The story of the Greeks who ruled in deepest Asia is one of the most fascinating in antiquity. Situated on the edge of the known world, our knowledge of this kingdom is shrouded in mystery.

Yet in 208 BC, it was involved in one of the most thrilling campaigns in history as the rising kingdom fought for its very existence against one of the greatest warlords of the Ancient World. This is the story of two Greek kings who vied for power in modern day Afghanistan.

323 BC: A new era begins

Following the death of Alexander the Great his empire would never be the same again. Almost immediately his kingdom began to fragment between rival, ambitious commanders – the so-called Wars of the Successors.

After many years of fighting Hellenistic dynasties would emerge throughout what had once been Alexander’s empire – dynasties such as the Ptolemies, Seleucids, Antigonids and later, the Attalids. Yet there was also one other Hellenistic kingdom, one situated far away from the Mediterranean.

Bactria

In the distant East was the region of Bactria. Having the bountiful Oxus River (now the Amu Darya) flowing right through its heart, Bactria’s lands were some of the most lucrative in the known world – rivalling even those on the banks of the Nile. Various grains, grapes and pistachios – these rich lands produced all in abundance thanks to the fertility of the region.

Yet it was not just farming that Bactria was well-suited for. To the east and south were the formidable mountains of the Hindu Kush, in which silver mines were abundant. Bactria also had access to one of the most formidable pack animals of antiquity: the Bactrian camel. Truly Bactria was a region rich in resources. The Greeks that followed Alexander were quick to recognise this.

Greeks in the east

In 329 BC, Alexander the Great and his victorious army reached this lucrative land. For him it would be far from peaceful. Rebellion and atrocity would overshadow the Macedonian’s stay in Bactria and he therefore left a large military garrison upon his departure for India – mainly taken from his Greek mercenaries.

The establishment of Greek culture in Bactria naturally followed. It was a symbol of things to come.

Following Alexander’s death and then fifteen years of internal turmoil, Bactria finally came under the firm hand of a Macedonian general called Seleucus. For the next 50 years the region would remain a rich outlying province in first Seleucus’, and then his descendants’, control.

Seleucid Bactria

Progressively, the Seleucids would encourage Hellenism in Bactria, erecting various new Greek cities throughout the region – perhaps most famously the city of Ai Khanoum. Tales of exotic Bactria and its potential for lucrative farming and wealth soon reached the ears of many ambitious Greeks further west.

To them, Bactria was this far-flung land of opportunity – an island of Greek culture in the distant east. In a time epitomised by great travels and the spreading of Greek culture far and wide, many would make the long journey and reap rich rewards.

Very quickly, Bactria’s wealth and prosperity under Seleucid rule blossomed and Bactrians and Greeks lived harmoniously side by side. By 260 BC, so magnificent was Bactria’s riches that it became known as the ‘Jewel of Iran’ and the ‘land of 1,000 cities.’ For one man, this prosperity brought great opportunity.

Diodotus

Ever since Antiochus I ruled the Seleucid Empire Diodotus had been the Satrap (baron) of this wealthy, eastern province.

Yet by 250 BC no longer was Diodotus prepared to take orders from an overlord. Bactria’s wealth and prosperity, he realised, gave it great potential to become the epicentre of a great new empire in the East – a kingdom where Greeks and native Bactrians would form the nucleus of a new kingdom: a Greco-Bactrian kingdom!

Breaking away from the most formidable nation in Asia would not be easy; yet Diodotus had made his decision. A political split from the Seleucids was essential.

Patiently Diodotus would bide his time, waiting for the ideal opportunity to make his move. It came soon enough.

The breakaway

Seeing Seleucid attention starting to focus more and more on the West – in both Asia Minor and Syria – Diodotus saw his chance. In c.250 BC first Andragoras, the neighbouring satrap of Parthia, and then Diodotus declared their independence from the Seleucids: no longer would they submit to a royal family far away in Antioch.

In this act, Diodotus severed Seleucid supremacy in his kingdom and assumed the royal title. No longer was he simply satrap of Bactria; now, he was a king.

Preoccupied with their own internal problems the Seleucids initially did nothing. Yet in time they would come.

A new rival

For the next 30 years, first Diodotus and then his son Diodotus II would rule Bactria as kings. Yet it could not last without challenge.

In around 225 BC, Diodotus II made a decision many believe sealed his fate. To the west of Bactria, by 230 BC, one nation was becoming disturbingly powerful: Parthia.

Much had changed in Parthia since Andragoras had declared independence from the Seleucid Empire. Within a few years, Andragoras had been overthrown and a new ruler had come to power. His name was Arsaces, a warlord from the Parni tribe.

Diodotid demise

Desiring to resist Parthia’s rise under their new leader, Diodotus I and the Seleucids had united and declared war on the upstart nation and it appears this quickly became a key part of Diodotid foreign policy.

Yet in 225 BC, the young Diodotus II radically altered this: he signed a truce with Arsaces, thus ending the war. This was not all; Diodotus went one step further as he then made an alliance with the Parthian king.

For Diodotus’ Greek subordinates in Bactria – who held great sway – this act was undoubtedly very unpopular.

Many saw peace with Parthia as Diodotus blatantly abandoning his fellow Greeks and siding with a ‘barbarian’ in this cultural fight – betraying the Hellenic cause. Angry with this policy, talk of rebellion soon spread. One man acted.

Euthydemus

Like many others before him, Euthydemus had travelled from the Mediterranean to Bactria, desiring to make his fortune in this far-flung land.

His gamble had soon paid off as he had become either a governor or a frontier general under Diodotus II. He thus owed much to the Diodotids for his rise in the East. Yet it seems likely Diodotus’ Parthian policy proved too much.

Soon after Diodotus agreed to the ill-fated Parthian alliance, Euthydemus acted. Rising in revolt, he had Diodotus II killed and took the throne of Bactria for himself. The Diodotid line had come to a swift end. Euthydemus was now king.

Like Diodotus had before him, Euthydemus saw Bactria’s great potential for expansion. He had every intention of acting on it.

Yet to the West, Bactria’s former rulers had other ideas. In 223 BC a new Seleucid king had come to power. He was young and ambitious; but most importantly, he had a deep-hearted desire to reclaim the east, and Bactria. His name was Antiochus.

Antiochus

Ascending the throne in 223 BC, Antiochus inherited a kingdom that had fallen into a downward spiral. Bactria, Parthia and large swathes of Syria – Antiochus’ predecessors had lost control of all. The Seleucid Empire of 223 BC looked very different to the dominant kingdom of his forefather Seleucus all those years before. Slowly the Seleucid Empire was decaying.

Antiochus aimed to stop the Seleucid rot and restore uncontested Seleucid supremacy in Asia. It would be no easy task. To achieve this goal he would have to re-unite lands stretching from the borders of India in the East to Macedonia in the West under his rule. Yet Antiochus remained undeterred.

By 210 BC, Antiochus had had mixed success. Although he initially faced great challenges – both against the pretender Molon and then against Ptolemy IV at Raphia in 217 BC – the young Seleucid had quickly recovered, recapturing large amounts of Asia Minor.

Looking east

Fresh from success, Antiochus now turned his gaze away from the Eastern Mediterranean. Now was the time to head east; now was the time to reassert Seleucid supremacy as far as the borders of India.

Antiochus gathered a great Seleucid army for this epic expedition. The ancient source Justin claims it was 100, 000 men strong. Yet this is almost certainly an exaggeration and we can presume the Seleucid expeditionary force numbered somewhere between 50 – 70, 000 men in total.

Among its ranks was a formidable cavalry body of at least six thousand men, as well as at least 15, 000 heavy infantrymen – the nucleus of Antiochus’ army who were trained to form the Macedonian phalanx.

Among these footmen was Antiochus’ crack unit: the Silver Shields – a 10,000 strong division named after Alexander’s notorious infantrymen. Antiochus also had among his ranks 10,000 peltasts, 2,000 Cretan archers and many mercenaries.

The expedition begins

Having mustered this large army at Seleukeia in central Asia, at the beginning of 210 BC Antiochus set off east. His great expedition had begun.

Success soon followed for Antiochus. Within a year of reaching Parthia’s lands in 209 BC, resistance had crumbled. Hyrkania was re-captured as were the cities of Tambrax and Syrinx in southern Parthia. The new Parthian king, Arsaces II, duly sued for peace and submitted to Antiochus.

Antiochus had completed his first objective: Parthia was his. Bactria was next.

Euthydemus acts

Euthydemus, however, had no intention of suffering a similar fate. Gathering a grand army, the Bactrian monarch marched west to confront the Seleucid King.

The Bactrian army was no-doubt powerful. Not only did his infantry nucleus likely consist of Greek colonists trained in the Macedonian manner, but it would have been supported by expert Bactrian light infantry – men skilled at fighting in rough terrain.

That was not all. Among his force Euthydemus also had many exotic beasts: terrifying war elephants from India as well as a substantial number of Bactrian camels in his supply train.

Yet alongside all this, Euthydemus had another force more precious than the rest: his 10,000 Bactrian cavalry.

Ever since the days of the Persian Empire, Bactria had been famed for its horsemen. Some undoubtedly fought as light cavalry – equipped with bows and javelins. Yet Euthydemus’ most powerful cavalry were his Bactrian cataphracts – heavily armoured horsemen who’s sheer weight could crush almost any opponent. Elite units of Hellenic companion cavalry likely also served alongside. Altogether it was among the most powerful cavalry forces in the known world. And Euthydemus knew it.

Defending the Arius

Upon hearing that Antiochus’ force was closing in on the Arius River, Euthydemus sent his 10,000 expert cavalry ahead. Their orders were simple: prevent Antiochus’ force from crossing long enough for Euthydemus and his main army to arrive. For Euthydemus, the Arius would be where he would make his stand.

Yet Antiochus would not play Euthydemus’ game. When he was three days march away from the river, reports reached him that Euthydemus’ cavalry were guarding the Arius’ far bank, eagerly awaiting his arrival. Without delay, he marched his army towards the river.

For three days the Seleucid army marched at a steady pace, slowly approaching the Arius and the enemy. Yet when his army was within a day’s march of the river, Antiochus initiated a brilliant plan.

Intelligence

Antiochus’ reports had revealed much about the Bactrian cavalry awaiting him and they had revealed a flaw in the defence. His scouts had discovered that the Bactrian cavalry were not constantly stationed on the Arius river. Polybius recalls,

For he was informed that the cavalry of the enemy kept guard by day on the bank of the river, but at night retired to a city more than twenty stades (2 ½ miles) off

{Polybius 10. 49}

Antiochus saw an opportunity. That night, as the Bactrian cavalry returned to their cosy night-quarters, Antiochus made his move.

Ordering the rest of his army to continue the march the next morning, the Seleucid king gathered his cavalry and light infantry – some 15, 000 men – and commenced a rapid march towards the river.

The move was almost-perfectly executed. As the sun emerged the next morning Antiochus’ select force had not only reached the Arius, but most of his force had also crossed completely unopposed. Yet the rest of Antiochus’ army was still some way behind; and the Bactrians, they knew, would soon be upon them. They would come sooner than expected.

The Bactrians return

As the last part of Antiochus’ force was in the midst of crossing, Seleucid hearts fell. Rushing towards them were 10, 000 angry Bactrian cavalry, alarmed by scouts of Antiochus’ bold manoeuvre.

They were determined to send their foe back across the river. And what was more, now they had a gleaming opportunity to either kill, or even better capture, the talented Seleucid king. Battle was imminent.

Seeing the Bactrians advancing, Antiochus would not refuse the fight. Yet most of his force were still not formed up for battle. They needed time. The Bactrians however had no intention of giving them any.

Antiochus acted. Gathering his 2, 000 strong bodyguard, the Seleucid King sounded the charge. If his small, elite force could hold the Bactrians for long enough for the rest of his army to form up, then Antiochus knew victory would be within sight. Yet the strategy had huge risks. Would it pay off?

Battle begins

Antiochus’ guard and the Bactrians quickly clashed. The fighting was fierce on either side. First with spear and then with sword, Antiochus’ bodyguard struggled desperately to defend their king, while the Bactrians were equally eager to drive their foe into the river and regain control of the crossing.

After a time, a breakthrough was made, as Antiochus and his guard routed one of the Bactrian squadrons. The Seleucids were starting to get the upper hand. Yet the Bactrians were far from finished and two fresh squadrons now charged in to the Seleucid royal guard. In the blink of an eye, any advantage Antiochus’ cavalrymen thought they had vanished.

Very soon the Seleucid Royal Guard began to suffer terribly. Most of their horses were killed from under them with many, including Antiochus, now having to fight on foot. Despite this, Antiochus continued to resist, inspiring his troops with his bravery,

…the king had a horse killed under him and lost some of his teeth by a blow on the mouth: and his whole bearing obtained him a reputation for bravery of the highest description.

{Polybius 10.49}

The heroics Antiochus showed at the Arius would prove one of his finest moments. Yet even with the king’s brave antics, Antiochus’ guard soon began to waver. As the Bactrian noose closed in around the Seleucid necks all looked lost for Antiochus.

Relief

Yet just as the situation was looking most severe the battle was turned on its head. While Antiochus and his guard desperately fended off their numerous Bactrian foes, his remaining cavalry had finally formed up. Without further delay, they charged the Bactrians.

The result was devastating; the Bactrian cavalry was shattered. In disarray those that remained retreated from the river to re-join with Euthydemus’ approaching army. Antiochus and his bodyguard had held on for just long enough!

Upon seeing his shattered horsemen re-join his army, Euthydemus was aghast: his foe had shattered his elite corps and had already crossed the Arius. Realising he could no longer hold his enemy at the river, he hastily ordered his remaining forces to retreat.

Regrouping with the rest of his army, Antiochus advanced into Bactria in pursuit. Yet although Antiochus may have won this battle, the war was far from over.

‘Paradise of the Earth’

Euthydemus retreated to his capital at Bactra. The majority of his army was still intact, and he now planned to withstand Antiochus long enough for the Seleucid king to sue for terms. No place better suited this than Bactra.

Described as ‘the Mother of Cities’ and ‘Paradise of the Earth’, Bactra was a powerful city. Its strategic placement both on the banks of the navigable Oxus and along the lucrative silk road meant that trade flourished in this metropolis.

Alongside Ai-Khanoum, it was one of the richest cities in Bactria. Militarily too, we can presume the city of Bactra was formidably strong. Antiochus soon found this out for himself.

For two years Antiochus would attempt to breach the city, but to no avail. The defences held strong. It proved one of the longest sieges in the whole of the third century BC – second only to the siege of Syracuse. Finally, as both sides grew weary, talks to find a peaceful solution were initiated.

Negotiations

Antiochus, was happy to engage in talks. His glorious eastern campaign was taking much longer than he had expected and he was now desperate to complete it. He sent an envoy to Euthydemus to negotiate terms. His name was Teleas.

Arriving at Euthydemus’ court, Teleas put forward Antiochus’ demands. We do not know what they were, but it seems probable from Euthydemus’ response that Antiochus deemed Euthydemus a usurper and demanded Bactria return to its rightful place as part of the Seleucid Empire.

Yet Euthydemus had no intention of accepting this. Defending himself, he claimed he was no usurper – in fact quite the opposite. After all, it was he who had overthrown the Diodotids – the family who had revolted from the Seleucids in the first place! It was he, Euthydemus argued, who had killed the actual usurpers.

This was not Euthydemus’ only argument however. During the talks, Euthydemus also raised another point. And this one had much greater strength than the first.

The nomad threat

Living on the far-edge of the known world also had its downsides. To the north of Bactra, and especially beyond the Jaxartes, lay the land of hordes and steppe: the home of the ‘Scythians’ or ‘Sacae.’ Just as Macedonia and Epirus were the shields of Hellenism from barbarism on the Greek mainland, the Greco-Bactrian kingdom had a similar job in eastern Asia.

Bactria had frequently faced incursions from many hostile nomadic tribes in the past. The Persians, Alexander, the Seleucids and now the Greco-Bactrians – they had all built forts on the southern bank of the Jaxartes river to fend off this threat. But now, with Euthydemus holed up in Bactra, that threat was rapidly rising.

In full knowledge that these nomads – attracted by the turmoil – were gathering on his northern border, Euthydemus played his master card. He pleaded to Teleas that,

…if Antiochus did not retract this demand (Euthydemus giving up his kingship), neither of them would be secure. The great hordes of Nomads were close at hand and were a great danger to both. If they failed to stop them getting into the country, it would certainly be utterly barbarised.

{Polybius 11. 34}

Euthydemus’ argument was clear. Bactria’s borders, he claimed, had to be kept strong and secure from the nomad threat – and only he could maintain that. If Antiochus removed this linchpin, then Bactria could fall, quickly followed by the end of all Hellenism in Asia.

Whether this was simply meant as a statement of fact or a more sinister, underlying threat by Euthydemus, it quickly proved effective.

A compromise is reached

Recognising the growing Nomad threat, Antiochus was able to appreciate the logic. A strong Bactria had to remain! Very quickly the two kings reached an agreement. Euthydemus would remain as king of Bactria, but with certain conditions: not only did Antiochus force him to hand over his mighty elephant division, but it is also likely Euthydemus paid some sort of homage to the Seleucid dynast.

The terms were agreed. Euthydemus sent his son to Antiochus’ camp to confirm. Yet this young prince would achieve more than simply ratifying this peace.

Upon meeting Euthydemus’ son, Antiochus was greatly impressed by the young man’s character. In Antiochus’ eyes, he was a Hellenistic king in the making – a new Alexander in the East. He thus offered his daughter in marriage to the Greco-Bactrian prince as well as confirming Euthydemus as king of Bactria. The young prince’s name was Demetrius – a man who would go on to wage one of the most fascinating campaigns of antiquity.

Antiochus’ Bactrian campaign was over; Euthydemus, although battered and bruised, had survived!

Antiochus ‘Megas’

Departing Bactria, Antiochus would linger in the far east a while longer. Reaching the Hindu Kush, he renewed Seleucid friendship with the local king Sophagasenus before returning west.

Overall, his eastern campaign had been a great success. Hyrkania, Parthia, Aria and Bactria – Antiochus had gained success in all. Yet of them all, his success and personal valour at the Arius River stood out above the rest.

Such was Antiochus’ success in Seleucid eyes that he soon received a new name from his subjects. No longer was he purely Antiochus III; now, they deemed him Antiochus Megas, meaning, ‘the Great.’

For the next 15 years Antiochus continued to expand Seleucid territory in the Mediterranean, attempting to reconquer the final parts of Seleucus’ great empire. Yet his successes would not last.

In 192 BC, Antiochus launched a campaign against a new, rising foe in the West that ultimately proved his downfall: Rome.

The rise of the Greco-Bactrians

As for Euthydemus and the Greco-Bactrians, following Antiochus’ departure, the kingdom underwent significant expansion. Under both Euthydemus and his son Demetrius, the Greco-Bactrian Empire began to form. Their subjects were sure to honour the Euthydemid dynasty in return,

Heliodotos dedicated this fragrant altar for Hestia, venerable goddess, illustrious amongst all, in the grove of Zeus, with beautiful trees; he made libations and sacrifices so that the greatest of all kings Euthydemus, as well as his son, the glorious, victorious and remarkable Demetrius, be preserved of all pains…

{A dedication to Hestia in honour of Euthydemus and Demetrius, discovered in eastern Bactria, modern-day Tajikistan: SEG liv.1569}

The Golden Age of the Greco-Bactrian kingdom had begun.

From making contact with the Chinese (whom they called the Seres) in the East, to Arachosia and India in the South, the Greco-Bactrian kingdom would become the dominant force in the far-east – with their descendants even managing to campaign as far as the Ganges river. Yet all this was only possible because of the actions of Euthydemus at Bactra all those years before.

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Notes and further reading

Huge thanks to Johnny Shumate, Angel Garcia Pinto and Malay Archer for letting us use their fantastic illustrations.

Click here for Johnny’s website where you can find more of his artwork.

You can access Book 10 of Polybius’ Histories about the Battle of the Arius River here.

You can access Book 11 of Polybius’ Histories about the negotiations between Antiochus and Euthydemus here.

Grainger, J. D., (2015), The Seleukid Empire of Antiochus III: 223-187 BC, Barnsley.

Holt, F. L., (1999), Thundering Zeus: The Making of Hellenistic Bactria, London.

Scott, M., (2016), Ancient Worlds: An Epic History of East and West, London.

Shipley, G., (2000), The Greek World After Alexander: 323 – 30 BC, London.

Tarn, W. W. (1966). The Greeks in Bactria and India, Cambridge.

Wallace, S., ‘Greek Culture in Afghanistan and India: Old Evidence and New Discoveries’ (2016). Greece & Rome, Vol. 63 (2), 205-226.

Author: Tristan Hughes Twitter Facebook

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