Object-oriented programming is losing popularity and some newer programming languages like Go and Rust don’t offer subclassing at all. In Swift, there’s a push for “protocol-oriented programming” where shared interfaces, default behaviors and substitutability are achieved through protocols rather than subclasses.

We should limit our use of subclasses to when we interoperate with Objective-C or we need to inherit both data members and behavior from another class, right?

Right?

Object-oriented programming

I’m sure I don’t need to explain object-oriented programming but I do want to look at how the object-oriented hierarchies that used to dominate programming are being reconsidered and replaced by hierarchies that are dramatically shallower, with much of the functionality moved from classes into protocols.

protocol NSObjectProtocol { /* ... */ } open class NSObject : NSObjectProtocol { /* ... */ } open class NSResponder : NSObject { /* ... */ } open class NSView : NSResponder { /* ... */ } open class NSControl : NSView { /* ... */ } open class NSButton : NSControl { /* ... */ }

In the above inheritance chain from AppKit, an NSButton “is a” kind of NSView (inheritance is often described as “is a” composition, versus “has a” composition or “conforms to” implementations). NSButton ’s relationship with NSView could be argued as a clear case of traditional subclassing: we can use an NSButton anywhere an NSView is needed, the button shares all of the data from NSView and the button inherits the same interface and behaviors.

But the inheritance chain includes more than just NSButton or NSView .

NSObject is a default implementation for NSObjectProtocol but if Objective-C had default protocol implementations, you’d probably be able to replace the entire NSObject class with an allocator function.

NSView and NSResponder are really orthogonal concepts — display behavior and event behavior — so it’s not clear that an NSView is a kind of NSResponder . More importantly, any object (not just those with NSResponder in their inheritance chain) should be able to perform responder chain behaviors, merely by conforming to the interface and inserting itself into the chain.

NSControl is a harder to call good or bad; it provides a grab-bag of interaction and data behaviors, as well extending of some NSResponder behaviors. In some ways inheriting from NSControl does provide a good point for code reuse between subclasses — so there’s an argument that it might be fine as a subclass — but its role as an abstract class in the middle of an inheritance chain (you never instantiate NSControl directly) implies that it might work better as a protocol with an associated type for target/action and state storage — possibly broken into separate smaller protocols for different kinds of control.

Protocol-oriented programming

In Swift, a number of interfaces that would previously have been written as classes in Objective-C can instead be protocols. Since protocols aren’t single-inheritance, they’re easier to mix together in a range of different ways. Protocols work with Swift value types and classes equally, and protocols let us more narrowly specify input requirements rather than relying on dynamic behaviors.

The Apple WWDC 2015 video “Protocol Oriented Programming in Swift” provided a great introduction to this topic and how it is distinct from object-oriented programming.

Swift didn’t invent this style of programming; a number of recent languages, including Rust and Go, have no subclassing and rely largely on “traits” and “interfaces” (equivalents to Swift protocols in those languages) for code reuse and polymorphism. Functional languages have used “type classes” to similar effect for decades.

A crude reorganizing of the NSButton hierarchy, following the broad rules I’ve discussed so far, might give a hierarchy that looked more like this:

protocol NSObjectProtocol { /* ... */ } protocol NSResponder { /* ... */ } protocol NSControl { /* ... */ } protocol NSTwoStateControl : NSControl { /* ... */ } open class NSView : NSObjectProtocol , NSResponder { /* ... */ } open class NSButton : NSView , NSTwoStateControl { /* ... */ }

With no need for NSObject at all (it’s implemented as the default behavior for NSObjectProtocol ), NSResponder and NSControl become protocols with NSControl further broken down into a number of simpler protocols (since greater functionality can now be easily achieved through intermixing).

In summary, protocols are more flexible and easier to intermix. They are also better suited to specifying constraints (which I haven’t discussed in this article) and they can be used with value types (which I also haven’t discussed).

With protocols being so flexible and capable, we should limit subclassing to when one class:

wants to share most of a base class’s behavior, AND, wants to incorporate all of a base class’s data layout

The weirdest subclass I’ve ever written

Let’s imagine I have two classes. For argument’s sake, let’s call them Signal and SignalMulti .

The Signal class has a few different responsibilities and among them is a public function named subscribe . The SignalMulti class is only a subscribe implementation (no other responsibilities) but the implementation is completely different (it allocates an entirely new instance of Signal internally and delegates the subscribe work to that instance instead).

These two classes share a single function interface, with no common implementation and don’t need any common data members or layout (technically, SignalMulti uses the preceeding member but it could easily declare that for itself). They are otherwise completely different.

Revisiting the two bullet points from the previous section:

SignalMulti does not want to share ANY of the base class’s behavior SignalMulti doesn’t need any of the base class’s data layout

Despite this, I still implemented SignalMulti as a subclass of Signal , in violation of every common guideline about interfaces in Swift.

Why use a subclass when a protocol is the obvious choice?

I’m not a big fan of object oriented design — the only other place I’ve used it in my Swift code on this blog is for wholly private classes — so why have I broken the common guidelines and used a subclass here?

Let’s look at the effective shared interface between the two classes (I’m simplifying by omitting the attach function on the real classes):

public class Signal < T > { public func subscribe ( context : Exec , handler : @ escaping ( Result < T >) -> Void ) -> SignalOutput < T > } public class SignalMulti < T >: Signal < T > { public override func subscribe ( context : Exec , handler : @ escaping ( Result < T >) -> Void ) -> SignalOutput < T > }

Associated types require generic constraints which are clumsy

If we implemented Signal as a protocol it would need to have an associatedtype to capture the value type T . This associated type would mean that the protocol could be used only as a type constraint and every scope that operates on Signal s will also need to be generic.

For example, instead of a simple looking function like this:

class MyClass { public func receiveSignal ( signal : Signal < Int >) }

you would need to use:

class MyClass { public func receiveSignal < S >( signal : S ) where S : Signal , S . ValueType == Int }

Now the function is generic, which makes it a bit more confusing and technical to write (due to the need to constrain the generic parameter), could bloat code size if it is specialized and if it can’t be specialized may end up significantly slower.

Implementations are less substitutable than protocols

Another topic which I feel is often left out of discussions about protocol oriented design — is the concept of substitutability.

The substitutability I want is that you should always be able to pass a SignalMulti where a Signal is requested but if a SignalMulti is requested, only a SignalMulti will suffice.

Technically, you could define a Signal protocol and a SignalMulti protocol that derives from it and capture this substitutability scenario. Protocols are theoretically capable of the same substitutability as classes.

However, the associated type that caused problems in the previous section causes problems here again: we must make public all implementations of our protocols. This creates a situation where we wouldn’t just have:

protocol Signal { assocatedtype ValueType }

protocol SignalMulti: Signal

but we’d also need to have:

class SignalImplementation<ValueType>: Signal

class SignalMultiImpementation<ValueType>: SignalMulti

and annoyingly, most user code will have instances of the latter two, not the former two. This — combined with the previous “generic constraints are clumsy” point — creates a situation where you’re likely to declare functions taking SignalImplementation , a declaration which cannot accept a SignalMulti .

When we use protocol s with associated types, we’re forced to expose implementations that are less substitutable than the protocol s and likely to cause problems.

Sealed behaviors

Since the Signal protocol needs to be public, anything could implement the protocol. While this might seem great — all kinds of different classes could expose a subscribe function — the Signal classes are highly interconnected and dependent on lots of subtle behaviors to ensure thread safety and graph behavior propagation. This is a case where I really wanted the set of possible behaviors sealed so that rules are strictly obeyed.

You can’t make a public protocol sealed. Meanwhile, public classes are sealed (they’re only subclass-able if they’re open ).

Conclusion

Protocol oriented programming is good — watch the “Protocol Oriented Programming in Swift” video and use protocols where appropriate — but don’t forget that subclassing and inheritance retain some unique strengths in Swift.

I initially gave the following bullet points and claimed that you should favor a subclass over a protocol only if both of the following two points are true for the subclass:

the subclass wants to share most of a base class’s behavior, AND, the subclass wants to incorporate all of a base class’s data layout

The reality is that these bullet points don’t cover the whole range of considerations.

There are numerous syntactic differences around each and — since protocols and subclasses overlap significantly in the problems that they can solve — you can validly choose between subclassing and protocols for a range of different syntactic reasons rather than a strict design rule.

Subclasses manage a specific substitutability arrangement that protocols can’t precisely model. Generic subclasses have better syntax than do protocols with associated types.