Power Determination and Hydrino Product Characterization of Ultra-low Field Ignition of Hydrated Silver Shots

– R. Mills, Y. Lu, R. Frazer. Chinese Journal of Physics, Vol. 56, (2018), pp. 1667-1717. DOI: 10.1016/j.cjph.2018.04.015. To purchase the final published version Click Here.

Hydrated silver shots comprising a source of H and HOH catalyst were ignited by passing a low voltage, high current through the shot to produce explosive plasma that emitted brilliant light predominantly in the short-wavelength 10 to 300 nm region. Based on Stark broadening, the initially optically thick essentially 100% ionized plasma expanded at sound speed and thinned to emit EUV and UV light. The peak power of 20 MW was measured using absolute spectroscopy over the 22.8-647 nm region wherein the optical emission energy was 250 times the applied energy. Synchronized high-speed video and spectroscopic recording of the plasma emission and the measurement of the applied ignition power over time showed that plasma persisted even after the ignition power decayed to zero. Continuous megawatt-level power was recorded on a hydrino reactor wherein continuous brilliant plasma was maintained by HOH and H produced from water-entrained injected molten silver matrix. The molten fuel produced the same EUV spectrum as the shots, but converted to 5700K blackbody radiation of about 1 m2 surface area with a positive feedback cycle of silver vaporization and absorption of the hydrino reaction emission with the plasma becoming increasingly optically thick. The calorimetrically measured power of a typical 80 mg, 10 microliter shot shot ignition released by the nascent HOH catalyzed transition of H to hydrino state H 2 (1/4) was 400,000 W. The catalysis reaction product H 2 (1/4) was identified by Raman spectroscopy, photoluminescence emission spectroscopy, X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, and MAS 1H NMR. Water impregnated in a conductive silver matrix was found to detonate under application of a very low voltage, high current to produce a shockwave that is about equivalent to an order of magnitude more gunpowder.

Mechanism of Soft X-ray Continuum Radiation from Low-Energy Pinch Discharges of Hydrogen and Ultra-low Field Ignition of Solid Fuels

– R. Mills, J. Lotoski, Y. Lu. Plasma Science and Technology, Volume 19, Number 9 (2017). DOI: 10.1088/2058-6272/aa7383. To purchase the final published version Click Here.

EUV radiation in the 10-30 nm region observed only arising from very low energy pulsed pinch gas discharges comprising some hydrogen first at Brilliant Light Power, Inc. (BrLP) and reproduced at the Harvard Center for Astrophysics (CfA) was determined to be due to the transition of H to the lower-energy hydrogen or hydrino state H(1/4) whose emission matches that observed wherein alternative sources were eliminated. The identity of the catalyst that accepts 3 × 27.2 eV from the H to cause the H to H(1/4) transition was investigated by recording the EUV continuum emission from electrodes having metal oxides that are thermodynamically favorable to undergo H reduction to form HOH catalyst; whereas, those that are unfavorable did not show any continuum even though the low-melting point metals tested are very favorable to forming metal ion plasmas with strong short-wavelength continua in more powerful plasma sources. Of the two possible catalysts, 3 H and HOH, the latter catalyst is more likely to be active in the H pinch plasma based on the behavior with oxide-coated electrodes and the consideration of the intensity profile of the multi-body reaction required during 3 H catalysis. The HOH catalyst was further shown to give EUV radiation of the same nature by igniting a solid fuel comprising a source of H and HOH catalyst by passing a low voltage, high current through the fuel to produce explosive plasma. No chemical reaction can release such high-energy light, and the field corresponded to a voltage that was less than 15 V for the atmospheric pressure collisional plasma. No high field existed to form highly ionized ions that could give radiation in this EUV region. This plasma source serves as strong evidence for the existence of the transition of H to hydrino H(1/4) by HOH as the catalyst. The hydrino reaction is a powerful new energy source released primarily as blackbody radiation equivalent to the Sun spectrum. Initial prototypes to generate extraordinary optical power by the formation of hydrinos are already producing photovoltaic generated electrical power. Moreover, m H catalyst was identified to be active in the laboratory and astronomical sources such as the Sun, stars, and interstellar medium wherein the characteristics of hydrino product match those of the dark matter of the universe.

Soft X-ray Continuum Radiation from Low-Energy Pinch Discharges – R. Mills, R. Booker, Y. Lu, J. Plasma Physics, Vol. 79 (2013) 489–507. DOI: 10.1017/S0022377812001109.

Under a study contracted by GEN3 Partners, spectra of high current pinch discharges in pure hydrogen and helium were recorded in the extreme ultraviolet radiation region at the Harvard Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics (CfA) in an attempt to reproduce experimental results published by Brilliant Light Power, Inc. (BrLP) showing predicted continuum radiation due to hydrogen in the 10–30 nm region (Mills, R. L. and Lu, Y. 2010 Hydrino continuum transitions with cutoffs at 22.8 nm and 10.1 nm. Int. J. Hydrog. Energy 35, 8446–8456, doi:10.1016?j.ijhydene.2010.05.098). Alternative explanations were considered to the claimed interpretation of the continuum radiation as being that emitted during transitions of H to lower-energy states (hydrinos). Continuum radiation was observed at CfA in the 10–30 nm region that matched BrLP’s results. Considering the low energy of 5.2 J per pulse, the observed radiation in the energy range of about 120–40 eV, reference experiments and analysis of plasma gases, cryofiltration to remove contaminants, and spectra of the electrode metal, no conventional explanation was found in the prior or present work to be plausible including contaminants, electrode metal emission, and Bremsstrahlung, ion recombination, molecular or molecular ion band radiation, and instrument artifacts involving radicals and energetic ions reacting at the charge-coupled device and H 2 re-radiation at the detector chamber. Moreover, predicted selective extraordinarily high-kinetic energy H was observed by the corresponding Doppler broadening of the Balmer α line.

Validation of the Observation of Soft X-ray Continuum Radiation from Low-Energy Pinch Discharges in the Presence of Molecular Hydrogen – A. Bykanov

Under a study contracted by GEN3 Partners, spectra of high current pinch discharges in pure hydrogen and helium were recorded in the EUV region at the Harvard Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics (CfA) in an attempt to reproduce experimental results published by Brilliant Light Power, Inc. (BrLP) showing predicted continuum radiation due to hydrogen in the 10–30 nm region. Alternative explanations were considered to the claimed interpretation of the continuum radiation as being that emitted during transitions of H to lower-energy states (hydrinos). Continuum radiation was observed at CfA in the 10–30 nm region that matched BrLP’s results. Considering the low energy of 5.2 J per pulse, the observed radiation in the energy range of about 120 eV to 40 eV and reference experiments no conventional explanation was found in the prior or present work to be plausible including electrode metal emission, and Bremsstrahlung, ion recombination, molecular or molecular ion band radiation, and instrument artifacts involving radicals and energetic ions reacting at the CCD and H 2 re-radiation at the detector chamber.

Substantial Doppler Broadening of Atomic-Hydrogen Lines in DC and Capacitively Coupled RF Plasmas – K. Akhtar, J.E. Scharer, R.L. Mills, 2009 J. Phys. D: Appl. Phys., Vol. 42, Issue 13, 135207 (12pp), doi:10.1088/0022-3727/42/13/135207.

The mechanism of extraordinary broadening of the Balmer lines of hydrogen admixed with noble gases in a dc glow discharge and a capacitively coupled rf discharge is studied over a wide range of pressure and gas compositions to test the field acceleration model (Cvetanovic et al 2005 J. Appl. Phys. 97 033302). High-resolution optical emission spectroscopy is performed parallel to the electrode axis (end-on) and perpendicular to the electrode axis (side-on) along with Langmuir probe measurements of plasma density and electron temperature for the parallel plate rf capacitive discharge case. Sharp pin-shaped tungsten dc electrodes are also used to minimize the backscattering of ions that are theorized by a field acceleration model to be heated in the sheath region. An excessively broad and symmetric (Gaussian) Balmer emission line corresponding to 20–60 eV of hydrogen atom energy is observed in Ar/H 2 and He/H 2 plasmas when compared with the majority species atom temperatures. Energy is transferred selectively to hydrogen atoms whereas the atoms of admixed He and Ar gases remain cold (<0.5 eV). Since there is neither a preferred ion nor atom in the field acceleration model, one should also observe enhanced temperature hydrogen and helium atoms in He/H 2 discharges where the atomic mass is more comparable (4 : 1).

Power & Hydrino Characterization



H 2 O-Based Solid Fuel Power Source Based on the Catalysis of H by HOH Catalyst – R.L. Mills, J. Lotoski

Atomic hydrogen is predicted to form fractional Rydberg energy states H(1/p) called “hydrino atoms” wherein n=1/2,1/3,1/4,…,1/p (p ≤ 137 is an integer) replaces the well-known parameter n = integer in the Rydberg equation for hydrogen excited states. The transition of H to a stable hydrino state H [a H /p=m+1] having a binding energy of p2•13.6eV occurs by a nonradiative resonance energy transfer of m • 27.2 eV (m is an integer) to a matched energy acceptor such as nascent H 2 O that has a potential energy of 81.6 eV (m = 3). The energy transfer to the HOH catalyst results in its ionization wherein the charge build up may become limiting of the further propagation of the catalysis reaction. An applied, low-voltage, high current was predicted to ameliorate this space charge inhibition of the hydrino reaction. To achieve these conditions, a solid fuel was used that comprises a highly conductive matrix such as a metal powder with bound or suspended H 2 O that served as the source of HOH catalyst and H. When the high current was applied, the H 2 O-based solid exploded with a tremendous burst of optical power as recorded with high-speed video and spectroscopically. The power density was confirmed to be about 3 X 1010 W/liter of fuel volume using the measured time of the event and the energy released as measured by bomb calorimetry. The predicted molecular hydrino H 2 (1/4) was identified as a product by Raman spectroscopy, photoluminescence emission spectroscopy, and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS).

High-Power-Density Catalyst Induced Hydrino Transition (CIHT) Electrochemical Cell – R. Mills, J. Lotoski, J. Kong, G. Chu, J. He, J. Trevey, Int. J. Hydrogen Energy, 39 (2014), DOI: 10.1016/j.ijhydene.2014.06.153. pp. 14512–14530. To purchase the final published version Click Here.

CIHT cells, each comprising a Mo, MoCu (50-50 at%), or MoNi (50-50 at%) hydrogen permeable membrane anode or tape cast CoCu, clad onto a hydrogen permeable Ni membrane, NiO cathode, a LiOH-LiBr eutectic mixture as the electrolyte, and MgO matrix in some cases exploit hydrino formation as a half-cell reaction to serve as a new electrical energy source. Electrical energies were continuously output over long-duration, measured on different systems, configurations, and modes of operation and were typically multiples of the electrical input that in most cases exceed the input by a factor of about 2 at about 10 mW/cm2 anode area. The power density was increased by a factor of over 10 by running a corresponding high current without sufficient H corrosion suppression due to a limited H permeation rate, but the results indicate that thinner more permeable foils should provide long-term stability with high electrical gain. The lesser kinetically favorable anode material CoCu was protected from corrosion by cladding a tape cast onto a hydrogen permeable Ni membrane to achieve comparable power densities as Mo and MoCu foils due to the large surface area of the tape cast. For the range of surface power densities of 10 to 100 mW/cm2 developed by different anodes, a stack not requiring gas or heat handling systems is feasible with dimensions of 10 um, 10 um, and 20 um for the anode, the electrolyte layer, and a porous cathode to provide H 2 O transport to the reaction having a volumetric power density of 2.5 and 25 kW/liter, respectively. The predicted molecular hydrino H 2 (1/4) was identified as a product of CIHT cells by MAS 1H NMR, electron-beam excitation emission spectroscopy, Raman spectroscopy, X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, and photoluminescence emission spectroscopy.

Catalyst Induced Hydrino Transition (CIHT) Electrochemical Cell – R.L. Mills, X. Yu, Y. Lu, G Chu, J. He, J. Lotoski, Int. J. Energy Res., published online December 20, 2013, 25 pages; doi: 10.1002/er.3142. To purchase the final published version Click Here

Response to a comment to Catatalyst Induced Hydrino Transition (CIHT) electochemical cell of D. Sundholm. – R. Mills

Response to a comment to Catalyst-Induced Hydrino Transition (CIHT) electrochemical cell of D. Sundholm. Published in the International Journal of Energy Research. – Wiley Online Library

The nascent H 2 O molecule formed by an oxidation reaction of OH- at a hydrogen anode is predicted to serve as a catalyst to form H(1/4) with an energy release of 204 eV compared to the 1.48 eV required to produce H from electrolysis of H 2 O. CIHT cells, each comprising a Ni anode, NiO cathode, a LiOH-LiBr eutectic mixture as the electrolyte, and MgO matrix exploit Hydrino formation as a half-cell reaction to serve as a new electrical energy source. The cells were operated under intermittent H 2 O electrolysis to generate H at the anode and then discharged to form hydrinos wherein trace H 2 O vapor was supplied as entrained in an inert gas flow in otherwise closed cells. Net electrical production over the electrolysis input was measured using an Arbin BT 2000 (<0.1% error) and confirmed using a digital oscilloscope; wherein no theoretical conventional energy was possible. Materials characterizations included those that characterized any compositional change of the electrolyte by elemental analysis using ICPMS, XRF, and XRD, and SEM was performed on the anode. The electrical energies continuously output over long-duration, measured on different systems, configurations, and modes of operation were typically multiples of the electrical input that in cases exceed the input by a factor of greater than 10. Calorimetry of solid fuels that exploited the same catalyst and a similar reaction mechanism showed excess thermal energy greater than 10 times the maximum possible from any conventional reaction. The predicted molecular hydrino H 2 (1/4) was identified as a product of CIHT cells and solid fuels by MAS 1HNMR, ToF-SIMS, ESI-ToFMS, electron-beam excitation emission spectroscopy, Raman spectroscopy, photoluminescence emission spectroscopy, FTIR, and XPS.

Solid Fuels that Form HOH Catalyst – R. Mills, J. Lotoski, W. Good, J. He, Int. J. Hydrogen Energy, 39 (2014), pp. 11930-11944 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijhydene.2014.05.170.

Atomic hydrogen is predicted to form fractional Rydberg energy states H (1/p)￼ called “hydrino atoms” wherein n = ￼1/2, 1/3, 1/4,…1/p (￼p ≤ 137 is an integer) replaces the well-known parameter n = integer￼ in the Rydberg equation for hydrogen excited states. The transition of ￼H to a stable hydrino state H [aH / p = m + 1]￼ having a binding energy of p2 . 13.6 eV￼ occurs by a nonradiative resonance energy transfer of m . 27.2 eV￼ (￼m is an integer) to a matched energy acceptor such as nascent H2O that has a potential energy of 81.6 eV (m = 3). The nascent H2O molecule formed by an oxidation reaction of OH- at a hydrogen anode is predicted to serve as a catalyst to form H (1/4)￼ with an energy release of 204 eV compared to the 1.48 eV required to produce H from electrolysis of H2O. CIHT cells, each comprising a LiOH-LiBr eutectic mixture as the electrolyte exploit hydrino formation as a half-cell reaction to serve as a new electrical energy source. Net electrical production over the electrolysis input and hydrogen supplied to the anode was measured using an Arbin BT 2000. The electrical energies were continuously output over long-duration, measured on different systems, configurations, and modes of operation and were typically multiples of the electrical input that in most cases exceed the input by a factor of about 2 at about 10 mW/cm2 anode area. The power density was increased by a factor of over 10 by running a corresponding high current. The thermal energy balance of solid fuels that form the HOH catalyst by a reaction akin to those of CIHT cells were measured using both a water flow calorimeter and a Setaram DSC 131 differential scanning calorimeter (DSC). The DSC results confirmed water flow calorimetric (WFC) results and the former were further independently replicated at Setaram Instrumentation based in France. The thermal energy balance for solid fuels such as Co(OH) 2 + CuBr 2 and Cu(OH) 2 + CuBr 2 were up to 60 times the maximum theoretical for both types of calorimeters with supportive XRD of the WFC products. DSC performed on FeOOH and Cu(OH) 2 + FeBr 2 in gold crucibles at Perkin Elmer showed up to four times the maximum theoretical energy. DSC and XRD were independently performed on the starting materials. The MAS 1H￼ NMR showed a predicted upfield matrix shift of a KOH-KCl hydrino getter when exposed to the gas from a reacting Cu(OH) 2 + CuBr 2 solid fuel in a sealed cell. A Raman peak starting at 1950 cm-1 matched the free space rotational energy of H 2 (1/4) (0.2414 eV). The solid fuels scaled linearly to over 5 kW and confirm the energetic reaction of hydrinos and may serve as a thermally reversible system to continuously generate power for commercial uses.

Highlights:

Solid fuels involving H 2 O and H to hydrinos produce excess energy.

O and H to hydrinos produce excess energy. Thermal energy balances were determined by water flow calorimetry and DSC.

Calorimetry was confirmed at instrument-manufactures’ facilities.

The H 2 (1/4) product of CIHT cells was analyzed by multiple spectroscopic techniques.

(1/4) product of CIHT cells was analyzed by multiple spectroscopic techniques. Product H 2 (1/4) was identified by its ro-vibrational spectra, binding energy, and upfield NMR shift.

Oxygen and Silver Nanoparticle Aerosol Magnetohydrodynamic Power Cycle – R. Mills and M. Nansteel, Journal of Aeronautics & Aerospace Engineering, Vol. 8, Iss. 2, No 216.

Pressure and thermal energy of a novel hydrogen chemistry driven plasma is converted into kinetic energy using a converging-diverging nozzle, and the kinetic energy is converted to electricity in a novel highly efficient MHD cycle exploiting (i) the ability of silver to form nanoparticles at its melting point when exposed to oxygen and (ii) the ability of silver at its melting point to absorb up to 25 mole percent oxygen wherein the corresponding rates to support the cycle where experimentally confirmed. Equations for a constant pressure expansion of a constant conductivity working fluid in an MHD channel with uniform magnetic field demonstrated that as the flow decelerates the kinetic energy of the fluid is converted to MHD power in proportion to the loading factor W at a power density of 23.1 MW/liter, and the remaining fraction (1 – W) of the kinetic energy is converted to fluid enthalpy that can be recovered wherein the MHD converter has no moving parts. Since the MHD efficiency may approach W = 1, the electrical conversion of the power of the plasma into electricity may approach the efficiency of pressure-thermal to kinetic energy conversion wherein the corresponding nozzle efficiencies of 99% have been realized. This novel thermodynamic cycle enables closed liquid magnetohydrodynamic power conversion of a breakthrough clean hydrogen plasma power source into electrical power at a power density that is orders of magnitude higher than previously possible at an efficiency approaching unity.

Direct Plasmadynamic Conversion of Plasma Thermal Power to Electricity – Robert M. Mayo, and Randell L. Mills

The generation of electrical energy using direct plasmadynamic conversion (PDC) is studied experimentally for small-scale, chemically-assisted plasmas (CA-plasma) for the first time. Glow discharge and microwave-generated plasma sources are operated at power levels on the order of a few to 50 W in the discharge case and up to 12.83 W/cm3 in the microwave case. Extracted power approaching 1/4 W has been achieved as a demonstration. It is envisioned that such a system may be readily scaled to a few hundred Watts to several tens of kilowatts output power for microdistributed commercial applications (e.g., household, automotive, light industry, and space based power). Three-quarter inch long by 0.040-in diameter cylindrical PDC electrodes have been tested in a 10–50 W direct current, glow discharge plasma device with He or Ar as the working gas at 0.3–3.0 torr. The PDC anode was magnetized in the range of 0–700 G with a 1.5-in water cooled Helmholtz electromagnet. Open circuit voltages up to 6.5 V were obtained across the PDC electrodes at 1 torr He and 350-G field. The collector voltage was shown to be a function of applied magnetic field strength B and peaking at about 300 G. A variety of resistive loads were connected across the PDC electrodes, extracting continuous electrical power up to 0.44 mW. The power/load curve peaks at 0.44 mW for a 20 kW load indicating the impedance matching condition with the plasma source. The most severe limitation to collector output performance is shown to be plasma conductivity. Collector power drops sharply with increasing neutral gas fill pressure in the glow discharge chamber at constant discharge current indicating that electron collisions with neutral gas atoms are responsible for the reduction in conductivity. Scale-up to higher power has been achieved with the use of a microwave plasma generator. A 0.75-in long by 0.094-in diameter PDC anode was magnetized to ~140 G resulting in open circuit PDC voltages in excess of 11.5 V for He plasmas at ~0.75–1 torr and 50 sccm flow. Due to higher conductivity, load matching was now obtained at ~600 kW. Langmuir probe results indicate good agreement between the conductivity change and the electron to neutral density ratio scale-up. For this source and electrode configuration, PDC power as high as ~200 mW was demonstrated in He at 0.75 torr for a microwave input power density of ~8.55 W/cm3. Considering an electron mean-free path as the scale for collector probe influence in the plasma, the peak extracted power density is ~1.61 W/cm3 , corresponding to a volumetric conversion efficiency of ~18.8%.

Direct Plasmadynamic Conversion of Plasma Thermal Power to Electricity for Microdistributed Power Applications – R. M. Mayo and R. L. Mills

A microwave plasma source with input power levels up to 12.83 W/cm3 that provides reproducible, stable plasmas with power densities on the order of those of chemically assisted (CA-) plasmas was used to characterize plasmadynamic power conversion (PDC) of plasma thermal power to electricity. PDC extracted electrical power approaching 2 W has been achieved as a demonstration. It is envisioned that such a system may be readily scaled to a few hundred Watts to several 10’s of kW output power for microdistributed commercial applications (e.g. household, automotive, light industry, and space based power). The most important consideration in collector output performance is shown to be plasma conductivity. Increasing collector surface area in contact with the plasma, plasma charge carrier density, and plasma temperature, and reducing the fill gas pressure all increase the extracted power. Peak performance is found at 0.5 Torr fill of He at 50 sccm at 8.55 W/cm3 input power where the load match is 250 Ω and peak extracted power is 1.87 W or 3.6 W/cm3 (21.8 V, 86 mA) for a volumetric conversion efficiency of 42%.

SunCell™ Validation Reports

Brilliant Light Power’s game-changing energy device that has water (H2O) as its only fuel input from which it produces 100 billion watts per liter of energetic plasma by forming a more stable state of the hydrogen atom has been validated by academic experts. The findings from three programs are presented in validation reports of our plasma-producing SunCell™. The validators confirmed the SunCell™ performance and commercial opportunity wherein only H2O is consumed to form hydrinos and O2. An astonishingly high power density is produced at the level of millions of watts. The hydrino transition mechanism was confirmed by EUV spectroscopy [HOH EUV paper ]. Attached are summary biographies for the validators and reports from: