be testifying that Christ had risen if they had nothing to gain and everything to lose by doing so? The resurrection really did happen, and this is what Paul is trying to get across.



Conclusion: the sincere belief of the disciples in Jesus’ post-mortem appearances

For all of the above reasons (the evidence for Jesus’ post-mortem appearances, the disciple’s sincere belief in them and Paul’s exposition), that the disciples of Jesus had experiences that convinced them that the risen Jesus had appeared to them is recognized by virtually all scholars. As atheist scholar Bart Ehrman states:

“It is undisputable that some of the followers of Jesus came to think that he had been raised from the dead, and that something had to have happened to make them think so. Our earliest records are consistent on this point, and I think they provide us with the historically reliable information in one key aspect: the disciples’ belief in the resurrection was based on visionary experiences”.[51]

Atheist scholar Gerd Ludemann also comments:

“It may be taken as historically certain that the disciples had experiences after Jesus’ death in which Jesus appeared to them as the risen Christ”.[52]

Liberal scholar E.P. Sanders also notes:

“That Jesus’ followers (and later Paul) had resurrection experiences is, in my judgment, a fact. What the reality was that gave rise to the experiences I do not know”.[53]

Liberal Jewish scholar Paula Fredrickson comments:

“I know in their own terms what they saw was the raised Jesus. That’s what they say and then all the historic evidence we have afterwards attest to their conviction that that’s what they saw. I’m not saying that they really did see the raised Jesus. I wasn’t there. I don’t know what they saw. But I do know that as a historian that they must have seen something”.[54]



– END OF PART 1 –



To proceed to part 2 of this series, click here.

References