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New research by Hornsey and colleagues questions the existence of broad-based cultural differences in people’s desire for control, and in the extent to which they feel in control of their lives. The study also found that, as hypothesized by previous research, the Japanese (compared to all other nationalities examined) tend to score lower on measures of perceived/desired control.

Two paths to control

In a 1984 paper, Weisz and colleagues proposed that there are two routes to feeling in control.2 The first path, which they called “primary control,” involves people influencing and shaping their realities in ways that they find rewarding.

For instance, one may attempt to influence the results of a job interview by, say, learning about the company one is applying to, dressing properly and smiling regularly, speaking with and enthusiasm, using flattery, etc. Through the use of these behaviors, one tries to influence reality and get the desired results (i.e., getting hired).

But there is another way to gain a sense of control. Called “secondary control,” this path―which has been studied much less often and is less central to the way of life in US (e. ., in comparison with Japan)―involves not influencing but accommodating one’s reality.

In secondary control, instead of influencing one’s circumstances or the people and objects in one’s environment, the individual attempts to change her own perceptions, expectations, , and wishes.

In the interview example above, the job applicant had exerted primary control (by influencing her reality) but she could instead exert secondary control (by influencing the psychological impact of her reality).

One way of doing so would be changing her expectations; for instance, she could reason that she is only one of many people being interviewed for this job, and thus her chances of being hired are slim. Alternatively, she can consider the interview as practice or a good learning experience. She could also remind herself that luck or some forces play a big part in whether she will be hired.

We have now discussed both primary and secondary control, but one question that has not been answered yet is how people decide which path to take.

One answer to this question is that the path chosen depends on one’s culture.1 Namely, it has been suggested that people from Western countries and individualistic societies are more inclined to using primary control, while people from Eastern and collectivist cultures are more disposed to using secondary control.

Current research

In two studies, the authors of the current paper put the above theory to test, examining whether cultural differences could explain differences between perceptions of and desire for control.

Perception of control was evaluated first.

The data for the first study came from the sixth wave of the World Values Survey (WVS), which was conducted between 2010 and 2014. The data was available for 49,000 participants from 38 countries.

The results showed that Japan was indeed lower in perceived control than the other 37 countries evaluated.

The second study examined the concept of desire for control. The data came from an online data collection company. The final sample included over 4,700 participants from 27 countries (50 percent women, with an average age of 41).

The results of this research were in agreement with the first study’s findings: In comparison with all other countries examined, Japan was lower in desire for control.

Aside from the consistent findings about Japan, Looking at the results of both studies, the researchers were unable to find any general cultural differences in perception of control or desire for it.

Namely, they were unable to predict a sample’s scores based on the knowledge of the sample’s level of individualism/collectivism, acceptance of unequal distribution of power in society, tolerance for ambiguity, achievement and preference, , etc.

So how can we explain Japan’s lower scores on perceived/desired control? One potential answer points to the influence of Buddhism.

Buddhism, perhaps more than other Eastern religions, emphasizes the acceptance of reality as it is, and surrendering to it as opposed to controlling it.

Another possibility involves the Japanese culture and its strong focus on relations and interdependence. The Japanese culture underlines fitting in and respecting others, as opposed to changing other people and trying to get one’s own way.

Source: mstodt/Pixabay

Hornsey and colleagues speculate that it is the combination of cultural and religious influences noted above that have resulted in the Japanese simultaneously perceiving less and desiring less control over their lives (in comparison with dozens of other countries, including the US).