While working on issue #5656 I encountered an interesting problem that I had not anticipated. The result is a neat little extension to the region type system that increases its expressive power. The change is completely internal to the type rules and involves no user-visible syntax or anything like that, though there are some (basically nonsensical) programs that will no longer compile. Anyway I found it interesting and thought I would share.

Background: Issue #5656 and the case of the many cursors

To explain the problem I encountered, consider this running example (written as one would write it after my patch):

struct OwnedCursor<T> { buffer: ~[T], position: uint } pub impl<T> OwnedCursor<T> { fn get<'c>(&'c self) -> &'c T { &self.buffer[self.position] } fn move(&mut self, by: int) -> bool { if (by > 0) { self.position += by as uint; } else { self.position -= by as uint; } self.position < self.buffer.len() } }

This defines a type OwnedCursor that owns a vector and a position within that buffer. The type offers two methods, get() and move() . The method definitions themselves should be fairly self-explanatory. get() returns a pointer to the current item and move() modifies the current position.

What is interesting is the lifetimes on the function get() . The signature indicates that it takes a borrowed pointer to an OwnedCursor with lifetime 'c and returns a pointer with that same lifetime. In other words, the &'c self declaration means that the method get() is roughly equivalent to a function written as follows:

fn get<'self, T>(self: &'c OwnedCursor<T>) -> &'c T { &self.buffer[self.position] }

The reason that we can say that the returned value has the same lifetime as the input is that (1) we know that the pointer self will be valid for the entirety of the lifetime 'c and (2) self is an immutable pointer, so the field buffer will not be mutated. So we can say that, for the lifetime 'c , the OwnedCursor object will not be freed and it is immutable, therefore we can take a pointer into self.buffer and know that this memory is also valid.

Now let’s suppose that we wanted to develop many kinds of cursors. We might introduce a generic trait and convert the impl to use it:

trait Cursor<T> { fn get<'c>(&'c self) -> &'c T; fn move(&mut self, by: int) -> bool; } impl<T> Cursor<T> for OwnedCursor<T> { // as before }

Now we can introduce a second kind of cursor, one that doesn’t own the vector that it iterates over:

struct BorrowedCursor<'b, T> { buffer: &'b [T], position: uint } impl<'b, T> Cursor<T> for BorrowedCursor<'b, T> { fn get<'c>(&'c self) -> &'c T { &self.buffer[self.position] } fn move(&mut self, by: int) -> bool {...} }

This definition is very similar, except that the type and impl are parameterized by a lifetime 'b , representing the lifetime of the buffer. Everything seems fine, but when I tried running this example through the compiler with my patch, I encountered a type error on the get() routine. The compiler reported that the lifetime of &self.buffer[self.position] was not 'c but rather 'b —the lifetime of the buffer, and so the return type of the function was invalid.

Unfortunately, the compiler is quite correct! The function signature states that we return a pointer with the lifetime 'c , but here 'c is the lifetime of the cursor. Our pointer is a pointer into the buffer, so it will have the lifetime 'b .

In the original OwnedCursor type, the buffer was owned by the cursor, so the result had identical lifetimes. But in the case of BorrowedCursor , the lifetime of the buffer is not tied to the cursor object, which after all is only borrowing the buffer.

Of course, it’s kind of nonsensical to have a cursor that outlives the buffer it’s working with. But there is in fact nothing in the type system that would prevent you from doing that—it’s just that once your buffer became invalid you would be prevented from actually using the cursor anymore.

The solution

This problem was quite vexing at first. The example I just gave is perfectly reasonable and it really should work (and, in fact, the old system I am attempting to replace allowed it, though in a kind of roundabout and possibly unsound way). The solution I decided on was just to formalize the common sense rule that a pointer should not have a longer lifetime than any other pointers it points at. In other words, if I create a pointer to a BorrowedCursor<'b, T> , my pointer cannot have a lifetime that exceeds the lifetime 'b of the buffer.

If we assume this rule holds, then when you have a function that takes an argument of type &'c BorrowedCursor<'b, T> (such as the self argument to get() ), the compiler can deduce that 'c must be a smaller lifetime than 'b , because otherwise the caller would have encountered a type error. This means that the get() method for BorrowedCursor<'b, T> is permitted to return a pointer with lifetime 'c —the largest possible lifetime is still 'b , but 'c is a sound approximation (it can only be shorter than 'b , after all).