2017-07-30

tl;dr: I take a look at the pattern of optional interfaces in Go: what they are used for, why they are bad and what we can do about it.

Note: I wrote most of this article on Wednesday, with the intention to finish and publish it on the weekend. While I was sleeping, Jack Lindamood published this post, which talks about much of the same problems. This was the exact moment I saw that post :) I decided, to publish this anyway; it contains, in my opinion, enough additional content, to be worth it. But I do encourage to (also?) read his post.

What are optional interfaces?

Optional interfaces are interfaces which can optionally be extended by implementing some other interface. A good example is http.Flusher (and similar), which is optionally implemented by an http.ResponseWriter. If a request comes in via HTTP/2, the ResponseWriter will implement this interface to support HTTP/2 Server Push. But as not all requests will be over HTTP/2, this isn't part of the normal ResponseWriter interface and instead provided via an optional interface that needs to be type-asserted at runtime.

In general, whenever some piece of code is doing a type-assertion with an interface type (that is, use an expression v.(T) , where T is an interface type), it is very likely offering an optional interface.

A far from exhaustive list of where the optional interface pattern is used (to roughly illustrate the scope of the pattern):

What are people using them for?

There are multiple reasons to use optional interfaces. Let's find examples for them. Note that this list neither claims to be exhaustive (there are probably use cases I don't know about) nor disjunct (in some cases, optional interfaces will carry more than one of these use cases). But I think it's a good rough partition to discuss.

Passing behavior through API boundaries

This is the case of ResponseWriter and its optional interfaces. The API, in this case, is the http.Handler interface that users of the package implement and that the package accepts. As features like HTTP/2 Push or connection hijacking are not available to all connections, this interface needs to use the lowest common denominator between all possible behaviors. So, if more features need to be supported, we must somehow be able to pass this optional behavior through the http.Handler interface.

Enabling optional optimizations/features

io.Copy serves as a good example of this. The required interfaces for it to work are just io.Reader and io.Writer . But it can be made more efficient, if the passed values also implement io.WriterTo or io.ReaderFrom , respectively. For example, a bytes.Reader implements WriteTo . This means, you need less copying if the source of an io.Copy is a bytes.Reader . Compare these two (somewhat naive) implementations:

func Copy ( w io . Writer , r io . Reader ) ( n int64 , err error ) { buf := make ([] byte , 4096 ) for { rn , rerr := r . Read ( buf ) wn , werr := w . Write ( buf [: rn ]) n += int64 ( wn ) if rerr == io . EOF { return n , nil } if rerr != nil { return n , rerr } if werr != nil { return n , werr } } } func CopyTo ( w io . Writer , r io . WriterTo ) ( n int64 , err error ) { return r . WriteTo ( w ) } type Reader [] byte func ( r * Reader ) Read ( b [] byte ) ( n int , err error ) { n = copy ( b , * r ) * r = ( * r )[ n :] if n == 0 { err = io . EOF } return n , err } func ( r * Reader ) WriteTo ( w io . Writer ) ( int64 , error ) { n , err := w . Write ( * r ) * r = ( * r )[ n :] return int64 ( n ), err }

Copy needs to first allocate a buffer, then copy all the data from the *Reader to that buffer, then pass it to the Writer. CopyTo , on the other hand, can directly pass the byte-slice to the Writer, saving an allocation and a copy.

Some of that cost can be amortized, but in general, its existence is a forced consequence of the API. By using optional interfaces, io.Copy can use the more efficient method, if supported, and fall back to the slow method, if not.

Backwards compatible API changes

When database/sql upgraded to use context , it needed help from the drivers to actually implement cancellation and the like. So it needed to add contexts to the methods of driver.Conn. But it can't just do that change; it would be a backwards incompatible API change, violating the Go1 compatibility guarantee. It also can't add a new method to the interface to be used, as there are third-party implementations for drivers, which would be broken as they don't implement the new method.

So it instead resorted to deprecate the old methods and instead encourage driver implementers to add optional methods including the context.

Why are they bad?

There are several problems with using optional interfaces. Some of them have workarounds (see below), but all of them have drawbacks on their own.

They violate static type safety

In a lot of cases, the consumer of an optional interface can't really treat it as optional. For example, http.Hijacker is usually used to support WebSockets. A handler for WebSockets will, in general, not be able to do anything useful, when called with a ResponseWriter that does not implement Hijacker . Even when it correctly does a comma-ok type assertion to check for it, it can't do anything but serve an error in that case.

The http.Hijacker type conveys the necessity of hijacking a connection, but since it is provided as an optional interface, there is no possibility to require this type statically. In that way, optional interfaces hide static type information.

They remove a lot of the power of interfaces

Go's interfaces are really powerful by being very small; in general, the advice is to only add one method, maybe a small handful. This advice enables easy and powerful composition. io.Reader and io.Writer have a myriad of implementations inside and outside of the standard library. This makes it really easy to, say, read uncompressed data from a compressed network connection, while streaming it to a file and hashing it at the same time to write to some content-addressed blob storage.

Now, this composition will, in general, destroy any optional interfaces of those values. Say, we have an HTTP middleware to log requests. It wants to wrap an http.Handler and log the requests method, path, response code and duration (or, equivalently, collect them as metrics to export). This is, in principle, easy to do:

type logResponder struct { http . ResponseWriter code int set bool } func ( rw * logResponder ) WriteHeader ( code int ) { rw . code = code rw . set = bool rw . ResponseWriter . WriteHeader ( code ) } func LogRequests ( h http . Handler ) http . Handler { return http . HandlerFunc ( func ( w http . ResponseWriter , r * http . Request ) { lr := & logResponder { ResponseWriter : w } m , p , start := r . Method , r . Path , time . Now () defer func () { log . Printf ( "%s %s -> %d (%v)" , m , p , lr . code , time . Now (). Sub ( start )) }() h ( lr , r ) }) }

But *logResponder will now only support the methods declared by http.ResponseWriter , even if the wrapped ResponseWriter also supports some of the optional interfaces. That is because method sets of a type are determined at compile time.

Thus, by using this middleware, the wrapped handler is suddenly unable to use websockets, or HTTP/2 server push or any of the other use cases of optional interfaces. Even worse: this deficiency will only be discovered at runtime.

Optimistically adding the optional interface's methods and type-asserting the underlying ResponseWriter at runtime doesn't work either: handlers would incorrectly conclude the optional interface is always present. If the underlying ResponseWriter does not support adding at the underlying connection there just is no useful way to implement http.Hijacker .

There is one way around this, which is to dynamically check the wrapped interface and create a type with the correct method set, e.g.:

func Wrap ( wrap , with http . ResponseWriter ) http . ResponseWriter { var ( flusher http . Flusher pusher http . Pusher // ... ) flusher , _ = wrap .( http . Flusher ) pusher , _ = wrap .( http . Pusher ) // ... if flusher == nil && pusher == nil { return with } if flusher == nil && pusher != nil { return struct { http . ResponseWriter http . Pusher }{ with , pusher } } if flusher != nil && pusher == nil { return struct { http . ResponseWriter http . Flusher }{ with , flusher } } return struct { http . ResponseWriter http . Flusher http . Pusher }{ with , flusher , pusher } }

This has two major drawbacks:

Both code-size and running time of this will increase exponentially with the number of optional interfaces you have to support (even if you generate the code).

You need to know every single optional interface that might be used. While supporting everything in net/http is certainly tenable, there might be other optional interfaces, defined by some framework unbeknownst to you. If you don't know about it, you can't wrap it.

What can we use instead?

My general advice is, to avoid optional interfaces as much as possible. There are alternatives, though they also are not entirely satisfying.

Context.Value

context was added after most of the optional interfaces where already defined, but its Value method was meant exactly for this kind of thing: to pass optional behavior past API boundaries. This will still not solve the static type safety issue of optional interfaces, but it does mean you can easily wrap them.

For example, net/http could instead do

var ctxFlusher = ctxKey ( "flusher" ) func GetFlusher ( ctx context . Context ) ( f Flusher , ok bool ) { f , ok = ctx . Value ( ctxFlusher ).( Flusher ) return f , ok }

This would enable you to do

func ServeHTTP ( w http . ResponseWriter , r * http . Request ) { f , ok := http . GetFlusher ( r . Context ()) if ok { f . Flush () } }

If now a middleware wants to wrap ResponseWriter , that's not a problem, as it will not touch the Context. If a middleware wants to add some other optional behavior, it can do so easily:

type Frobnicator interface { Frobnicate () } var ctxFrobnicator = ctxKey ( "frobnicator" ) func GetFrobnicator ( ctx context . Context ) ( f Frobnicator , ok bool ) { f , ok = ctx . Value ( ctxFrobnicator ).( Frobnicator ) return f , ok }

As contexts form a linked list of key-value-pairs, this will interact nicely with whatever optional behavior is already defined.

There are good reasons to frown upon the usage of Context.Value ; but they apply just as much to optional interfaces.

Extraction methods

If you know an interface type that is probable to be wrapped and also has optional interfaces associated it is possible to enforce the possibility of dynamic extension in the optional type. So, e.g.:

package http type ResponseWriter interface { // Methods… } type ResponseWriterWrapper interface { ResponseWriter WrappedResponseWriter () ResponseWriter } // GetFlusher returns an http.Flusher, if res wraps one. // Otherwise, it returns nil. func GetFlusher ( res ResponseWriter ) Flusher { if f , ok := res .( Flusher ); ok { return f } if w , ok := res .( ResponseWriterWrapper ); ok { return GetFlusher ( w . WrappedResponseWriter ()) } return nil } package main type logger struct { res ResponseWriter req * http . Request log * log . Logger start time . Time } func ( l * logger ) WriteHeader ( code int ) { d := time . Now (). Since ( l . start ) l . log . Write ( "%s %s -> %d (%v)" , l . req . Method , l . req . Path , code , d ) l . res . WriteHeader ( code ) } func ( l * logger ) WrappedResponseWriter () http . ResponseWriter { return l . res } func LogRequests ( h http . Handler , l * log . Logger ) http . Hander { return http . HandlerFunc ( res http . ResponseWriter , req * http . Request ) { res = & logger { res : res , req : req , log : l , start : time . Now (), } h . ServeHTTP ( res , req ) } } func ServeHTTP ( res http . ResponseWriter , req * http . Request ) { if f := http . GetFlusher ( res ); f != nil { f . Flush () } }

This still doesn't address the static typing issue and explicit dependencies, but at least it enables you to wrap the interface conveniently.

Note, that this is conceptually similar to the errors package, which calls the wrapper-method "Cause". This package also shows an issue with this pattern; it only works if all wrappers use it. That's why I think it's important for the wrapping interface to live in the same package as the wrapped interface; it provides an authoritative way to do that wrapping, preventing fragmentation.

Provide statically typed APIs

net/http could provide alternative APIs for optional interfaces that explicitly include them. For example:

type Hijacker interface { ResponseWriter Hijack () ( net . Conn , * bufio . ReadWriter , error ) } type HijackHandler interface { ServeHijacker ( w Hijacker , r * http . Request ) } func HandleHijacker ( pattern string , h HijackHandler ) { // ... }

For some use cases, this provides a good way to side-step the issue of unsafe types. Especially if you can come up with a limited set of scenarios that would rely on the optional behavior, putting them into their own type would be viable.

The net/http package could, for example, provide separate ResponseWriter types for different connection types (for example HTTP2Response ). It could then provide a func(HTTP2Handler) http.Handler , that serves an error if it is asked to serve an unsuitable connection and otherwise delegates to the passed Handler. Now, the programmer needs to explicitly wire a handler that requires HTTP/2 up accordingly. They can rely on the additional features, while also making clear what paths must be used over HTTP/2.

Gradual repair

I think the use of optional interfaces as in database/sql/driver is perfectly fine - if you plan to eventually remove the original interface. Otherwise, users will have to continue to implement both interfaces to be usable with your API, which is especially painful when wrapping interfaces. For example, I recently wanted to wrap importer.Default to add behavior and logging. I also needed ImporterFrom, which required separate implementations, depending on whether the importer returned by Default implements it or not. Most modern code, however, shouldn't need that.

So, for third party packages (the stdlib can't do that, because of compatibility guarantees), you should consider using the methodology described in Russ Cox' excellent Codebase Refactoring article and actually deprecate and eventually remove the old interface. Use optional interfaces as a transition mechanism, not a fix.

How could Go improve the situation?

Make it possible for reflect to create methods

There are currently at least two GitHub issues which would make it possible to do extend interfaces dynamically: reflect: NamedOf, reflect: MakeInterface. I believe this would be the easiest solution - it is backwards compatible and doesn't require any language changes.

Provide a language mechanism for extension

The language could provide a native mechanism to express extension, either by adding a keyword for it or, for Go2, by considering to make extension the default behavior for interface->struct embedding. I'm not sure either is a good idea, though. I would probably prefer the latter, because of my distaste for keywords. Note, that it would still be possible to then compose an interface into a struct, just not via embedding but by adding a field and delegation-methods. Personally, I'm not a huge fan of embedding interfaces in structs anyway except when I'm explicitly trying to extend them with additional behavior. Their zero-value is not usable, so it requires additional hoops to jump through.

Conclusion

I recommend:

If at all possible, avoid optional interfaces in APIs you provide. They are just too inconvenient and un-Go-ish.

Be careful when wrapping interfaces, in particular when there are known optional interfaces for them.

Using optional interfaces correctly is inconvenient and cumbersome. That should signal that you are fighting the language. The workarounds needed all try to circumvent one or more design decision of Go: to value composition over inheritance, to prefer static typing and to make computation and behavior obvious from code. To me, that signifies that optional interfaces are fundamentally not a good fit for the language.