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Why are humans the only species

capable of having a verbal conversation? New research indicates the answer may involve more than the presence of specialized vocal cords. Neurobiologist Genevieve Konopka and her lab group at the University of California--Los Angeles examined a gene called FOXP2, which is linked to human language. But FOXP2 is also found in other animals, and the human version of the gene produces proteins that differ from the chimp's in only two out of 715 locations. To determine the influence of these two mutations, Konopka's team first grew human brain cells in cultures, then injected some samples with human FOXP2 and others with chimp FOXP2. The human FOXP2 led to the expression of a set of different genes than the chimp FOXP2--proving that the two mutations have functional consequences. "This was completely unexpected," Konopka says. The discovery yields the first evidence that human-specific FOXP2 mutations have influence over speech. Interestingly, the mutations are believed to have occurred around the same time that human language first appeared. But activating a set of language genes isn't enough to create a talking chimp--the way genes influence the brain is too complex. For example, genes "turn on" at different times throughout human development to coordinate the formation of parts of the brain involved with language. "The next step is to look at the individual functions of this set of genes," Konopka says. "They may offer insight about why we're the only species that has the ability to speak, and may even show us how to help people with language abnormalities."

Next-Generation Gene Sequencers

Two tools now in development could help doctors read DNA more quickly and cheaply, ushering in an era of personalized medicine.

Nanofluidic Chip

Current technology forces researchers to chop up DNA into millions of pieces to prevent the strands from coiling, which makes them difficult to read. Also, putting the DNA back together can result in missing or duplicate pieces. A new chip from BioNanomatrix in Philadelphia uses branching nanochannels to unravel the double-stranded DNA. An electrical charge in the chip moves the strands along the channels, and an ultra-high-resolution camera allows scientists to view DNA within minutes. The company will release a test version this year.

Nanopore Sequencer

The four types of nucleotide bases in DNA are denoted by letters: A, C, G and T. Last year, IBM received a three-year grant from the National Human Genome Research Institute to develop a sequencer that can analyze DNA one base at a time. The device consists of a silicon microchip with a 3-nanometer-wide hole, called a nanopore, through which a strand of DNA passes. The trick has been slowing the DNA enough to make each base unit readable by a sensor. IBM plans to ratchet the DNA by manipulating an electrical field inside the nanopore.

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