We want to thank everyone who contributed to this release by writing code, filing bugs, providing feedback, and/or testing the beta and release candidates. Your contributions and diligence helped to ensure that Go 1.15 is as stable as possible. That said, if you notice any problems, please file an issue .

For the complete list of changes and more information about the improvements above, see the Go 1.15 release notes .

Today the Go team is very happy to announce the release of Go 1.15. You can get it from the download page .

Jean de Klerk and Jonathan Amsterdam

7 July 2020

Introduction

This post is part 5 in a series.

Your modules will evolve over time as you add new features, change behaviors, and reconsider parts of the module's public surface. As discussed in Go Modules: v2 and Beyond, breaking changes to a v1+ module must happen as part of a major version bump (or by adopting a new module path).

However, releasing a new major version is hard on your users. They have to find the new version, learn a new API, and change their code. And some users may never update, meaning you have to maintain two versions for your code forever. So it is usually better to change your existing package in a compatible way.

In this post, we'll explore some techniques for introducing non-breaking changes. The common theme is: add, don’t change or remove. We’ll also talk about how to design your API for compatibility from the outset.

Adding to a function

Often, breaking changes come in the form of new arguments to a function. We’ll describe some ways to deal with this sort of change, but first let’s look at a technique that doesn’t work.

When adding new arguments with sensible defaults, it’s tempting to add them as a variadic parameter. To extend the function

func Run(name string)

with an additional size argument which defaults to zero, one might propose

func Run(name string, size ...int)

on the grounds that all existing call sites will continue to work. While that is true, other uses of Run could break, like this one:

package mypkg var runner func(string) = yourpkg.Run

The original Run function works here because its type is func(string) , but the new Run function’s type is func(string, ...int) , so the assignment fails at compile time.

This example illustrates that call compatibility is not enough for backward compatibility. There is, in fact, no backward-compatible change you can make to a function’s signature.

Instead of changing a function’s signature, add a new function. As an example, after the context package was introduced, it became common practice to pass a context.Context as the first argument to a function. However, stable APIs could not change an exported function to accept a context.Context because it would break all uses of that function.

Instead, new functions were added. For example, the database/sql package's Query method’s signature was (and still is)

func (db *DB) Query(query string, args ...interface{}) (*Rows, error)

When the context package was created, the Go team added a new method to database/sql :

func (db *DB) QueryContext(ctx context.Context, query string, args ...interface{}) (*Rows, error)

To avoid copying code, the old method calls the new one:

func (db *DB) Query(query string, args ...interface{}) (*Rows, error) { return db.QueryContext(context.Background(), query, args...) }

Adding a method allows users to migrate to the new API at their own pace. Since the methods read similarly and sort together, and Context is in the name of the new method, this extension of the database/sql API did not degrade readability or comprehension of the package.

If you anticipate that a function may need more arguments in the future, you can plan ahead by making optional arguments a part of the function’s signature. The simplest way to do that is to add a single struct argument, as the crypto/tls.Dial function does:

func Dial(network, addr string, config *Config) (*Conn, error)

The TLS handshake conducted by Dial requires a network and address, but it has many other parameters with reasonable defaults. Passing a nil for config uses those defaults; passing a Config struct with some fields set will override the defaults for those fields. In the future, adding a new TLS configuration parameter only requires a new field on the Config struct, a change that is backward-compatible (almost always—see "Maintaining struct compatibility" below).

Sometimes the techniques of adding a new function and adding options can be combined by making the options struct a method receiver. Consider the evolution of the net package’s ability to listen at a network address. Prior to Go 1.11, the net package provided only a Listen function with the signature

func Listen(network, address string) (Listener, error)

For Go 1.11, two features were added to net listening: passing a context, and allowing the caller to provide a “control function” to adjust the raw connection after creation but before binding. The result could have been a new function that took a context, network, address and control function. Instead, the package authors added a ListenConfig struct in anticipation that more options might be needed someday. And rather than define a new top-level function with a cumbersome name, they added a Listen method to ListenConfig :

type ListenConfig struct { Control func(network, address string, c syscall.RawConn) error } func (*ListenConfig) Listen(ctx context.Context, network, address string) (Listener, error)

Another way to provide new options in the future is the “Option types” pattern, where options are passed as variadic arguments, and each option is a function that changes the state of the value being constructed. They are described in more detail by Rob Pike's post Self-referential functions and the design of options. One widely used example is google.golang.org/grpc's DialOption.

Option types fulfill the same role as struct options in function arguments: they are an extensible way to pass behavior-modifying configuration. Deciding which to choose is largely a matter of style. Consider this simple usage of gRPC's DialOption option type:

grpc.Dial("some-target", grpc.WithAuthority("some-authority"), grpc.WithMaxDelay(time.Second), grpc.WithBlock())

This could also have been implemented as a struct option:

notgrpc.Dial("some-target", ¬grpc.Options{ Authority: "some-authority", MaxDelay: time.Minute, Block: true, })

Functional options have some downsides: they require writing the package name before the option for each call; they increase the size of the package namespace; and it's unclear what the behavior should be if the same option is provided twice. On the other hand, functions which take option structs require a parameter which might almost always be nil , which some find unattractive. And when a type’s zero value has a valid meaning, it is clumsy to specify that the option should have its default value, typically requiring a pointer or an additional boolean field.

Either one is a reasonable choice for ensuring future extensibility of your module's public API.

Working with interfaces

Sometimes, new features require changes to publicly-exposed interfaces: for example, an interface needs to be extended with new methods. Directly adding to an interface is a breaking change, though—how, then, can we support new methods on a publicly-exposed interface?

The basic idea is to define a new interface with the new method, and then wherever the old interface is used, dynamically check whether the provided type is the older type or the newer type.

Let's illustrate this with an example from the archive/tar package. tar.NewReader accepts an io.Reader , but over time the Go team realized that it would be more efficient to skip from one file header to the next if you could call Seek . But, they could not add a Seek method to io.Reader : that would break all implementers of io.Reader .

Another ruled-out option was to change tar.NewReader to accept io.ReadSeeker rather than io.Reader , since it supports both io.Reader methods and Seek (by way of io.Seeker ). But, as we saw above, changing a function signature is also a breaking change.

So, they decided to keep tar.NewReader signature unchanged, but type check for (and support) io.Seeker in tar.Reader methods:

package tar type Reader struct { r io.Reader } func NewReader(r io.Reader) *Reader { return &Reader{r: r} } func (r *Reader) Read(b []byte) (int, error) { if rs, ok := r.r.(io.Seeker); ok { // Use more efficient rs.Seek. } // Use less efficient r.r.Read. }

(See reader.go for the actual code.)

When you run into a case where you want to add a method to an existing interface, you may be able to follow this strategy. Start by creating a new interface with your new method, or identify an existing interface with the new method. Next, identify the relevant functions that need to support it, type check for the second interface, and add code that uses it.

This strategy only works when the old interface without the new method can still be supported, limiting the future extensibility of your module.

Where possible, it is better to avoid this class of problem entirely. When designing constructors, for example, prefer to return concrete types. Working with concrete types allows you to add methods in the future without breaking users, unlike interfaces. That property allows your module to be extended more easily in the future.

Tip: if you do need to use an interface but don't intend for users to implement it, you can add an unexported method. This prevents types defined outside your package from satisfying your interface without embedding, freeing you to add methods later without breaking user implementations. For example, see testing.TB 's private() function.

type TB interface { Error(args ...interface{}) Errorf(format string, args ...interface{}) // ... // A private method to prevent users implementing the // interface and so future additions to it will not // violate Go 1 compatibility. private() }

This topic is also explored in more detail in Jonathan Amsterdam's "Detecting Incompatible API Changes" talk (video, slides).

Add configuration methods

So far we've talked about overt breaking changes, where changing a type or a function would cause users' code to stop compiling. However, behavior changes can also break users, even if user code continues to compile. For example, many users expect json.Decoder to ignore fields in the JSON that are not in the argument struct. When the Go team wanted to return an error in that case, they had to be careful. Doing so without an opt-in mechanism would mean that the many users relying on those methods might start receiving errors where they hadn’t before.

So, rather than changing the behavior for all users, they added a configuration method to the Decoder struct: Decoder.DisallowUnknownFields . Calling this method opts a user in to the new behavior, but not doing so preserves the old behavior for existing users.

Maintaining struct compatibility

We saw above that any change to a function’s signature is a breaking change. The situation is much better with structs. If you have an exported struct type, you can almost always add a field or remove an unexported field without breaking compatibility. When adding a field, make sure that its zero value is meaningful and preserves the old behavior, so that existing code that doesn’t set the field continues to work.

Recall that the authors of the net package added ListenConfig in Go 1.11 because they thought more options might be forthcoming. Turns out they were right. In Go 1.13, the KeepAlive field was added to allow for disabling keep-alive or changing its period. The default value of zero preserves the original behavior of enabling keep-alive with a default period.

There is one subtle way a new field can break user code unexpectedly. If all the field types in a struct are comparable—meaning values of those types can be compared with == and != and used as a map key—then the overall struct type is comparable too. In this case, adding a new field of uncomparable type will make the overall struct type non-comparable, breaking any code that compares values of that struct type.

To keep a struct comparable, don’t add non-comparable fields to it. You can write a test for that, or rely on the upcoming gorelease tool to catch it.

To prevent comparison in the first place, make sure the struct has a non-comparable field. It may have one already—no slice, map or function type is comparable—but if not, one can be added like so:

type Point struct { _ [0]func() X int Y int }

The func() type is not comparable, and the zero-length array takes up no space. We can define a type to clarify our intent:

type doNotCompare [0]func() type Point struct { doNotCompare X int Y int }

Should you use doNotCompare in your structs? If you’ve defined the struct to be used as a pointer—that is, it has pointer methods and perhaps a NewXXX constructor function that returns a pointer—then adding a doNotCompare field is probably overkill. Users of a pointer type understand that each value of the type is distinct: that if they want to compare two values, they should compare the pointers.

If you are defining a struct intended to be used as a value directly, like our Point example, then quite often you want it to be comparable. In the uncommon case that you have a value struct that you don’t want compared, then adding a doNotCompare field will give you the freedom to change the struct later without having to worry about breaking comparisons. On the downside, the type won’t be usable as a map key.

Conclusion

When planning an API from scratch, consider carefully how extensible the API will be to new changes in the future. And when you do need to add new features, remember the rule: add, don't change or remove, keeping in mind the exceptions—interfaces, function arguments, and return values can't be added in backwards-compatible ways.

If you need to dramatically change an API, or if an API begins to lose its focus as more features are added, then it may be time for a new major version. But most of the time, making a backwards-compatible change is easy and avoids causing pain for your users.