Simon Brand (a.k.a. TartanLlama) recently published an article called "Functional exceptionless error-handling with optional and expected" where he excellently explains how sum types (e.g. std::optional and std::variant ) can be used in lieu of exceptions in order to implement error handling.

The article focuses on the usage of std::optional , on std::expected , and on two monadic operations, map and and_then , which reduce boilerplate and increase readability of the code. While Simon briefly mentions the benefits of ADTs (algebraic data types) over exceptions, I think that the topic deserves more attention, as some readers missed the point.

Here's an example comment from the article's /r/cpp thread:

return crop_to_cat(img) .and_then(add_bow_tie) .and_then(make_eyes_sparkle) .map(make_smaller) .map(add_rainbow); Compared to crop_to_cat(img); add_bow_tie(img); make_eyes_sparkle(img); make_smaller(img); add_rainbow(img); ? It's just cute. Also, if there's any memory allocation needed anywhere, it's either lying about not throwing or each such function is wrapped in a try/catch. (And no, you can't rig operator new to return nullptr because std lib needs it to throw).

While at first this might seem like a proper rebuttal, I strongly believe it isn't.

exception-based solution

We'll start by analyzing the exception-based solution proposed in the comment:

image_view get_cute_cat(image_view img) { crop_to_cat(img); add_bow_tie(img); make_eyes_sparkle(img); make_smaller(img); add_rainbow(img); return img; }

These might be the signatures of the operations on image_view :

void crop_to_cat(image_view&); void add_bow_tie(image_view&); void make_eyes_sparkle(image_view&); void make_smaller(image_view&); void add_rainbow(image_view&);

What do these signatures tell us about potential failures or error cases? Nothing.

With this design, the user is not aware that these functions might fail/throw an exception unless it's explicitly documented. Similarly, the type system does not expose any failure case - this means that the compiler won't be able to help us remember to handle them.

Here's an example of what I mean:

void send(image_view); image_view just_crop(image_view x) { crop_to_cat(x); // <== (0) return x; } int main() { auto cropped = just_crop(get_cat_image()); // <== (1) send(cropped); // <== (2) }

When you write/read the code snippet above, you need to ask yourself these questions:

Should (0) be wrapped in a try...catch block?

Should (1) be wrapped in a try...catch block?

Can I safely invoke send(cropped) on (2) without checking if an exception has been thrown?

These questions do not have obvious answers. The developer/reviewer is forced to look at human-written documentation or at the implementation of the functions. The compiler can not help in this situation.

In my opinion, these are the major pain points with an exception-based solution:

1. Function signatures do not expose possible failure states.

2. It is not immediately obvious whether or not an operation can fail and how.

3. The compiler cannot help us prevent mistakes.

My claim is that all of these issues are solved when using algebraic data types for error handling. Let's see how!

ADT-based solution

Consider the following solution based on tl::optional :

tl::optional<image_view> get_cute_cat(image_view img) { return crop_to_cat(img) .and_then(add_bow_tie) .and_then(make_eyes_sparkle) .map(make_smaller) .map(add_rainbow); }

These might be the signatures of the operations on image_view :

tl::optional<image_view> crop_to_cat(image_view); tl::optional<image_view> add_bow_tie(image_view); tl::optional<image_view> make_eyes_sparkle(image_view); image_view make_smaller(image_view); image_view add_rainbow(image_view);

Just by looking at the above declarations, we immediately know the following:

crop_to_cat , add_bow_tie , and make_eyes_sparkle might fail.

make_smaller and add_rainbow will never fail.

This means that, in order to have a correct program, we must check whether or not the tl::optional instance returned by the first three function is set and act accordingly. The best part is that the compiler will help us here!

Remember the previous just_crop example? Here it is again, this time using ADTs:

void send(image_view); tl::optional<image_view> just_crop(image_view x) { return crop_to_cat(x); // <== (0) } int main() { auto cropped = just_crop(get_cat_image()); // <== (1) cropped.map(send); // <== (2) }

This version of the snippet is much more readable and easier to understand, as all possible failure points are obvious and "checked" by the compiler.

At (0) , crop_to_cat 's signature exactly matches our desired operation.

At (1) , we know that get_cat_image() will never fail as it returns an image_view . We also know that cropped might or might not be in a valid state (because just_crop returns a tl::optional ).

At (2) , we know that send will never fail as it returns void . Most importantly, we will get a compilation error if we attempt to write: send(cropped); The type system is protecting us from human mistakes here. By using cropped.map , we explicitly handle the possible failure case and only invoke send with a valid argument.

Did we solve all of the previously mentioned pain points?

1. Function signatures do not expose possible failure states.

Thanks to ADTs, it is obvious when a function might or might not fail. Glancing at the signature is enough to understand whether or not a possible failure must be handled.

2. It is not immediately obvious whether or not an operation can fail and how.

By using monadic operations such as map and and_then , the code becomes self-explanatory in regard to possible failures. Instead of guessing whether or not an exception will be thrown, possible failure states become explicit.

3. The compiler cannot help us prevent mistakes.

The type system will prevent us from writing code that doesn't properly check failure states. We simply cannot write send(cropped) without checking the state of cropped beforehand - the program will fail to compile.

symptom of a larger problem?

You might argue that this whole article is based upon an incorrect premise:

You should have never used exceptions to handle errors in get_cute_cat in the first place.

I completely agree with that - exceptions should only be used for truly exceptional errors. In the case of get_cute_cat , failure states are not exceptional: we're dealing with image data and image transformations - we should be prepared to handle failures.

Unfortunately, the reality is that I keep seeing exceptions being used for basic error handling almost every day. Due to the lack of familiarity with ADTs or due to laziness ("why refactor all the signatures when I can just add a throw here?"), developers choose exceptions to handle unexceptional errors. This leads to a lack of clarity (uninformative interfaces) and human mistakes ("I should have put a try...catch block there!").

The moral of the story is: write code optimizing for readability and safety. As shown in this article, ADTs are more readable and safer than exceptions for basic error handling. If you have been using exceptions for years, it might take a while to get used to ADTs - but it is worth it.