Stahler C. How often do Americans eat vegetarian meals? And how many adults in the US are vegetarian? The Vegetarian Resource Group website. http://www.vrg.org/nutshell/Polls/2016_adults_veg.htm. Accessed June 23, 2016. View in Article Google Scholar

Hoek A.C.

Luning P.A.

Weijzen P.

Engels W.

Kok F.J.

de Graaf C. Replacement of meat by meat substitutes. A survey on person- and product-related factors in consumer acceptance. Appetite. 56 : 662-673 View in Article Scopus (150)

PubMed

Crossref

Google Scholar

American Institute for Cancer Research. Recommendations for cancer prevention. http://www.aicr.org/reduce-your-cancer-risk/recommendations-for-cancer-prevention/recommendations_04_plant_based.html?gclid=CJ6__O7dpboCFcid4AodhkMAIA. Accessed June 23, 2016. View in Article Google Scholar

US Department of Agriculture, US Department of Health and Human Services 2015-2020 Dietary Guidelines for Americans. 8th ed. US Government Printing Office , Washington, DC http://health.gov/dietaryguidelines/2015 View in Article Google Scholar

Institute of Medicine. Dietary reference intakes for energy, carbohydrate, fiber, fat, fatty acids, cholesterol, protein, and amino acids. http://www.nap.edu/download.php?record_id=10490. Accessed June 23, 2016. View in Article Google Scholar

Mangels R.

Messina V.

Messina M. The Dietitian's Guide to Vegetarian Diets. 3rd ed. Jones and Bartlett , Sudbury, MA View in Article Google Scholar

Davis B.

Melina V. Becoming Vegan: Comprehensive Edition. Book Publishing Co , Summertown, TN View in Article Google Scholar

Saunders A.V.

Davis B.C.

Garg M.L. Omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids and vegetarian diets. Med J Aust. 199 : S22-S26 View in Article Google Scholar

Gibson R.A.

Muhlhausler B.

Makrides M. Conversion of linoleic acid and alpha-linolenic acid to long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (LCPUFAs), with a focus on pregnancy, lactation and the first 2 years of life. Matern Child Nutr. 7 : 17-26 View in Article Scopus (138)

PubMed

Crossref

Google Scholar

Rosell M.S.

Lloyd-Wright Z.

Appleby P.N.

et al. Long-chain n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids in plasma in British meat-eating, vegetarian, and vegan men. Am J Clin Nutr. 82 : 327-334 View in Article PubMed

Google Scholar

Park S.K.

Ryoo J.H.

Kim M.G.

Shin J.Y. Association of serum ferritin and the development of metabolic syndrome in middle-aged Korean men: A 5-year follow-up study. Diabetes Care. 35 : 2521-2526 View in Article Scopus (54)

PubMed

Crossref

Google Scholar

Craig W.J. Iron status of vegetarians. Am J Clin Nutr. 59 : 1233S-1237S View in Article Google Scholar

Food and Nutrition Board, Institute of Medicine Iron. in: Dietary References Intake for Vitamin A, Vitamin K, Arsenic, Boron, Chromium, Copper, Iodine, Iron, Manganese, Molybdenum, Nickel, Silicon, Vanadium and Zinc. The National Academies Press , Washington, DC : 290-393 View in Article Google Scholar

Hunt J.R.

Roughead Z.K. Adaptation of iron absorption in men consuming diets with high or low iron bioavailability. Am J Clin Nutr. 71 : 94-102 View in Article Google Scholar

Armah S.M.

Carriquiry A.

Sullivan D.

Cook J.D.

Reddy M.B. A complete diet-based algorithm for predicting nonheme iron absorption in adults. J Nutr. 143 : 1136-1140 View in Article Scopus (28)

Crossref

Google Scholar

Hunt J.R.

Roughead Z.K. Nonheme-iron absorption, fecal ferritin excretion, and blood indexes of iron status in women consuming controlled lactoovovegetarian diets for 8 weeks. Am J Clin Nutr. 69 : 944-952 View in Article PubMed

Google Scholar

Lonnerdal B. Dietary factors influencing zinc absorption. J Nutr. 130 : 1378S-1383S View in Article Google Scholar

Leung A.M.

Lamar A.

He X.

et al. Iodine status and thyroid function of Boston-area vegetarians and vegans. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 96 : E1303-E1307 View in Article Scopus (63)

Crossref

Google Scholar

Institute of Medicine. Dietary Reference Intakes for Vitamin A, Vitamin K, Arsenic, Boron, Chromium, Copper, Iodine, Iron, Manganese, Molybdenum, Nickel, Silicon, Vanadium, and Zinc. www.iom.edu/Reports/2001/Dietary-Reference-Intakes-for-Vitamin-A-Vitamin-K-Arsenic-Boron-Chromium-Copper-Iodine-Iron-Manganese-Molybdenum-Nickel-Silicon-Vanadium-and-Zinc.aspx#sthash.gITnT436.dpuf Published 2010. Accessed June 23, 2016. View in Article Google Scholar

Messina M.

Redmond G. Effects of soy protein and soybean isoflavones on thyroid function in healthy adults and hypothyroid patients: A review of the relevant literature. Thyroid. 16 : 249-258 View in Article Scopus (107)

PubMed

Crossref

Google Scholar

Weaver C.M.

Proulx W.R.

Heaney R. Choices for achieving adequate dietary calcium with a vegetarian diet. Am J Clin Nutr. 70 : 543S-548S View in Article Google Scholar

Tang A.L.

Walker K.Z.

Wilcox G.

Strauss B.J.

Ashton J.F.

Stojanovska L. Calcium absorption in Australian osteopenic post-menopausal women: An acute comparative study of fortified soymilk to cows' milk. Asia Pac J Clin Nutr. 19 : 243-249 View in Article Google Scholar

Zhao Y.

Martin B.R.

Weaver C.M. Calcium bioavailability of calcium carbonate fortified soymilk is equivalent to cow's milk in young women. J Nutr. 135 : 2379-2382 View in Article Google Scholar

Patrick L. Comparative absorption of calcium sources and calcium citrate malate for the prevention of osteoporosis. Altern Med Rev. 4 : 74-85 View in Article Google Scholar

Food and Nutrition Board, Institute of Medicine Dietary Reference Intakes for Calcium and Vitamin D. The National Academies Press , Washington, DC www.nap.edu/download.php?record_id=13050 View in Article Google Scholar

Food and Nutrition Board, Institute of Medicine Dietary Reference Intakes for Thiamin, Riboflavin, Niacin, Vitamin B6, Folate, Vitamin B12, Pantothenic Acid, Biotin, and Choline. The National Academies Press , Washington, DC http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK114310/ View in Article Google Scholar

Donaldson M.S. Metabolic vitamin B12 status on a mostly raw vegan diet with follow-up using tablets, nutritional yeast, or probiotic supplements. Ann Nutr Metab. 44 : 229-234 View in Article Scopus (48)

Crossref

Google Scholar

Obeid R.

Fedosov S.N.

Nexo E. Cobalamin coenzyme forms are not likely to be superior to cyano- and hydroxyl-cobalamin in prevention or treatment of cobalamin deficiency. Mol Nutr Food Res. 59 : 1364-1372 View in Article Scopus (30)

Crossref

Google Scholar

Moore W.J.

McGrievy M.E.

Turner-McGrievy G.M. Dietary adherence and acceptability of five different diets, including vegan and vegetarian diets, for weight loss: The New DIETs study. Eat Behav. 19 : 33-38 View in Article Scopus (20)

Crossref

Google Scholar

US Department of Health and Human Services. Center for Disease Control and Prevention. Health, United States, 2012. http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/hus/hus12.pdf#063. Accessed June 23, 2016. View in Article Google Scholar

National Institutes of Health; National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute and National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases Clinical Guidelines on the Identification, Evaluation, and Treatment of Overweight and Obesity in Adults: The Evidence Report. National Institutes of Health , Bethesda, MD View in Article Google Scholar

Spencer E.A.

Appleby P.N.

Davey G.K.

Key T.J. Diet and body mass index in 38000 EPIC-Oxford meat-eaters, fish-eaters, vegetarians and vegans. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord. 27 : 728-734 View in Article Scopus (153)

PubMed

Crossref

Google Scholar

Newby P.K.

Tucker K.L.

Wolk A. Risk of overweight and obesity among semivegetarian, lactovegetarian, and vegan women. Am J Clin Nutr. 81 : 1267-1274 View in Article PubMed

Google Scholar

Huang R.Y.

Huang C.C.

Hu F.B.

Chavarro J.E. Vegetarian diets and weight reduction: A meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. J Gen Intern Med. 31 : 109-116 View in Article Scopus (71)

Crossref

Google Scholar

Crowe F.L.

Appleby P.N.

Travis R.C.

Key T.J. Risk of hospitalization or death from ischemic heart disease among British vegetarians and nonvegetarians: Results from the EPIC-Oxford cohort study. Am J Clin Nutr. 97 : 597-603 View in Article Scopus (112)

PubMed

Crossref

Google Scholar

Rizzo N.S.

Sabaté J.

Jaceldo-Siegl K.

Fraser G.E. Vegetarian dietary patterns are associated with a lower risk of metabolic syndrome: The Adventist Health Study 2. Diabetes Care. 34 : 1225-1227 View in Article Scopus (122)

PubMed

Crossref

Google Scholar

Pettersen B.J.

Anousheh R.

Fan J.

Jaceldo-Siegl K.

Fraser G.E. Vegetarian diets and blood pressure among white subjects: Results from the Adventist Health Study-2 (AHS-2). Public Health Nutr. 15 : 1909-1916 View in Article Scopus (99)

PubMed

Crossref

Google Scholar

Wang F.

Zheng J.

Yang B.

Jiang J.

Fu Y.

Li D. Effects of vegetarian diets on blood lipids: A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. J Am Heart Assoc. 4 : e002408 View in Article Scopus (91)

Crossref

Google Scholar

Yang S.Y.

Li X.J.

Zhang W.

et al. Chinese lacto-vegetarian diet exerts favorable effects on metabolic parameters, intima-media thickness, and cardiovascular risks in healthy men. Nutr Clin Pract. 627 : 392-398 View in Article Scopus (30)

Crossref

Google Scholar

Huang T.

Yang B.

Zheng J.

Li G.

Wahlqvist M.L.

Li D. Cardiovascular disease mortality and cancer incidence in vegetarians: A meta-analysis and systematic review. Ann Nutr Metab. 60 : 233-240 View in Article Scopus (136)

PubMed

Crossref

Google Scholar

Bradbury K.E.

Crowe F.L.

Appleby P.N.

Schmidt J.A.

Travis R.C.

Key T.J. Serum concentrations of cholesterol, apolipoprotein A-I and apolipoprotein B in a total of 1694 meat-eaters, fish-eaters, vegetarians and vegans. Eur J Clin Nutr. 68 : 178-183 View in Article Scopus (37)

PubMed

Crossref

Google Scholar

Aune D.

Norat T.

Romundstad P.

Vatten L.J. Whole grain and refined grain consumption and the risk of type 2 diabetes: A systematic review and dose-response. Eur J Epidemiol. 28 : 845-858 View in Article Scopus (242)

PubMed

Crossref

Google Scholar

Li M.

Fan Y.

Zhang X.

et al. Fruit and vegetable intake and risk of type 2 diabetes mellitus: Meta-analysis of prospective cohort studies. BMJ Open. 4 : e005497 View in Article Google Scholar

Pan A.

Sun Q.

Mason J.E.

et al. Walnut consumption is associated with lower risk of type 2 diabetes in women. J Nutr. 143 : 512-518 View in Article Scopus (102)

PubMed

Crossref

Google Scholar

Barnard N.

Cohen J.

Jenkins D.J.

et al. A low-fat vegan diet improves glycemic control and cardiovascular risk factors in a randomized clinical trial in individuals with type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Care. 29 : 1777-1783 View in Article Scopus (200)

PubMed

Crossref

Google Scholar

Kahleova H.

Matoulek M.

Malinska O.

et al. Vegetarian diet improves insulin resistance and oxidative stress markers more than conventional diet in subjects with type 2 diabetes. Diabet Med. 28 : 549-559 View in Article Scopus (123)

PubMed

Crossref

Google Scholar

Yokoyama Y.

Barnard N.D.

Levin S.M.

Watanabe M. Vegetarian diets and glycemic control in diabetes: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Cardiovasc Diagn Ther. 4 : 373-382 View in Article PubMed

Google Scholar

World Cancer Research Fund Food, Nutrition, Physical Activity, and the Prevention of Cancer: A Global Perspective. American Institute for Cancer Research , Washington, DC View in Article Google Scholar

Bernstein A.M.

Song M.

Zhang X.

et al. Processed and unprocessed red meat and risk of colorectal cancer: Analysis by tumor location and modification by time. PLoS One. 10 : e0135959 View in Article Scopus (72)

Crossref

Google Scholar

Rohrmann S.

Overvad K.

Bueno-de-Mesquita H.B.

et al. Meat consumption and mortality—Results from the European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition. BMC Med. : 63 View in Article Scopus (222)

Crossref

Google Scholar

Aune D.

Chan D.S.

Vieira A.R.

et al. Red and processed meat intake and risk of colorectal adenomas: A systematic review and meta-analysis of epidemiological studies. Cancer Causes Control. 24 : 611-627 View in Article Scopus (98)

PubMed

Crossref

Google Scholar

Lousuebsakul-Matthews V.

Thorpe D.L.

Knutsen R.

Beeson W.L.

Fraser G.E.

Knutsen S.F. Legumes and meat analogues consumption are associated with hip fracture risk independently of meat intake among Caucasian men and women: The Adventist Health Study-2. Public Health Nutr. 17 : 2333-2343 View in Article Scopus (13)

Crossref

Google Scholar

Pistollato F.

Sumalla Cano S.

Elio I.

et al. Plant-based and plant-rich diet patterns during gestation: Beneficial effects and possible shortcomings. Adv Nutr. 6 : 581-591 View in Article Scopus (19)

Crossref

Google Scholar

Alwan N.A.

Greenwood D.C.

Simpson N.A.

McArdle H.J.

Godfrey K.M.

Cade J.E. Dietary iron intake during early pregnancy and birth outcomes in a cohort of British women. Hum Reprod. 26 : 911-919 View in Article Scopus (46)

Crossref

Google Scholar

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Recommendations to prevent and control iron deficiency in the United States. Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 47 : 1-29 View in Article PubMed

Google Scholar

Gibson R.S.

Heath A.L.

Szymlek-Gay E.A. Is iron and zinc nutrition a concern for vegetarian infants and young children in industrialized countries?. Am J Clin Nutr. 100 : 459S-468S View in Article Scopus (46)

Crossref

Google Scholar

Brants H.A.

Lowik M.R.

Westenbrink S.

Hulshof K.F.

Kistemaker C. Adequacy of a vegetarian diet at old age (Dutch Nutrition Surveillance System). J Am Coll Nutr. 9 : 292-302 View in Article Scopus (27)

PubMed

Crossref

Google Scholar

Hedenus F.

Wirsenius S.

Johansson D.J.A. The importance of reduced meat and dairy consumption for meeting stringent climate change targets. Climatic Change. 124 : 79-91 View in Article Scopus (177)

Crossref

Google Scholar

Dietary Guidelines Advisory Committee. Scientific Report of the 2015 Dietary Guidelines Advisory Committee—Part D. Chapter 5: Food Sustainability and Safety. https://health.gov/dietaryguidelines/2015-scientific-report/PDFs/10-Part-D-Chapter-5.pdf. Updated January 28, 2015. Accessed September 19, 2016. View in Article Google Scholar

Marlow H.J.

Harwatt H.

Soret S.

Sabaté J. Comparing the water, energy, pesticide and fertilizer usage for the production of foods consumed by different dietary types in California. Public Health Nutr. 18 : 2425-2432 View in Article Scopus (18)

Crossref

Google Scholar

Sranacharoenpong K.

Soret S.

Harwatt H.

Wien M.

Sabate J. The environmental cost of protein food choices. Public Health Nutr. 18 : 2067-2073 View in Article Scopus (23)

Crossref

Google Scholar

Environmental Protection Agency. Environmental assessment of proposed revisions to the national pollutant discharge elimination system regulation and the effluent guidelines for concentrated animal farming operations. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Water. EPA Number 821B01001. https://www3.epa.gov/npdes/pubs/cafo_proposed_env_assess_ch1-3.pdf. Published January 2001. Accessed September 14, 2016. View in Article Google Scholar

Soret S.

Mejia A.

Batech M.

Jaceldo-Siegl K.

Harwatt H.

Sabate J. Climate change mitigation and health effects of varied dietary patterns in real-life settings throughout North America. Am J Clin Nutr. 100 : 490S-495S View in Article Scopus (70)

Crossref

Google Scholar

Cederberg C.

Hedenus F.

Wirsenius S.

Sonesson U. Trends in greenhouse gas emissions from consumption and production of animal food products—Implications for long-term climate targets. Animal. 7 : 330-340 View in Article Scopus (23)

Crossref

Google Scholar

US Department of Agriculture. All about the protein foods group. http://www.choosemyplate.gov/protein-foods. Updated July 29, 2016. Accessed September 14, 2016. View in Article Google Scholar

US Department of Agriculture. All about the dairy group. http://www.choosemyplate.gov/dairy. Updated July 29, 2016. Accessed September 14, 2016. View in Article Google Scholar