Abdulrahim , D , Bowden-Jones , O , and on behalf of the NEPTUNE group ( 2018 ) The misuse of synthetic opioids: harms and clinical management of fentanyl, fentanyl analogues and other novel synthetic opioids . In Information for Clinicians . London : Novel Psychoactive Treatment UK Network (NEPTUNE) , pp. 8 – 18 . , and. In, pp. https://smmgp.org.uk/media/12031/neptune-fentanyl-clinical-management-mar-18.pdf ( ).

Adebamiro , A and Perazella , MA ( 2013 ) Recurrent acute kidney injury following bath salts intoxication . American Journal of Kidney Diseases 59 , 273 – 275 .

Advisory Council on the Misuse of Drugs (ACMD) ( 2013 ) https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/237037/ACMD_advice_Z_drugs.pdf ( ).

Al-Husseini , A , Van Hout , MC and Wazaify , M ( 2018 ) Pregabalin misuse and abuse: a scoping review of extant literature . Journal of Drug Issues 48 , 356 – 376 .

Angerer , V , Jacobi , S , Franz , F , Auwärter , V and Pietsch , J ( 2017 ) Three fatalities associated with the synthetic cannabinoids 5F-ADB, 5F-PB-22, and AB-CHMINACA . Forensic Science International 281 , e9 – e15 .

Armenian , P , Vo , KT , Barr-Walker , J and Lynch , KL ( 2017 ) Fentanyl, fentanyl analogs and novel synthetic opioids: a comprehensive review . Neuropharmacology 134 ( Pt A ): 121 – 132 .

Baker , DE ( 2007 ) Loperamide: a pharmacological review . Reviews in Gastroenterological Disorders 7 ( Suppl 3 ): S11 – S18 .

Barrios , L , Grison-Hernando , H , Boels , D , Bouquie , R , Monteil-Ganiere , C and Clement , R ( 2016 ) Death following ingestion of methylone . International Journal of Legal Medicine 130 , 381 – 385 .

Baumeister , D , Tojo , LM and Tracy , DK ( 2015 ) Legal highs: staying on top of the flood of novel psychoactive substances . Therapeutic Advances in Psychopharmacology 5 , 97 – 132 .

Berridge , KC and Robinson , TE ( 2016 ) Liking, wanting, and the incentive-sensitization theory of addiction . American Psychologist 71 , 670 – 679 .

Bonaccorso , S , Metastasio , A , Ricciardi , A , Stewart , N , Jamal , N , Naasir-Ud-Dinn , R , Theleritis , C , Ferracuti , S , Ducci , G and Schifano , F ( 2018 ) Synthetic cannabinoid use in a case series of patients with psychosis presenting to acute psychiatric settings: clinical presentation and management issues . Brain Sciences 8 , pii: E133 .

Bonnet , U and Scherbaum , N ( 2017 ) How addictive are pregabalin and gabapentin? A systematic review . European Neuropsychopharmacology 27 , 1185 – 1215 .

Bonnet , U , Richter , EL , Isbruch , K and Scherbaum , N ( 2018 ) On the addictive power of gabapentinoids: a mini review . Psychiatria Danubina 30 , 142 – 149 .

Borek , HA and Holstege , CP ( 2012 ) Hyperthermia and multiorgan failure after abuse of ‘bath salts’ containing 3,4-methylenedioxypyrovalerone . Annals of Emergency Medicine 60 , 103 – 105 .

Brakoulias , V ( 2012 ) Products containing synthetic cannabinoids and psychosis . Australian & New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry 46 , 281 – 282 .

Capriola , M ( 2013 ) Synthetic cathinone abuse . Clinical Pharmacology: Advances and Applications 5 , 109 .

Celofiga , A , Koprivsek , J and Klavz , J ( 2014 ) Use of synthetic cannabinoids in patients with psychotic disorders: case series . Journal of Dual Diagnosis 10 , 168 – 173 .

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention [CDC] ( 2016 ) https://www.cdc.gov/drugoverdose/data/fentanyl.html ( ).

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention [CDC] ( 2018 ) https://www.cdc.gov/media/releases/2018/p0329-drug-overdose-deaths.html ( ).

Cheng , S , Yeo , J , Brown , E and Regan , A ( 2012 ) Bath salts and synthetic cannabinoids: a review . American Academy of Emergency Medicine 19 , 19 – 22 .

Chiappini , S and Schifano , F ( 2016 ) A decade of gabapentinoid misuse: an analysis of the European Medicines Agency's ‘suspected adverse drug reactions’ database . CNS Drugs 30 , 647 – 654 .

Chiappini , S and Schifano , F ( 2018 ) Is there a potential of misuse for quetiapine? Literature review and analysis of the European Medicines Agency/EMA Adverse Drug Reactions’ database . Journal of Clinical Psychopharmacology 38 , 72 – 79 .

Cooper , RJ ( 2013 ) ‘I can't be an addict. I am’. Over-the-counter medicine abuse: a qualitative study . BMJ Open 3 , e002913 .

Corazza , O , Assi , S , Simonato , P , Corkery , J , Bersani , FS , Demetrovics , Z , Stair , J , Fergus , S , Pezzolesi , C , Pasinetti , M , Deluca , P , Drummond , C , Davey , Z , Blaszko , U , Moskalewicz , J , Mervo , B , Furia , LD , Farre , M , Flesland , L , Pisarska , A , Shapiro , H , Siemann , H , Skutle , A , Sferrazza , E , Torrens , M , Sambola , F , van der Kreeft , P , Scherbaum , N and Schifano , F ( 2013 ) Promoting innovation and excellence to face the rapid diffusion of novel psychoactive substances in the EU: the outcomes of the ReDNet project . Human Psychopharmacology 28 , 317 – 323 .

Corkery , J , Claridge , H , Loi , B , Goodair , C and Schifano , F ( 2014 ) .

Corkery , JM , Orsolini , L , Papanti , GD and Schifano , F ( 2017 ) From concept(ion) to life after death/the grave: the ‘natural’ history and life-cycle(s) of novel psychoactive substances (NPS) . Human Psychopharmacology Clinical & Experimental 32 , 3 .

Corkery , JM , Orsolini , L , Papanti , D and Schifano , F ( 2018 a) Novel psychoactive substances (NPS) and recent scenarios: epidemiological, anthropological and clinical pharmacological issues . In Miolo , G , Stair , JL and Zloh , M (eds), Light in Forensic Science: Issues and Applications . London : Royal Society of Chemistry , Vol 8 , pp. 207 – 256 .

Corkery , JM , Goodair , C and Claridge , H ( 2018 b). Synthetic cathinones and related fatalities in the United Kingdom . In Corazza , O and Roman-Urrestarazu , A (eds), Handbook of Novel Psychoactive Substances – What Clinicians Should Know About NPS . London : Routledge , pp. 181 – 207 .

Corkery , JM , Streete , P , Claridge , H , Goodair , C , Papanti , GD , Orsolini , L , Schifano , F , Sikka , K , Korber , S and Hendricks , A ( in press ) Characteristics of deaths associated with kratom use . Journal of Psychopharmacology .

Dargan , PI , Albert , S and Wood , DM ( 2010 ) Mephedrone use and associated adverse effects in school and college/university students before the UK legislation change . Quarterly Journal of Medicine 103 , 875 – 879 .

Denysenko , L , Freudenreich , O , Philbrick , K , Penders , T , Zimbrean , P , Nejad , S , Chwastiak , L , Dickerman , A , Niazi , S , Shim , J and Soellner , W ( 2015 ) Catatonia in medically ill patients an evidence-based medicine (EBM) monograph for psychosomatic medicine practice . The European Association of Psychosomatic Medicine 30 , 140 – 155 .

De Sousa Fernandes Perna , EB , Papaseit , E , Pérez-Mañá , C , Mateus , J , Theunissen , EL , Kuypers , K , de la Torre , R , Farré , M and Ramaekers , JG ( 2016 ) Neurocognitive performance following acute mephedrone administration, with and without alcohol . Journal of Psychopharmacology 30 , 1305 – 1312 .

Drug Enforcement Administration [DEA] ( 2013 ) https://www.deadiversion.usdoj.gov/drug_chem_info/pcp.pdf ( ).

Drummer , OH ( 2018 ) Fatalities caused by novel opioids: a review . Forensic Sciences Research 4 , 95 – 110 .

EMCDDA ( 2017 ) High Risk Drug use and New Psychoactive Substances. EMCDDA Rapid Communication . Luxembourg : Publications Office of the European Union . http://www.emcdda.europa.eu/publications/rapid-communications/high-risk-drug-use-and-nps_en ( ).

Evans , EA and Sullivan , M ( 2014 ) Abuse and misuse of antidepressants. Abuse and misuse of antidepressants . Substance Abuse and Rehabilitation 5 , 107 – 120 .

Feng , LY , Battulga , A , Han , E , Chung , H and Li , JH ( 2017 ) New psychoactive substances of natural origin: a brief review . Journal of Food and Drug Analysis 25 , 461 – 471 .

Food and Drug Administration [FDA] ( 2010 ) https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/drugsatfda_docs/label/2009/020639s045s046lbl.pdf ( ).

Francesconi , G , Orsolini , L , Corkery , J , Papanti , D and Schifano , F ( 2015 ) Venlafaxine as the ‘baby ecstasy’?: literature overview and analysis of web-based misusers’ experiences . Human Psychopharmacology Clinical and Experimental 30 , 255 – 261 .

Freeman , TP , Morgan , CJ , Vaughn-Jones , J , Hussain , N , Karimi , K and Curran , HV ( 2012 ) Cognitive and subjective effects of mephedrone and factors influencing use of a new legal high . Addiction 107 , 792 – 800 .

Freeman , MJ , Rose , DZ and Myers , MA ( 2013 ) Ischemic stroke after use of the synthetic marijuana ‘spice’ . Neurology 81 , 2090 – 2093 .

Glue , P , Al-Shaqsi , S , Hancock , D , Gale , C , Strong , B and Schep , L ( 2013 ) Hospitalisation associated with use of the synthetic cannabinoid K2 . New Zealand Medical Journal 126 , 18 – 23 .

Graddy , R , Buresh , ME and Rastegar , DA ( 2018 ) New and emerging illicit psychoactive substances . Medical Clinics of North America 102 , 697 – 714 .

Gunderson , EW , Haughey , HM , Ait-Daoud , N , Joshi , AS and Hart , CL ( 2012 ) ‘Spice’ and ‘K2’ herbal highs: a case series and systematic review of the clinical effects and biopsychosocial implications of synthetic cannabinoid use in humans . American Journal of Addiction 21 , 320 – 326 .

Hajak , G , Müller , WE , Wittchen , HU , Pittrow , D and Kirch , W ( 2003 ) Abuse and dependence potential for the non-benzodiazepine hypnotics zolpidem and zopiclone: a review of case reports and epidemiological data . Addiction 98 , 1371 – 1378 .

Hermanns-Clausen , M , Kneisel , S , Szabo , B and Auwärter , V ( 2013 ) Acute toxicity due to the confirmed consumption of synthetic cannabinoids: clinical and laboratory findings . Addiction 108 , 534 – 544 .

Herzig , A , Brooks , R and Mohr , C ( 2013 ) Inferring about individual drug and schizotypy effects on cognitive functioning in polydrug using mephedrone users before and after clubbing . Human Psychopharmacology Clinical and Experimental 28 , 168 – 182 .

Hohmann , N , Mikus , G and Czock , D ( 2014 ) Effects and risks associated with novel psychoactive substances: mislabeling and sale as bath salts, spice, and research chemicals . Deutsches Ärzteblatt International 111 , 139 .

Homman , L , Seglert , J and Morgan , MJ ( 2018 ) An observational study on the sub-acute effects of mephedrone on mood, cognition, sleep and physical problems in regular mephedrone users . Psychopharmacology 235 , 2609 – 2618 .

Hopkins , CY and Gilchrist , BL ( 2013 ) A case of cannabinoid hyperemesis syndrome caused by synthetic cannabinoids . Journal of Emergency Medicine 45 , 544 – 546 .

Imam , SF , Patel , H , Mahmoud , M , Prakash , NA , King , MS and Fremont , RD ( 2013 ) Bath salts intoxication: a case series . Journal of Emergency Medicine 45 , 361 – 365 .

John , ME , Thomas-Rozea , C and Hahn , D ( 2017 ) Bath salts abuse leading to new-onset psychosis and potential for violence . Clinical Schizophrenia & Related Psychoses 11 , 120 – 124 .

Kaizer-Będkowska , MJ and Kucia , KA ( 2018 ) The analysis of admissions to the Emergency Department of the Psychiatric Hospital in Bielsko-Biała connected with psychotic disorders induced by psychoactive drug use . Psychiatria i Psychologia Kliniczna 18 , 160 – 165 .

Kapil , V , Green , LG , Le Lait , C , Wood , DM and Dargan , PI ( 2014 ) Misuse of benzodiazepines and Z-drugs in the UK . British Journal of Psychiatry 205 , 407 – 408 .

Karila , L , Megarbane , B , Cottencin , O and Lejoyeux , M ( 2015 ) Synthetic cathinones: a new public health problem . Current Neuropharmacology 13 , 12 – 20 .

Karila , L , Billieux , J , Benyamina , A , Lançon , C and Cottencin , O ( 2016 ) The effects and risks associated to mephedrone and methylone in humans: a review of the preliminary evidences . Brain Research Bulletin 126 , 61 –57.

Kehr , J , Ichinose , F , Yoshitake , S , Goiny , M , Sievertsson , T , Nyberg , F and Yoshitake , T ( 2011 ) Mephedrone, compared with MDMA (ecstasy) and amphetamine, rapidly increases both dopamine and 5-HT levels in nucleus accumbens of awake rats . British Journal of Pharmacology 164 , 1949 – 1958 .

Klein , L , Bangh , S and Cole , JB ( 2017 ) Intentional recreational abuse of quetiapine compared to other second-generation antipsychotics . The Western Journal of Emergency Medicine 18 , 243 – 250 .

Lászik , A , Törő , K , Vannai , M , Sára-Klausz , G , Kócs , T , Farkas , R , Keller , É and Róna , K ( 2015 ) .

Lee , J , Pilgrim , J , Gerostamoulos , D , Robinson , J and Wong , A ( 2018 ) Increasing rates of quetiapine overdose, misuse, and mortality in Victoria, Australia . Drug and Alcohol Dependence 187 , 95 – 99 .

Lee , VR , Vera , A , Alexander , A , Ruck , B , Nelson , LS , Wax , P , Campleman , S , Brent , J and Calello , DP ( 2019 ) Loperamide misuse to avoid opioid withdrawal and to achieve a euphoric effect: high doses and high risk . Clinical Toxicology (Phila) 57 , 175 – 180 .

Linn , KA , Long , MT and Pagel , PS ( 2014 ) ‘Robo-Tripping’: dextromethorphan abuse and its anesthetic implications . Anesthesiology and Pain Medicine 4 , e20990 .

Liu , L , Wheeler , S , Venkataramanan , R , Rymer , JA , Pizon , FA , Lynch , JM and Tamama , K ( 2018 ) Newly emerging drugs of abuse and their detection methods. An ACLPS critical review . American Journal of Clinical Pathology 149 , 105 – 116 .

Louh , IK and Freeman , WD ( 2014 ) A ‘spicy’ encephalopathy: synthetic cannabinoids as cause of encephalopathy and seizure . Critical Care 18 , 553 .

Lovrecic , B and Lovrecic , M ( 2017 ) and https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Barbara_Lovrecic/publication/319554544_Novel_psychoactive_synthetic_cannabinoids_and_synthetic_cathinones_The_never-ending_story_of_potential_clinical_toxicity/links/59b3c8a70f7e9b37435210fb/ ( ).

Lucyk , SN and Nelson , LS ( 2017 ) Novel synthetic opioids: an opioid epidemic within an opioid epidemic . Annals of Emergency Medicine 69 , 91 – 93 .

Macfarlane , V and Christie , G ( 2015 ) Synthetic cannabinoid withdrawal: a new demand on detoxification services . Drug and Alcohol Review 34 , 147 – 153 .

Maeda , H , Kikura-Hanajiri , R , Kawamura , M , Nagashima , E and Yoshida , KI ( 2018 ) AB-CHMINACA-induced sudden death from non-cardiogenic pulmonary edema . Clinical Toxicology (Philadelphia) 56 , 143 – 145 .

Marchei , E , Pacifici , R , Mannocchi , G , Marinelli , E , Busardò , FP and Pichini , S ( 2018 ) New synthetic opioids in biological and non-biological matrices: a review of current analytical methods . Trends in Analytical Chemistry 102 , 1 – 15 .

Marinetti , LJ and Antonides , HM ( 2013 ) Analysis of synthetic cathinones commonly found in bath salts in human performance and postmortem toxicology: method development, drug distribution and interpretation of results . Journal of Analytical Toxicology 37 , 135 – 146 .

Martinotti , G , Cinosi , E , Santacroce , R , Papanti , D , Pasquini , A , Mancini , V , Corbo , M , Fiori , F , Sarchione , F , Marchetti , D , Verrocchio , MC , Di Giannantonio , M , Torrens , M , Schifano , F , Morlan Coarasa , MJ and Merino Del Villar , C ( 2017 ) Substance-related psychopathology and aggressiveness in a nightlife holiday resort: results from a pilot study in a psychiatric inpatient unit in Ibiza . Human Psychopharmacology Clinical and Experimental 32 , e2586 .

Martinotti , G , Santacroce , R , Pettorruso , M , Montemitro , C , Spano , MC , Lorusso , M , di Giannantonio , M and Lerner , AG ( 2018 ) Hallucinogen persisting perception disorder: etiology, clinical features, and therapeutic perspectives . Brain Sciences 8 , 47 .

Mdege , ND , Meader , N , Lloyd , C , Parrott , S and McCambridge , J ( 2017 ) The novel psychoactive substances in the UK project: empirical and conceptual review work to produce research recommendations . UK: National Institute for Health Research 5 , 1 – 166 .

Miliano , C , Serpelloni , G , Rimondo , C , Mereu , M , Marti , M and De Luca , MA ( 2016 ) Neuropharmacology of new psychoactive substances (NPS): focus on the rewarding and reinforcing properties of cannabimimetics and amphetamine-like stimulants . Frontiers in Neuroscience 10 , 153 .

Mir , A , Obafemi , A , Young , A and Kane , C ( 2011 ) Myocardial infarction associated with use of the synthetic cannabinoid K2 . Pediatrics 128 , e1622 – 7 .

Moosmann , B , King , LA and Auwarter , V ( 2015 ) Designer benzodiazepines: a new challenge . World Psychiatry 14 , 248 .

Morris , H and Wallach , J ( 2014 ) From PCP to MXE: a comprehensive review of the non-medical use of dissociative drugs . Drug Testing and Analysis 6 , 614 – 632 .

Mugele , J , Nanagas , KA and Tormoehlen , LM ( 2012 ) Serotonin syndrome associated with MDPV use: a case report . Annals of Emergency Medicine 60 , 100 – 102 .

Naviglio , S , Papanti , D , Moressa , V and Ventura , A ( 2015 ) An adolescent with an altered state of mind . British Medical Journal 350 : h299 .

Olsen , JF ( 2018 ) The case of the Norwegian teen who died from synthetic cannabinoids . Drug Science, Policy and Law 4 , 1 – 2 .

Oluwabusi , OO , Lobach , L , Akhtar , U , Youngman , B and Ambrosini , PJ ( 2012 ) Synthetic cannabinoid-induced psychosis: two adolescent cases . Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychopharmacology 22 , 393 – 395 .

Orsolini , L , Papanti , GD , Francesconi , G and Schifano , F ( 2015 ) Mind navigators of chemicals’ experimenters? A web-based description of e-psychonauts . Cyberpsychology Behavior and Social Networking 18 , 296 – 300 .

Otachbachi , M , Cevik , C , Bagdure , S and Nugent , K ( 2010 ) Excited delirium, restraints, and unexpected death . The American Journal of Forensic Medicine and Pathology 31 , 107 – 112 .

Papanti , D , Schifano , F , Botteon , G , Bertossi , F , Mannix , J , Vidoni , D , Impagnatiello , M , Pascolo-Fabrici , E and Bonavigo , T ( 2013 ) ‘Spiceophrenia’: a systematic overview of ‘spice’-related psychopathological issues and a case report . Human Psychopharmacology 28 , 379 – 389 .

Parsons , G ( 2018 ) http://www.prescriber.co.uk/article/guide-to-the-management-of-gabapentinoid-misuse/ ( ).

Patton , AL , Chimalakonda , KC , Moran , CL , McCain , KR , Radominska-Pandya , A , James , LP , Kokes , C and Moran , JH ( 2013 ) K2 toxicity: fatal case of psychiatric complications following AM2201 exposure . Journal of Forensic Sciences 58 , 1676 – 1680 .

Paul , ABM , Simms , L , Amini , S and Paul , AE ( 2018 ) Teens and spice: a review of adolescent fatalities associated with synthetic cannabinoid use . Journal of Forensic Sciences 63 , 1321 – 1324 .

Penders , TM and Gestring , R ( 2011 ) Hallucinatory delirium following use of MDPV: ‘bath salts’ . General Hospital Psychiatry 33 , 525 – 526 .

Penders , TM , Gestring , RE and Vilensky , DA ( 2012 ) Excited delirium following use of synthetic cathinones (bath salts) . General Hospital Psychiatry 34 , 647 – 650 .

Prekupec , MP , Mansky , PA and Baumann , MH ( 2017 ) Misuse of novel synthetic opioids: a deadly new trend . Journal of Addiction Medicine 11 , 256 – 265 .

Prosser , JM and Nelson , LS ( 2012 ) The toxicology of bath salts: a review of synthetic cathinones . Journal of Medical Toxicology 8 , 33 – 42 .

Romanelli , F and Smith , KM ( 2009 ) Dextromethorphan abuse: clinical effects and management . Journal of the American Pharmacist Association 49 , e20 – e25 .

Rose , DZ , Guerrero , WR and Mokin , MV ( 2015 ) Haemorrhagic stroke following use of the synthetic marijuana ‘spice’ . Neurology 85 , 1177 – 1179 .

Rosenbaum , CD , Carreiro , SP and Babu , KM ( 2012 ) Here today, gone tomorrow…and back again? A review of herbal marijuana alternatives (K2, spice), synthetic cathinones (bath salts), kratom, Salvia divinorum, methoxetamine, and piperazines . Journal of Medical Toxicology 8 , 5 – 32 .

Sansgiry , SS , Bhansali , AH , Bapat , SS and Xu , Q ( 2016 ) Abuse of over-the-counter medicines: a pharmacist's perspective . Integrated Pharmacy Research and Practice 6 , 1 – 6 .

Schifano , F and Chiappini , S ( 2018 a) Is there a potential of misuse for venlafaxine and bupropion? Frontiers in Pharmacology 9 , 239 .

Schifano , F and Chiappini , S ( 2018 b) Is there such a thing as a ‘lope’ dope? Analysis of loperamide-related European Medicines Agency (EMA) pharmacovigilance database reports . PLOS One 4 , e0204443 .

Schifano , F , Orsolini , L , Papanti , DG and Corkery , JM ( 2015 ) Novel psychoactive substances of interest for psychiatry . World Psychiatry 14 , 15 – 26 .

Schifano , F , Papanti , GD , Orsolini , L and Corkery , JM ( 2016 ) Novel psychoactive substances: the pharmacology of stimulants and hallucinogens . Expert Review of Clinical Pharmacology 9 , 943 – 954 .

Schifano , F , Orsolini , L , Papanti , D and Corkery , J ( 2017 ) NPS: medical consequences associated with their intake . Current Topics in Behavioural Neuroscience 32 , 351 – 380 .

Schifano , F , Chiappini , S , Corkery , JM and Guirguis , A ( 2018 ) Abuse of prescription drugs in the context of novel psychoactive substances (NPS): a systematic review . Brain Sciences 8 , pii: E73 .

Schifano , F , Chiappini , S , Corkery , JM and Guirguis , A ( 2019 ) An insight into Z-drug abuse and dependence: an examination of reports to the European Medicines Agency database of suspected adverse drug reactions . International Journal of Neuropsychopharmacology 22 , 270 – 277 .

Shafi , A , Gallagher , P , Stewart , N , Martinotti , G and Corazza , O ( 2017 ) The risk of violence associated with novel psychoactive substance misuse in patients presenting to acute mental health services . Human Psychopharmacology Clinical and Experimental 32 , e2606 .

Shanks , KG , Dahn , T and Terrell , AR ( 2012 ) Detection of JWH-018 and JWH-073 by UPLC-MS-MS in postmortem whole blood casework . Journal of Analytical Toxicology 36 , 145 – 152 .

Shenouda , R and Desan , PH ( 2013 ) Abuse of tricyclic antidepressant drugs: a case series . Journal of Clinical Psychopharmacology 33 , 440 –2.

Simmler , L , Buser , T , Donzelli , M , Schramm , Y , Dieu , LH , Huwyler , J and Liechti , M ( 2013 ) Pharmacological characterisation of designer cathinones in vitro . British Journal of Pharmacology 168 , 458 – 470 .

Simonato , P , Corazza , O , Santonastaso , P , Corkery , J , Deluca , P , Davey , Z , Blaszko , U and Schifano , F ( 2013 ) Novel psychoactive substances as a novel challenge for health professionals: results from an Italian survey . Human Psychopharmacology 28 , 324 – 331 .

Smith , JP , Sutcliffe , OB and Banks , CE ( 2015 ) An overview of recent developments in the analytical detection of new psychoactive substances (NPSs) . The Analyst 140 , 4932 – 4948 .

Solimini , R , Pichini , S , Pacifici , R , Busardò , FP and Giorgetti , R ( 2018 ) Pharmacotoxicology of non-fentanyl derived new synthetic opioids . Frontiers in Pharmacology 9 , 654 .

Spaderna , M , Addy , PH and D'Souza , DC ( 2013 ) Spicing things up: synthetic cannabinoids . Psychopharmacology 228 , 525 – 540 .

Sutherland , R and Barratt , M ( 2016 ) New (and Emerging) Psychoactive Substances (NPS) . National Drug and Alcohol Research Centre, NDARC Fact sheet, University of New South Wales , Sidney, NSW, Australia . and https://ndarc.med.unsw.edu.au/resource/new-and-emerging-psychoactive-substances-nps ( ).

Suzuki , J and El-Haddad , S ( 2017 ) A review: fentanyl and non-pharmaceutical fentanyls . Drug and Alcohol Dependence 171 , 107 – 116 .

Tait , RJ , Caldicott , D , Mountain , D , Hill , SL and Lenton , S ( 2015 ) A systematic review of adverse events arising from the use of synthetic cannabinoids and their associated treatment . Clinical Toxicology 54 , 1 – 13 .

Tracy , D , Wood , DM and Baumeister , D ( 2017 ) Novel psychoactive substances: types, mechanisms of action, and effects . British Medical Journal 356 , i6848 .

Trecki , J , Gerona , RR and Schwartz , MD ( 2015 ) Synthetic cannabinoid-related illnesses and deaths . The New England Journal of Medicine 373 , 103 – 107 .

UNODC ( 2013 ) The Challenge of New Psychoactive Substances: A Report from the Global SMART Programme . Vienna : United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime . https://www.unodc.org/documents/scientific/NPS_2013_SMART.pdf ( ).

UNODC ( 2018 a) Analysis of Drug Markets: Opiates, Cocaine, Cannabis, Synthetic Drugs . Vienna : UNODC . a) http://www.unodc.org/wdr2018/prelaunch/WDR18_Booklet_3_DRUG_MARKETS.pdf ( ).

UNODC ( 2018 b) World Drug Report 2018 Volume 3 – Analysis of Drug Markets: Opiates, Cocaine, Cannabis, Synthetic Drugs . Vienna : United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime . b) https://www.unodc.org/wdr2018/ ( ).

Ustundag , MF , Ozhan Ibis , E , Yucel , A and Ozcan , H ( 2015 ) Synthetic cannabis-induced mania . Case Reports in Psychiatry 2015 , 310930 .

Van Amsterdam , J and van den Brink , W ( 2015 ) The misuse of prescription opioids: a threat for Europe? Current Drug Abuse Reviews 8 , 3 – 14 .

Vårdal , L , Wong , G , Øiestad , Å , Pedersen-Bjergaard , S , Gjelstad , A and Øiestad , E ( 2019 ) Rapid determination of designer benzodiazepines, benzodiazepines, and Z-hypnotics in whole blood using parallel artificial liquid membrane extraction and UHPLC-MS/MS . Analytical and Bioanalytical Chemistry 410 , 4967 – 4978 .

Vento , AE , Schifano , F , Gentili , F , Pompei , F , Corkery , JM , Kotzalidis , GD and Girardi , P ( 2013 ) Bupropion perceived as a stimulant by two patients with a previous history of cocaine misuse . Annali dell'Istituto Superiore di Sanità 49 , 402 – 405 .

Ventura , L , Carvalho , F and Dinis-Oliveira , RG ( 2018 ) Opioids in the frame of new psychoactive substances network: a complex pharmacological and toxicological issue . Current Molecular Pharmacology 11 , 97 – 108 .

Victorri-Vigneau , C , Dailly , E , Veyrac , G and Jolliet , P ( 2007 ) Evidence of zolpidem abuse and dependence: results of the French Centre for evaluation and information on pharmacodependence (CEIP) network survey . British Journal of Clinical Pharmacology 64 , 198 – 209 .

Wallach , J and Brandt , SD ( 2018 ) 1,2-Diarylethylamine- and ketamine-based New psychoactive substances . In Handbook of Experimental Pharmacology . Berlin, Heidelberg : Springer International Publishing , pp. 51 – 67 .

Wallach , J , Kang , H , Colestock , T , Morris , H , Bortolotto , ZA , Collingridge , GL , Lodge , D , Halbertstadt , AL , Brandt , sd and Adejare , A ( 2016 ) Pharmacological investigations of the dissociative ‘legal highs’ diphenidine, methoxphenidine and analogues . PLoS ONE 11 , e0157021 .

Warrick , BJ , Wilson , J , Hedge , M , Freeman , S , Leonard , K and Aaron , C ( 2013 ) Lethal serotonin syndrome after methylone and butylone ingestion . Journal of Medical Toxicology 8 , 65 – 68 .

Weaver , MF , Hopper , JA and Gunderson , EW ( 2015 ) Designer drugs 2015: assessment and management . Addiction Science & Clinical Practice 10 , 8 .

Wessinger , WD , Moran , JH and Seely , KA ( 2015 ) Synthetic cannabinoid effects on behavior and motivation . In Campolongo , P and Fattore , L (eds), Cannabinoid Modulation of Emotion, Memory, and Motivation . New York : Springer , pp. 205 – 224 .

Wilson , MD , Ferguson , RW , Mazer , ME and Litovitz , TL ( 2011 ) Monitoring trends in dextromethorphan abuse using the national poison data system: 2000–2010 . Clinical Toxicology (Philadelphia) 49 , 409 – 415 .

Winstock , A ( 2010 ) http://www.namsdl.org/library/E2E84A68-1372-636C-DD0E8D3A508B5F48/ ( ).

Winstock , AR and Barratt , MJ ( 2013 a) Synthetic cannabis: a comparison of patterns of use and effect profile with natural cannabis in a large global sample . Drug and Alcohol Dependence 1 , 106 – 111 .

Winstock , AR and Barratt , MJ ( 2013 b) The 12-month prevalence and nature of adverse experiences resulting in emergency medical presentations associated with the use of synthetic cannabinoid products . Human Psychopharmacology Clinical and Experimental 28 , 390 – 393 .

Winstock , A , Mitcheson , L , Ramsey , J , Davies , S , Puchnarewicz , M and Marsden , J ( 2011 ) Mephedrone: use, subjective effects and health risks . Addiction 106 , 1991 – 1996 .

Wood , DM and Dargan , PI ( 2012 ) Novel psychoactive substances: how to understand the acute toxicity associated with the use of these substances . Therapeutic Drug Monitoring 34 , 363 – 367 .

World Health Organisation [WHO] ( 2017 ) www.who.int/medicines/access/controlled-substances/PrereviewPregabalin.pdf ( ).