Identifying how racist language in deeds directly defined modern Philadelphia neighborhoods is difficult, officials said, due to almost a century of other discriminatory practices. A study in Minneapolis, though, showed that homes with racist language in the deeds from the 1940s and 1950s were now worth 15% more than similar homes in neighborhoods that never had racially restrictive covenants. They were effective, too, said Aradhya Sood, a doctoral candidate at the University of Minnesota who conducted the study. A neighborhood with just 1% more racial covenants than a comparable area now has 19% fewer black homeowners.