As any programmer well knows, time zones can be a real pain. They seem almost invented just to make programmers’ lives more difficult! Luckily, if your tools are good, a lot of pain can be spared.

At Code Yellow, we work a lot with PostgreSQL. This really has time zones handled. Imagine my surprise when a customer opened a ticket that they got unexpected dates in their CSV files.

Short problem description

Let’s first start with a short overview of the problem, so we understand what’s going on. One of our projects involves accepting subscriptions for newspapers.

There are rules for when a subscription may start. First of all, the future subscriber can decide when their subscription starts. For example, they can ask for the subscription to be started two months from now and we have to honor that. However, it takes time to process subscriptions. So if I subscribe today and ask for my paper to be delivered tomorrow, that’s not going to work.

In principle, we want payment for subscriptions to start in the same month the paper starts to be delivered. To make things more difficult, payments can only start on specific dates in the month. Payments in the first half of the month (the 1st until the 15th) are allowed. If a payment date would fall between the 16th and the last day of the month, the payment should start on the 1st of the next month. Of course we only want payments to start after the subscription start date.

In pseudo-code, we have the following:

first_delivery_date := max(date_of_registration + interval('1 week'), requested_date) IF first_delivery_date.day_of_month() >= 16 THEN first_payment_date := date_truncate('month', first_delivery_date + interval('1 month')) ELSE first_payment_date := first_delivery_date ENDIF

Each of our customer’s clients have different requirements of how their files are formatted. This is why this application has an interface to build export files in a sort of graphical DSL which gets compiled down to SQL. The code generates quite efficient queries, which get streamed straight to multiple files using server-side cursors. We can stream to multiple files from the same result set but different filters can be applied to each file, and each file can be in a different format (CSV, XML, JSON, …). This code has been battle-tested and is very robust by now. Only the user interface for building these definitions could use some love…

Anyway, we store all our time stamps in the database with time zones (i.e., timestamptz ). That is best practice and also what Django automatically uses for its DateTimeField . Furthermore, as far as I’ve been able to tell Django forces all datetime input and output to be in UTC for consistency reasons. This should not technically be needed; if you do it correctly, Postgres will always output the time zone information in result sets.

In the bug report, the subscription’s first delivery date was the 24th of November. Because that date falls after the 15th of the month, the first payment date should be the 1st of December. In the export the date appeared as the 31st of November, which is clearly wrong.

Expected value differs between development and production

I studied the definition for a bit, and could not find fault with it. The export code has extensive debugging built-in, so I also studied the query. These queries can be monstrously intimidating, if you aren’t familiar with code generation.

In the actual export, a lot was going on; a CASE statement to see if the target date was after the 15th or not, a date_trunc call to drop the day of month and then an addition of an interval of one month to fast forward to the next month’s first day. After whittling it down to simplify debugging, the test case I came up with looked like this:

SELECT to_char(( '2018-10-30 23:00:00Z' ::timestamptz + 'P1M' ::interval) AT TIME ZONE 'Europe/Amsterdam' , 'dd-mm-yyyy' );

To make life more interesting (because time zones aren’t difficult enough already), in my Vagrant box the output of this was 01-12-2018 , which is exactly as expected. On the live server, the output was 30-11-2018 .

Like I already said, as far as I can tell, Django forces the client connection’s time zone to be UTC , so I was surprised to see a difference on such a simple query! In fact, if you try to explicitly invoke SET TIME ZONE 'Europe/Amsterdam' , for example, Django will issue an assertion failure which complains the connection is not in UTC.

Now, there is a PostgreSQL setting that influences the default time zone to be used for input and output, which is simply called timezone . On Debian, you can find it in /etc/postgresql/9.6/main/postgresql.conf . The value of this setting gets determined when the cluster is initialised. For unknown reasons, it was set to localtime on the server and to UTC in my Vagrant box.

Running the above query from psql using either a timezone setting of UTC or issuing SET TIME ZONE 'UTC' beforehand will result in the expected output of 01-12-2018 . If the time zone was localtime or Europe/Amsterdam , the output was 31-11-2018 .

Root cause analysis

To understand a bit better what is going on, we need to dig in a bit more.

Even though the timestamptz column stores a time zone with the time stamp (update: It was pointed out to me that it doesn’t actually do so; it just stores the timestamp at UTC), the output of the query will always be echoed back in the selected current time zone:

psql => SET TIME ZONE 'Europe/Amsterdam' ; psql => CREATE TEMPORARY TABLE foo ( dt timestamptz ); psql => INSERT INTO foo VALUES ( '2018-10-31T00:00:00+01' ), --- entered in Europe/Amsterdam format ( '2018-10-31T00:00:00Z' ); --- entered in UTC format (one hour earlier) INSERT 0 2 psql => SELECT dt FROM foo; dt ------------------------ 2018 - 10 - 31 00 : 00 : 00 + 01 2018 - 10 - 31 01 : 00 : 00 + 01 ( 2 rows ) psql => SELECT to_char(dt, 'dd-mm-yyyy' ) FROM foo; to_char ------------ 31 - 10 - 2018 31 - 10 - 2018 ( 2 rows ) psql => SET TIME ZONE 'UTC' ; psql => SELECT dt FROM foo; dt ------------------------ 2018 - 10 - 30 23 : 00 : 00 + 00 2018 - 10 - 31 00 : 00 : 00 + 00 ( 2 rows ) psql => SELECT to_char(dt, 'dd-mm-yyyy' ) FROM foo; to_char ------------ 30 - 10 - 2017 31 - 10 - 2018 ( 2 rows )

We ran into this before, so when we know we will emit a to_char call, we require the user to state the time zone in which the output should be formatted. This causes the compiled query to look like this:

psql => SELECT to_char(dt AT TIME ZONE 'Europe/Amsterdam' , 'dd-mm-yyyy' ) FROM foo; to_char ------------ 31 - 10 - 2018 31 - 10 - 2018 ( 2 rows )

The output of this is the same, regardless of the selected output time zone in Postgres. When you use AT TIME ZONE $tz , one of two things will happen:

If you have a timestamptz , it will be stripped of time zone and become a time zone-unaware timestamp , but it will store the time that was in effect in time zone $tz .

If you have a time zone-unaware timestamp , it will be interpreted as that time in time zone $tz and cast into a time zone-aware timestamptz . But when displayed, it will still output using the session time zone, not $tz .

The current time zone is more than just an output format. It turns out that calculations are also done in the current time zone (but only on time zone-aware time stamps). You might think that this should not matter, but it does!

I already knew that for an operation like date_trunc , the truncation needs to take care of the time zone, because truncating the time stamp 2018-01-01T00:00:00+01 in Europe/Amsterdam to the month gives you simply the same time stamp. In UTC, however, the time stamp reads as 2017-12-31T23:00:00Z , and truncating it to the month will yield 2017-12-01T00:00:00Z which differs by a whole month and doesn’t even fall in the same year!

So let’s say you want to truncate a given datetime in UTC but then display it in Europe/Amsterdam (not very common, but it could happen), you can do it like this:

psql => SET TIME ZONE 'UTC' ; pqsl => SELECT to_char((date_trunc( 'month' , dt AT TIME ZONE 'UTC' ) AT TIME ZONE 'UTC' ) AT TIME ZONE 'Europe/Amsterdam' , 'dd-mm-yyyy' ) FROM foo; to_char ----------- 01 - 10 - 2018 01 - 10 - 2018 ( 2 rows ) psql => SET TIME ZONE 'Europe/Amsterdam' ; pqsl => SELECT to_char((date_trunc( 'month' , dt AT TIME ZONE 'UTC' ) AT TIME ZONE 'UTC' ) AT TIME ZONE 'Europe/Amsterdam' , 'dd-mm-yyyy' ) FROM foo; to_char ----------- 01 - 10 - 2018 01 - 10 - 2018 ( 2 rows )

With three zone conversions, this looks overly complex. But like I said, this is generated SQL, which needs to ensure that each output expression is consistently cast back to a zone-aware time stamp before (maybe) being fed into an outer expression. If you don’t do this, you’ll get inconsistent results depending on your session’s time zone:

psql => SET TIME ZONE 'UTC' ; pqsl => SELECT to_char(date_trunc( 'month' , dt) AT TIME ZONE 'UTC' , 'dd-mm-yyyy' ) FROM foo; to_char ----------- 01 - 10 - 2018 01 - 10 - 2018 ( 2 rows ) psql => SET TIME ZONE 'Europe/Amsterdam' ; pqsl => SELECT to_char(date_trunc( 'month' , dt) AT TIME ZONE 'UTC' , 'dd-mm-yyyy' ) FROM foo; to_char ----------- 30 - 09 - 2018 30 - 09 - 2018 ( 2 rows )

This finally offers an explanation of the code snippet we started with:

psql => SET TIME ZONE 'UTC' ; psql => SELECT to_char((dt + 'P1M' ::interval) AT TIME ZONE 'Europe/Amsterdam' , 'dd-mm-yyyy' ) FROM foo; to_char ------------ 01 - 12 - 2018 30 - 11 - 2018 ( 2 rows ) psql => SET TIME ZONE 'Europe/Amsterdam' ; psql => SELECT to_char((dt + 'P1M' ::interval) AT TIME ZONE 'Europe/Amsterdam' , 'dd-mm-yyyy' ) FROM foo; to_char ------------ 30 - 11 - 2018 30 - 11 - 2018 ( 2 rows )

The reason the UTC one displays two different values is as follows:

The first time stamp is 2018-10-31 00:00:00 in Europe/Amsterdam . When interpreted in UTC, this is 2018-10-30 23:00:00 (the previous day!).

in . When interpreted in UTC, this is (the previous day!). The second time stamp is 2018-10-30 23:00:00 in Europe/Amsterdam . When interpreted in UTC, that is 2018-10-30 22:00:00 (the same day).

Keep this in mind! Let’s continue with what happens in Europe/Amsterdam :

When you add a month to 2018-10-31 00:00:00 , you get 2018-11-30 00:00:00 . Formatting only the date gives you 2018-11-30 .

, you get . Formatting only the date gives you . When you add a month to 2018-10-30 23:00:00 , you get 2018-11-30 23:00:00 . Formatting only the date gives you 2018-11-30 .

What happens in UTC :

When you add a month to 2018-10-30 23:00:00 , you get 2018-11-30 23:00:00 . Formatting only the date in UTC would give you 2018-11-30 , but we do it in Europe/Amsterdam, so we get 2018-11-31 00:00:00 and formatting as a date that gives us 2018-11-31 .

, you get . Formatting only the date in would give you , but we do it in Europe/Amsterdam, so we get and formatting as a date that gives us . When you add a month to 2018-10-30 22:00:00 , you get 2018-11-30 22:00:00 . Formatting only the date in UTC would give you 2018-11-30 . We do it in Europe/Amsterdam, but this is still the “same” date at 2018-11-30 23:00:00 , so the result is 2018-11-30 .

So, it’s rather simple actually; formatting is a form of truncation, but it’s the calculation that introduces the unexpected value differences. It’s a bit like rounding errors in floating point. They stack up the more operations you do, and weird results can pop up at unexpected points.

Solution

The solution to this problem was simple enough: we simply do the addition after stripping time zone info and then later restore time zone info:

psql => SET TIME ZONE 'UTC' ; psql => SELECT to_char(((dt AT TIME ZONE 'Europe/Amsterdam' + 'P1M' ::interval) AT TIME ZONE 'Europe/Amsterdam' ) AT TIME ZONE 'Europe/Amsterdam' , 'dd-mm-yyyy' ) FROM foo; to_char ------------ 30 - 11 - 2018 30 - 11 - 2018 ( 2 rows ) psql => SET TIME ZONE 'Europe/Amsterdam' ; psql => SELECT to_char(((dt AT TIME ZONE 'Europe/Amsterdam' + 'P1M' ::interval) AT TIME ZONE 'Europe/Amsterdam' ) AT TIME ZONE 'Europe/Amsterdam' , 'dd-mm-yyyy' ) FROM foo; to_char ------------ 30 - 11 - 2018 30 - 11 - 2018 ( 2 rows )

Consistency at last! It looks unwieldy because of the three casts, but conceptually it’s the same as what we do with date_trunc .

In hindsight, it was rather obvious to me in the case of date_trunc . I simply didn’t realise that simple arithmetic with time stamps and intervals also needs to strip and restore time zone information.

I think this can be simplified if you only strip and restore time zones on input and output. This works if you’re always interested in one time zone for everything. However, if you want to do your arithmetic in time zone A and output in time zone B, I think there is no way around converting back and forth.

So far there hasn’t been a need to convert between different time zones, but the code has “accidentally” grown in this flexible direction. This happend as I explored the complexity of time stamp manipulations. It was only later that I realised that it can be simplified by doing the conversions at strategic points. This realisation happened while I was working on this latest bug.

It is still tricky though! Even writing this blog post was harder than it should be. I already (though I) understood the problem, but coming up with good examples that illustrate the issue was hard.