Here is the current state of my thinking with respect to value types and value objects. Some of you may have seen Brendan’s slides where he discusses value objects. This post is about the same topic, but it is focused on just the initial part of the work – what it means to be a value object and how we could define value types and integrate them into the standard. I am not going to discuss new syntax or operators yet. I have thoughts on those too but I wanted to start by laying out the foundations.

The need for extensible value types

JavaScript has long had a division between primitive values and objects. These two things are fundamentally rather different. Primitive values have no identity and no prototype. They are not allocated, just used. They are also immutable. Consider an integer like var x = 1 – if I write x += 1 , I haven’t incremented the number 1 itself, I’ve just changed the variable x to have a new value, 2.

Objects are rather different. When I create an object, it has identity. If I execute the same expression twice, I get two different objects. This is why {} === {} evaluates to false (unlike, say, 1 === 1 ). In turn, objects have mutable contents, so I write foo.x += 1 and mutate the contents of foo .

There is nothing wrong with the division between values and objects in and of itself. Both have their place and are useful in certain circumstances. What is unfortunate is that JavaScript makes the set of value types inextensible. That is, the only value types I can have are the primitives that the spec itself provides: booleans, numbers, strings, and (in ES6) symbols. (I’ve probably forgotten one, but it doesn’t matter.)

In this post, I’ll lay out a preliminary design for allowing users to define and use their own value types. These types offer the same advantages as the built-in types: they are immutable and have no identity apart from their value. When used appropriately – i.e., in places where a value is fundamentally what you want and not an object – this makes programs easier to read and write and also easier to optimize. Everybody wins!

Value types are just both tasty and nutritious

Suppose that I have a type representing colors:

function Color ( r , g , b , a ) { this . r = r ; this . g = g ; this . b = b ; this . a = a ; }

Now I can create a color by doing new Color(22, 44, 66, 88) . This conceptually represents a color. I will argue here that colors are an example of a type that really wants to be a value. The fact that JS forces us to represent colors as mutable objects is really wrong and makes code harder and less convenient to write. Later on, we’ll see how we could define Color as a value type, which would not only make it more convenient but help to make our generated code more efficient as well.

Comparisons

Now what I want to tell if the color of two rectangles is the same? You’d hope I could just write rect1.color === rect2.color , but of course I cannot, at least not reliably. The problem is that colors are objects and thus when we compare with === we are comparing for object identity rather than representing the same color.

To compare if two colors represent the same color, we have to write some kind of equals function:

Color . prototype . equals ( c ) { return this . r === c . r && this . g === c . g && this . b === c . b && this . a === c . a ; }

Now I have to remember to write code like rect1.color.equals(rect2.color) . This is not as pretty and of course if I forget somewhere I’ll just get the wrong behavior. Too bad.

Mutation and aliasing

Another problem with using objects for colors is that they are mutable. For something like colors, this is probably not what we want. In particular, I’d like to be able to write code like:

rect2 . color = rect1 . color ;

The problem is that if I do this, I have now linked rect1 and rect2 to the same color object. So now if some other piece of code tries to modify the color of rect1 :

rect1 . color . r += 3 ;

This change will also affect the color of rect2 ! That is almost certainly not what we wanted to happen. Yuck.

Hard to optimize

The presence of pointer identity, aliasing, and mutability also inhibit a wide variety optimizations. For example, imagine I had a loop like:

for (...) { ... doSomething ( " foo " + " bar " ); ... }

Any JIT engine could, if it choose, safely lift that expression "foo"+"bar" out of the loop and evaluate it exactly once, rather than evaluating it on every iteration through the loop. But if I write some similar code that constructs a Color instance, it will be much harder to optimize:

for (...) { ... doSomething ( new Color ( 255 , 0 , 0 , 0 )); ... }

We’d like to optimize this to create just one Color instead of one per loop iteration. But we have to be very careful if we do so. After all, what if doSomething mutated the fields of the color, like so:

function doSomething ( c ) { ... c . r += 1 ; ... }

Now if we don’t create a new color on every iteration, we’ll just keep modifying the same object. That’s no good.

Primitive types do not generalize to user-defined value types

OK, so I hope I’ve convinced you that it’d be nice to have user-defined value types. You might think that it would be best to model these user-defined value types after the existing primitive types. I’d like to convince you that this is the wrong path.

The reason that modeling user-defined value types after primitives is tempting is that primitives have a lot of the behavior we want:

Primitives are immutable. You can’t rewrite the contents of a string, for example, you have to generate a new one. Primitives do not have identity. === compares the value, not the pointer. Two strings, for example, are equal if they contain the same characters, regardless of where those characters are stored.

However, primitives also come with a lot of other behavior that is different from objects, and this behavior doesn’t really scale well when you allow the set of primitives to be extended by the user:

typeof primitive yields a unique string, like "number" (whereas all objects, regardless of their prototype, just get "object" ) Primitives do not have prototypes, so if you evaluate primitive.member , what happens is that the primitive is automatically wrapped in a class like Number or String to yield an object. In particular, if you access a primitive value from another realm (i.e., from an iframe), you copy just the primitive value. If you try to invoke a method on it, it will get wrapped in the local wrapper for the current realm, and not the wrapper from the realm in which it originated.

These kinds of rules work fine for a fixed, well-known set of primitive types. They do not scale well once we start introducing arbitrary, user-defined primitive types.

To see why, consider typeof . If we allow user types to define what string is returned from typeof , then this string is no longer particularly unique. What do we do if two user-defined types claim the same typeof string? What about if they try to forge an existing string, like number ?

The lack of prototypes is a bit of a problem as well. For each primitive type, there is an implicit link to a well-known wrapper type. But if users define their own primitive types, we’ll have to link them to a (user-defined) wrapper type as well, so that we can add methods to those types.

This link gets very thorny in a cross-realm scenario: in that case, if we want to act like primitives, we need to find a corresponding wrapper function between the two realms. But there is no guarantee that the two realms will define the same set of types and no particularly good way to link those types up even if both realms did so. So what do we do?

I think the answer is simply that we should not try to model value types on primitives. After all, the set of classes is already extensible and has already addressed these problems:

Objects use their prototype to link to their constructor function.

Objects always yield "object" for typeof checks.

for checks. Cross-realm objects carry a link (via their prototype) back to their original realm, side-stepping the need to synchronize class definitions between realms.

Generalizing typed objects to support user-defined value types

Therefore, I think we should focus on value objects. A value object is an object whose contents are immutable and which has no identity. Value objects are based on typed objects – to create one, users first define a custom value struct type or value array type and then instantiate it.

The plan can be summarized as follows:

All “primitive types” today are also “value types” (e.g., ints, uints, objects, etc). (To be clear, when I say “value type”, I mean “a type whose instances have no individual identity”, so this includes primitives but also value objects.) A user-defined struct or array can be made into a value type via a “valueType()” transformer like var Point = new StructType({x: uint8, y: uint8}).valueType(); For this to be legal, all of its fields must be of value type as well. (see appendix A)

All value types are also opaque types. Instances of a value type (called “value objects”) are equivalent to normal typed objects except for three differences: You cannot assign to their properties (naturally). They are compared for equality by comparing the values of each field for equality recursively. If you have a non-value-type with a property p of value type, and you reference p , the data is copied out into a new value object. This is basically just an extension of the existing rule for ints etc.

Explanation through examples

Let me give some examples to show you how it all works. So if I write something like this, this is a value type:

var Point = new StructType ({ x : uint8 , y : uint8 }). valueType ();

Now instances of Point are immutable:

var point = Point (); point . x = 1 ; // No effect, see appendix B. assertEq ( point . x , 0 );

I can also create an aggregate value type structure:

var Line = new StructType ({ from : Point , to : Point }). valueType (); var line = Line (); line . from . x = 1 ; // No effect assertEq ( x , 0 );

I can also put Point instances into something that is NOT a value object, in this case an array:

var points = Point . array ( 200 ); points [ 0 ] = Point ({ x : 1 , y : 2 }); points [ 1 ] = Point ({ x : 3 , y : 4 });

Now this raises a question of mutability. Since the points are stored inline in the array (i.e., this is NOT an array of pointers-to-points but just point structs), what happens if I reassign one of its elements:

var p = points [ 0 ]; points [ 0 ] = Point ({ x : 5 , y : 6 });

In particular, did the values of p change? If so, that’s weird, because p is a Point and hence supposed to be immutable.

This is addressed by rule 2c which says that a read of a value type creates a copy (if the owner is not a value type). Hence p is not a pointer into points but rather its own object. Thus mutating points[0] has no effect on p .

Now there was one last point, which has to do with equality. Points are value types, so we want it to be true that if I create two points with identical fields, they should be equal:

var p = Point ({ x : 1 , y : 1 }); var q = Point ({ x : 1 , y : 1 }); assertEq ( p , q ); // p === q holds

For ordinary typed objects, this would not be the case: they would have distinct buffers. But for value objects, it should hold, and it does, thanks to rule 2.2 which redefines === for value types.

Rule 2.2 also has another important implication. Without rule 2.2, the “copy out” semantics (rule 2.3) would be very visible. In other words, while it normally holds that array[0] === array[0] , this would not hold for an array like points , because accessing an element of points copies it out.

Hence, without rule 2.2, points[0] !== points[0] . But that’s no good – we want it to be invisible when copies occur, at least if there are no mutations going on. But because value objects compare for equality by comparing their fields, there is no problem. points[0] === points[0] even though each time we evaluate points[0] we get (at least if we don’t optimize) a fresh object with a fresh buffer.

One little quirk of these rules, though it’s not inconsistent in some sense, is that if you try to mutate a field of a value type embedded within an array, it doesn’t work, even though you could overwrite the value type as a whole. In other words:

print ( points [ 0 ]. x ); // 0 to start points [ 0 ]. x = 1 ; print ( points [ 0 ]. x ); // still 0 points [ 0 ] = { x : 1 , y : 2 }; print ( points [ 0 ]. x ); // now 1

The reason for this is that points[0].x first evaluates points[0] , which yields a fresh Point temp , and then does temp.x . But assigning to a field of a value object like temp has no effect, and hence the assignment is lost.

Frozen arrays

One can easily define a frozen array type of a fixed length:

var A = T . arrayType ( N ). valueType ();

One can then instantiate this type using an example instance:

var a = new A ([...]);

Or perhaps with some sort of build method that is yet to be specified (though the current PJS strawman incorporates this sort of thing):

var a = A . build ( i => /* create value for index `i` */ );

In general, though, we don’t encourage the creation of array types. Instead, we prefer that people create arrays directly when possible:

var mutableArray = T . array ( N );

So perhaps we want a similar accessor for creating a frozen array:

var mutableArray = T . valueArray ( N , [...]);

It’s not clear how build fits into this scenario. Perhaps the initializer can also be a function. I don’t know, there’s some bikeshedding to be done here.

A side note: Integration with Map and Set

ES6 is adding some very useful types called Map and Set . These are more powerful data structures for storing objects. One problem with them, however, is that they are always keyed on object identity. This means that if you wanted to have, say, a map keyed by Color , and you defined a Color class, your lookup is not going to have the semantics you expect, because two distinct Color instances that both represent “red” will nonetheless be considered unequal.

Using value types addresses this problem in a simple way without requiring user-defined comparators and the like. Since the identity semantics of value objects are based on their fields, if you used a value type for Color you will get the lookup you expect. Horray!

(Sorry if this is unclear; this post is long enough as it is and I don’t want to draw out the examples, but I thought this was an interesting and not entirely obvious interaction.)

Appendices

Appendix A. Embedding non-value-types within value types.

We could permit non-value types to be embedded within value types. This would imply that value-ness, like opacity, is not necessarily tied to the type but rather to the instance. I have avoided this design for two reasons:

I think the semantics of embedding a non-value-type into a value-type are non-obvious. It has to mean that the embedded non-value-type becomes immutable or else valueness has little meaning, but this is potentially confusing and I’d rather just avoid the question altogether. It interferes with optimization to have mutability be per-instance rather than something that is uniquely determined by the type. Not that it can’t be overcome, but why bother if it’s not a feature we particularly want.

Appendix B. The semantics of assignments to properties of value types.

I’ve been assuming we want assignments to frozen fields to be dropped for consistency with frozen fields. Of course I’d prefer they throw an exception. That doesn’t really affect much else in the rules here. (I also don’t remember the semantics of assignments to frozen fields in strict mode – perhaps it should just behave exactly like strict mode does.)