An alleged Chinese intelligence operative arrested in Belgium has been brought to the U.S. and charged with conspiring to steal trade secrets from GE Aviation and other companies, marking a rare break for the U.S. in its increasingly aggressive effort to target Chinese industrial spying.

Prosecutors have previously charged Chinese government officials with economic espionage and hacking-related offenses pointing to state-directed efforts to steal U.S. technology, but have never publicly identified anyone in custody as a Chinese...