From WikiLeaks

Donate to WikiLeaks Unless otherwise specified, the document described here: Was first publicly revealed by WikiLeaks working with our source.

Was classified, confidential, censored or otherwise withheld from the public before release.

Is of political, diplomatic, ethical or historical significance. Any questions about this document's veracity are noted. The summary is approved by the editorial board. See here for a detailed explanation of the information on this page. If you have similar or updated material, see our submission instructions. Contact us Press inquiries Follow updates

Release date August 3, 2009



Summary

Limited distribution report on pandemic vaccines was prepared for the WHO in early 2009, shortly before the emergence of swine flu. It details tough problems that most of the world's governments face in acquiring adequate supplies of pandemic flu vaccines, as well as the problems caused by the patent claims of huge corporations.

Possibly because of the frank presentation and potential controversy, the WHO designated the paper "Limited Distribution", meaning it has only been available to select government officials in paper form. This scanned version makes the paper available electronically and to the general public for the first time.

This is an intergovernmental organization document with no "primary country" of origin. India has been selected as the WHO Regional Office that published the paper is based there.

The full scanned PDF may be downloaded from the "download" link.

A text version (suitable for copy and paste) appears at the end of this page.

Download

Further information

2762814

PDF document, version 1.3

SHA256 b7fd51373c5754c529fc6bbd7bd882e57c07d670e959cfb2ab1035c6a98ba729









Observations on Vaccine Production Technologies and Factors Potentially Influencing Pandemic Influenza Vaccine Choices in Developing Countries A discussion paper World Health Organization SoulMiitAtiaR* WestwnhcMc~ � SEA-TRH-006 Distribution: Limited Observations on Vaccine Production Technologies and Factors Potentially Influencing Pandemic Influenza vaccine Choices in Developing Countries A discussion paper World Health Organization Regional Office for South-East Asia �@ World Health Organization 2009 This document is not issued to the general public, and all rights are reserved by the World Health Organization (WHO). The document may not be reviewed, abstracted, quoted, reproduced or translated, in part or in whole, without the prior written permission of WHO. No part of this document may be stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means - electronic, mechanical or other - without the prior written permission of WHO. The views expressed in documents by named authors are solely the responsibility of those authors. Printed in India � Contents Page Acknowledgments .................................................................................................. v Acronyms ..............................................................................................................vii Introduction........................................................................................................... 1 Background ................................................................................................... 2 Overview of influenza vaccine production technologies ................................4 Classic influenza vaccine produced in eggs ..................................................................... 4 Live attenuated influenza vaccine ................................................................................... 5 Influenza vaccines from cell culture ................................................................................ 7 Second generation biotech vaccines ............................................................................... 9 Candidate seed strains and antigens.............................................................................. 10 Issues and challenges...................................................................................11 The question of adjuvants............................................................................................. 11 Conditions imposed on commercial use of reverse genetics ........................................... 14 Biotechnology and public perception ........................................................................... 15 Export controls ............................................................................................................. 17 Options ....................................................................................................... 19 Timing and technology choices..................................................................................... 19 Fill/finish projects and importation of bulk antigen ........................................................ 21 The option of animal vaccine plant conversion.............................................................. 22 Concluding discussion ...................................................................................24 Annexes 1. Overview table of influenza vaccine technologies ........................................ 27 2. Relevant reports available online ................................................................. 31 Page iii � Acknowledgments This paper has been written by Edward Hammond for the WHO Regional Office for South-East Asia. It is intended as a contribution to the debate on the sharing of influenza viruses and access to vaccines and other benefits arising from their commercial exploitation, and to efforts to move forward the issues raised by resolution WHA 60.28. Page v � Acronyms CBW chemical and biological weapons DNA deoxyribonucleic acid GAP global action plan GISN global influenza surveillance network IGM intergovernmental meeting IIV inactivated influenza vaccine LAIV live attenuated influenza vaccine MTA material transfer agreement PIP pandemic influenza preparedness RNA ribonucleic acid TRIPS (Agreement on) Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights VLP virus-like particle WHO World Health Organization Page vIi � Introduction As a result of concerns raised over the sharing of influenza viruses and the lack of affordable vaccines and medicines, the Pandemic Influenza Preparedness (PIP) Intergovernmental Meeting (IGM) is discussing the possible establishment of a new system for sharing of potentially pandemic influenza viruses, a well as sharing of the benefits resulting from research s utilizing them. Among the possible benefits being discussed is expanded transfer of vaccine-related technology to developing countries, and a sustainable financing mechanism for developing country pandemic preparedness. WHO Member States hope that this financing and technology transfer would help close the gap between pandemic vaccine supply and demand. But what specific technological approaches are best suited for developing countries? Influenza vaccine technologies need to be categorized and assessed for their costlbenefit implications and respective tradeoffs and risks. Not all technologies are freely available or equally easy to use, so this codbenefit assessment needs to be made in the light of the constraints imposed by intellectual property claims as well as "hard" technology and know-how requirements. Other important considerations, including export controls and regulation of biotechnology, remain underexplored, but may influence decisions by developing countries with respect to a possible PIP IGM benefit sharing system. This paper discusses these issues in five sections. Section I provides a short background. Section II describes briefly the main technologies that are currently available or that are under development, as well as their comparative advantages and potential challenges1. Section Ill discusses a number of cross-cutting issues of practical significance (adjuvants, conditions related to seed strains, public perception of some of the technologies, and export controls) that lie outside the production-related questions, but that nevertheless need to be addressed. Section IV considers various options. Finally, Section V contains some concluding remarks. ' A table summarizing key features of the various technologies is attached as Annex 1. �A discussion paper Background Ensuring adequate availability of pandemic influenza vaccines is not an easy task in any country of the world, and no single solution will be universally appropriate. Limited global production capacity for human influenza vaccines is the result of limited demand for seasonal influenza vaccines and technical challenges to influenza vaccine production. Adding to the difficulty is a recent sharp increase in patents and patent applications related to influenza vaccines, which may impede access to vaccine production technologies. Pandemic preparedness efforts cannot be considered in isolation from other public health concerns and must be weighed in the context of programmes to address other priorities, complementing them when possible. For example, the infrastructure to produce some types of influenza vaccine is useful for making other kinds of vaccines, yet paradoxically, the flu vaccine technologies that are most adaptable may be the most expensive and technologically-challengingto utilize, as well as the most impacted by intellectual property claims. Some have proposed to expand seasonal influenza vaccination in order to expand pandemic production capacity. This strategy is a key part of the WHO Global Action Plan (GAP), whose overarching goal is to increase pandemic influenza vaccine supply by stimulating demand for seasonal influenza vaccines. Greater seasonal demand, it is reasoned, will stimulate the private sector and others to construct additional influenza vaccine production capacity that can then be used in a pandemic. But in many countries, and especially developing countries, there is low demand for seasonal flu vaccines and limited prospects of expanding it, particularly among citizens in lower economic strata with competing health- care priorities. The cost of implementing the GAP, even with optimistic economic and antigen assumptions, is estimated to rise to US$ 3.5 billion to US$ 5 billion annually by 2012, with an emphasis on spending in developed countries to stimulate demand there, and the questionable assumption that excess pandemic vaccine will quickly be used to vaccinate those in other countries.' * WHO IVR. The Global Action Plan (CAP) to Increase Supply of Pandemic Influenza Vaccines, First Meeting of the Advisory Croup, WHO/IVB/08.10, 19 October 2007, Geneva. Page 2 � Observat ions on Vaccine Production technologies and Factors Potentially Influencing Pandemic Influenza Vaccine Choices in Develooine Countries It is unwise not to squarely recognize the limitations on seasonal influenza vaccine demand and the great challenges facing the GAP. Even in developed countries where demand and income are higher, and despite hefty economic stimuli, manufacturers currently are hesitant to expand production capacity. This is in large part due to limited seasonal vaccine demand. For instance, a large European manufacturer recently backed out of an agreement to build an influenza vaccine facility in the United States because it said that a US$ 298 million government subsidy was in~ufficient.~ Others have proposed emergency conversion of animal vaccine plants if a pandemic strikes, particularly of poultry vaccine facilities with egg-based production systems that probably can be adapted to produce human influenza vaccine. With global human influenza vaccine production capacity at least 70% short of providing vaccination for the global population within six months of a pandemicI4 this suggestion makes obvious sense. Where such capacity exists, this could expand pandemic vaccine supply, but there are significant technical and safety hurdles. Another strategy that has been proposed is to concentrate vaccine antigen production in a small number of developed countries, on the theory that making vaccine antigen is best done in a few expert facilities and that, if these facilities are collectively made large enough, their surplus production can be exported to developing countries in the event of a pandemic. Yet this strategy, encouraged by the WHO GAP, leaves developing countries in a state of dependency and at the end of the queue to receive vaccine. All of the above factors, together with mounting pressure on health budgets as a result of the global economic downturn, make ensuring availability of influenza vaccines particularly difficult for most developing countries. Several studies have recently discussed options for expanding prepandemic and pandemic influenza vaccine production capacity. A number of these reports are listed in the annex to this report. While these are valuable and discuss some technical aspects of influenza vaccines in greater detail, there are key issues related to pandemic vaccination strategies that remain under-contextualized for policy-makers. This paper seeks to fill that gap. McKenna M. Plant cancellation shows problems in flu vaccine business in CIDRAP News, 3 Ocl. 2008 WHO. Business Plan for the Global Pandemic Influenza Action Plan to Increase Vaccine Supply, February 2008. Page 3 �A discussion oaoer This paper assumes that developing countries will largely not be satisfied with reliance on pandemic vaccines and/or bulk antigen exported from Europe, North America, or Japan, particularly because such supplies currently cannot be made available in a timely fashion. Therefore is difficult to argue that such reliance is an adequate pandemic vaccine supply plan. Rather, here it is presumed that developing countries will continue to seek the development of national or regional 'vaccine production capacity through technology transfer and sharing of benefits of influenza research. 2. Overview of influenza vaccine production technologies There are a variety of technologies that are used or have been proposed for production of human influenza vaccines. Often, significant parts of the production process are similar. This is especially true in the later stages of manufacture, such as packaging. The technologies may be categorized in several ways. Below, they have been divided into four basic technological approaches. Classic influenza vaccine produced in eggs With few exceptions, currently available seasonal and prepandemic influenza vaccines are manufactured through egg-based production methods. The system is cumbersome and inefficient in comparison to the theoretical possibilities of newer cell-based production (see below), leading some to characterize egg-based production as antiquated. Such comparisons, however, are invariably made against technologies that have yet to be fully commercially deployed and proven. Moreover, although it may not be new, this decades-old technology is relatively cheap, very well proven, and largely unencumbered by intellectual property claims. Egg-based production is employed throughout the world for animal and human vaccines. Apart from influenza, however, the only human vaccines for which the egg-based system is utilized are yellow fever and Japanese encephalitis vaccine. This means that apart from making flu vaccine, egg-based production lines have limited broader utility for human public health.' Egg-based lines arc important for animal heakh, however, as discussed below. Page 4 � Observations on Vaccine Production Technologies and Factors Potentially Influencing Pandemic Influenza Vaccine Choices in Developing Countries Egg-based production requires a supply of fertile chicken eggs produced under relatively stringent conditions (in comparison to eggs produced for food consumption). This is to ensure that they do not carry pathogens that might taint the vaccine. The eggs are infected with a vaccine strain and the fluid harvested from them yields vaccine after separation and further production steps. The reluctance of H5 viruses to grow to high titer in eggs (because the virus strains are too efficient at killing chicken embryos) is a problem that has bedeviled H5 vaccine development. While this remains a significant technical challenge, the problems with growing H5 viruses in eggs are being overcome, mainly by attenuating the hemagglutinin (HA) gene of the vaccine strain, typically through reverse genetics (see below). It may be noted that some of these techniques are proprietary however. Major requirements of the egg-based production system include the process of "candling" the eggs (inspection under bright light); equipment to inoculate the eggs with virus; incubators in which to keep the eggs while the virus is reproducing; and equipment to harvest, separate, and purify the vaccine virus after incubation. Some of the technology required to produce the vaccine strain is specialized; however, none of it is reported to be particularly expensive, complicated or difficult to operate. In the newest facilities the entire process is automated, while in others some steps in production (for example, candling and harvesting) are conducted by human technicians. Later steps of egg-based vaccine production, including formulation and packaging, may be similar or identical to the process used with other technologies. Live attenuated influenza vaccine Live attenuated influenza vaccine, abbreviated "LAIV", is an influenza vaccine production technology in limited commercial use in the Russian Federation and in the United States. LAIV offers the possibility of producing significantly more vaccine than classic egg-based production using same production line; however there are significant additional scientific and intellectual property hurdles that may reduce LAIVis attraction for developing countries. Page 5 �A discussion oaner The production process for LAIV vaccines is similar to that of classic egg-based vaccines, with some notable exceptions. LAIVs are administered live. This means that when the vaccine strain-containing fluid is harvested from eggs, it is not exposed to a detergent. Thus, if adventitious pathogens are present in the eggs, these may survive the formulation process and eventually infect human vaccine recipients. Therefore, eggs used in LAIV production may require even higher production standards than those used to produce classic killed vaccine. This increased danger of contamination means biosafety practices in production need to be more stringent than those used for classic killed vaccine. While there are a number of well-characterized backbone strains6 available for classic vaccines, the "cold-adapted"' backbones used in LAIVs are proprietary, such as the "Ann Arbor" strain used in the United States and the "Leningrad" strain used in the Russian Federation. LAIVs thus require a proprietary backbone strain6 and cannot be produced using the vaccine seeds strains currently distributed by WHO global influenza surveillance network (which do not have "cold-adapted" backbones). Harvesting is simpler for LAIVs (no detergent wash is needed), but the final product is more delicate because the live vaccine must be kept viable "alive") until it is used. This means LAIVs require cold storage. The fact that LAIVs are not killed potentially offers a major advantage over classic vaccine, but at a cost. LAIVs reproduce in the body of immunized persons; thus, they effectively act as their own adjuvants, which means they should require a lower dose of antigen than killed vaccine. This means the same production line may yield considerably more LAIV than classic killed vaccine, although estimates of the increased yield vary widely.' Influenza vaccines typically are comprised of a(n) HA gene(s) taken from a viral isolate that is inserted into another, laboratory-adaptedstrain by reassortment or recombinant (reverse genetics) means. While the immunogenic HA gene is the most important part of the vaccine, the labadapted strain into which it is placed has typically been selected for useful characteristics for lab and industrial use (high growth rate, tolerance for lab conditions and temperature ranges, etc). This labadapted strain is called the "backbone" strain. ' "Cold adapted" influenza strains are laboratory-adapted types that are suitable for use in live vaccines, which must be kept cold until use in order to maintain the vaccine's viability. ' Discussions to license the Russian "Leningrad" LAIV strains for H5 vaccine production .ire taking place, however, no detailed information concerning the terms and restrictions of any possible license is available, and no final agreement has been reported to have been reached. ' The WHO CAP estimate is 4.5 times, whereas others have estimated a yield as high as 10 limes that of ' the c:lassic trivalent killed vaccine process. Page 6 � Observations on Vaccine Production Technologies and Factors Potentially Influencing Pandemic Influenza Vaccine Choices in iheloping Countries One price of this antigen efficiency is that LAIVs are administered as an intranasal aerosol (i.e. sprayed into the nose), rather than being injected. They thus require a special closer instead of standard syringes. Sufficient supplies of this doser are required in order to use LAlVs. Another limitation of LAIVs is that they are unsuitable for prepandemic vaccines because of the possibility that the live prepandemic vaccine strain could mutate or recombine with circulating strains, potentially causing or contributing to a new epidemic or even pandemic flu strain. While this concern is not applicable to seasonal vaccines (because of the antigens used), it does seriously limit the ability to test LAIV procedures and formulations prior to an actual pandemic. Of note, in the future it may become practical for LAIVs to be produced in cell culture (see below), although at present they are produced in eggs. Influenza vaccines from cell culture Influenza vaccines produced by cell culture are currently under development in several places but so far are not produced commercially on a large scale. In the cell culture process, animal or other cells are infected with a vaccine virus, which is then harvested and formulated into vaccine. The process takes place in vessels called bioreactors (or fermenters), in basic design not dissimilar from those used in brewing. Cell culture typically starts by growing cells in a nutrient-rich fluid in small containers, scaling up to larger ones as the cells reproduce. When the desired cell density and scale is reached (hundreds or thousands of litres for commercial production), the cells are infected with vaccine strain virus. After the virus reproduces, the cells are harvested and virus processed into vaccine. In some cell culture systems, gently agitated cells grow freely in a sort of "soup" mixed with nutrients and (eventually) with vaccine virus. In other cell culture systems, the cells grow affixed to a substrate such as tiny gold- coated beads. They are then released by agitation. -- Page 7 �A discussion oamr For large-scale commercial production, the process requires large bioreactors, from hundreds to thousands of litres in size. Production of cell culture vaccines also requires equipment t o build and maintain a "cell bank" to provide a new supply of fresh identical cells after batches of virus- infected cells are harvested. Cell culture systems are likely to be more flexible than egg-based systems for production of other human vaccines, potentially increasing a facility's utility. For H5 influenza viruses in particular, there are claims of cell culture systems that grow the virus to a higher titer than is possible in eggs. Although cell culture vaccines are a major focus of research and development (R&D), as yet they remain in limited commercial use. Scientific limitations for their use in flu vaccines include the inability to be certain ahead of time that a particular cell line will be appropriate to grow the pandemic strain, and the need for substantial bioreactor capacity, of which there is little to no global surplus. Although investment may be recouped through a multi-use facility, cell culture has considerably higher facility construction costs at an industrial scale. In addition to potential patent claims over the influenza genes (which also impact egg-based vaccines) and backbones used in vaccine strains, there are additional intellectual property issues related to cell culture influenza vaccines. The cell lines that are used are themselves often patented, and the information necessary for their use and for regulatory approval is proprietary. Table 1 Examples of proprietary cells lines used in cell culture vaccine production : Avian embryonic stem cells Vivalis (France) Licensed to Novartis, GlaxoSmithKline, and others Vero cells per se are not cells (Vero) proprietary, but Baxter's process of using them is. To date, few cell culture-produced vaccines have been approved for human use, and they are likely to prompt more intense regulatory scrutiny than egg-produced vaccines. Cell culture vaccines require approval for the vaccine as well as characterization and safety demonstration of the cells used. Page 8 � Olwervations on Vaccine Production technologies and factors Potentially Influencing Pandemic Influenza Vaccine Choices in Uwelooinc Count rics Second generation biotech vaccines If cell culture vaccines, because of their sophisticated biological manufacturing process, may be considered the first generation of biotechnological flu vaccines, then a basket of different technologies currently under development could constitute the second. While supporters of these technologies believe they may be useful for pandemic influenza vaccines, several of them are at early stages of development and none are proven and ready for commercial use. Therefore, although it is difficult to generalize about these new technologies, they are unlikely to be selected in the short term for pandemic vaccine production in developed or developing countries. These technologies depend on the WHO global influenza surveillance network (GISN) for antigens and WHO selections of the best antigens for use in vaccines, but do not utilize WHO candidate seed strain. Taking a longer a view, however, it is possible that some of these technologies, for example virus-like particles (VLPs), may become viable for large-scale use. The fact that they are new and mainly privately developed, however, means that in general they are heavily covered by intellectual property claims and may require very new kinds of know-how. For most countries it is too early to tell, however, if national patents will be issued, so the extent of intellectual property impediments for any particular developing country remains unclear. Briefly, second-generation biotech vaccines include, among other approaches: > production of recombinant HA protein in other, easily grown, organisms (e.g. transgenic bacteria); > "naked" and plasmid DNA vaccines in which "codon ~ p t i m i z e d ' " flu genes are used directly as vaccine, and ~ >- genetically engineered systems to co-express HA, NA, M2 genes from flu, manufacturing a "virus like particle" (VLP) that is purified from culture and used as vaccine. lo "Codon opiiniized" genes have nucleic acids that have been altered-typically changed from RNA to DNA-so 1h.11ihe gcnr can be he~terexpressed in a biotechnological application (e.g. . v,iccinc'). I Page 9 �A discussion paper Summary of the basic technological approaches to influenza vaccine production 1. Egg-based "classic" influenza vaccine: Vaccine virus is injected into fertilized eggs. The eggs are placed in incubators and the virus reproduces in the eggs. Fluid is then harvested from the eggs and washed with detergent The resulting killed virus material is separated and used for vaccine formulation. This type of vaccine is one kind of inactivated (i.e. killed) influenza vaccine, or "11V". 2. Live attenuated influenza vaccine ("LAIV"): Vaccine virus is grown in eggs (or in the future, potentially in cell culture) in a process similar to classic flu vaccine. The live virus uses a special type of genetic backbone (currently of limited availability since they are proprietary). Harvesting and formulation is simpler than with killed vaccines. The final product is more delicate and requires a cold chain, but the process potentially is considerably more efficient, producing more flu shots with the same number of eggs. 3. Cell culture influenza vaccines: Mammalian, avian, or other cells are cultured in growth media. This culture is scaled up to the desired density of cells in large bioreactors (fermented up to thousands of litres in capacity. The culture is infected with vaccine strain, which multiplies in the cells, producing large quantities of vaccine virus. Harvesting, purification and packagingare essentially the same as with egg- based vaccines. This is another type of IIV, produced by a different method. 4. "Second generation" biotechnologicalvaccines: Many techniques are under study, including: producing recombinant HA protein in other, easily grown, organisms (e.g. transgenic bacteria); "naked* and plasmid DNAvaccines in which "codon optimized" genes are used as vaccine; and genetically engineered systems to co-expressflu genes, making a virus-like particle (VLP) that is used a vaccine. s Candidate seed strains and antigens The W H O system develops and distributes candidate H5 vaccine seed strains. he& seed strain; are suitable for producing vaccine in eggs and incorporate antigens that have been selected by WHO. In the event of a pandemic, the W H O system may develop and make available LAIV- suitable seed strains; however, W H O does not presently have rights to the proprietary LAIV backbones. Although at a technical level, current W H O candidate seed strains can be used to produce H5 vaccine, there are legal restrictions imposed on them in a required Material Transfer Agreement (MTA).ll This is because l1 For example, the Material Transfer Agreement for the WHO candidate seed strain NIBRG-23, made from an HSN1 strain isolated in Turkey, can be viewed here: h~p://www.11ibsc.ac.uk~flu_site/Docs/spotlighl/H5N1MTA-NIBRG-23.doc Page 10 � Observations on Vaccine Production Technologies and Factors Potentially Influencing Pandemic Influeni'a Vaccine Choices in Developing Countries they are created using proprietary reverse genetics technology. (See also the discussion on conditions imposed on commercial use of reverse genetics in section Ill below.) The advantage that the WHO seed strains theoretically offer is that the strain is a known quantity that may be quickly used, reducing the amount of work and time needed for new strains to go into production. Vaccine makers and other companies, however, may choose not to use WHO candidate seed strains for any of several reasons. These may include a desire to avoid the intellectual property restrictions imposed by the WHO MTA, or they may wish to use a technology type for which the WHO strain is not suitable (e.g. LAIVs), or they may wish to make other alterations particular to their production system (for example, to introduce a mutation intended to make the virus grow to higher titer). If a vaccine maker does not use the WHO candidate vaccine seed strain in actual production, however, it is still highly likely to use the antigens selected by the WHO system C SImost immunogenic. In this case, the maker would obtain the HA (andlor NA) gene(s) from the WHO system or synthesize them from sequence data. The maker then incorporates the WHO-selected antigenk) into its own vaccine strain. Thus, particularly in the future, of arguably even greater importance than the WHO candidate vaccine seed strain are the genes that the WHO system determines to be most suitable for use in vaccines, because these will be used by manufacturers whether or not the manufacturer utilizes the WHO candidate seed strain. 3. Issues and challenges The question of adjuvants Adjuvants are substances that are added to a vaccine in order to enhance its immunological effect. Most adjuvants act on the human immune system and are not linked to a particular vaccine strain or even a particular disease. Thus a particular adjuvant may be used not only for influenza vaccine; but also in vaccines against other diseases. Adjuvants can both reduce the amount of antigen needed per vaccine dose (potentially of great importance in a pandemic) and increase the "take" of vaccines-lhat is, the rate of successful vaccination. Page 1 7 �A discussion paper Many adjuvants that may be used in influenza vaccines today are inorganic chemicals. These are sometimes aluminum-related compounds, such as aluminum hydroxide (or gibbsite, (Al(OH)J), which is more familiar in medicine for its use as an oral antacid. One adjuvant that has long been used, alum, is patent-free and easily obtained, but it is not generally considered promising for H5 vaccines. , Major influenza vaccine manufacturers are increasingly using newer adjuvants of a type called oil-in-water emulsions. Companies claim these offer substantial improvements over other adjuvants. The proprietary oil-in- water adjuvants used by Novartis and Gla~oSmithKline'~ based on are squalene, an organic compound produced in small quantities by many animals and some plants, and are subject to patents and trade secrets. A large number of biotechnological adjuvants, such as short pieces of DNA that are active in the body and are designed to make vaccines more immunogenic through specific gene or protein-level effects on the immune system, are undergoing research. These, however, remain experimental.13 Not all vaccines contain an adjuvant. LAIVs do not need to be adjuvanted because they are alive and reproduce in the upper respiratory tract. One H5 vaccine, produced in cell culture by Baxter International, is a killed virus vaccine that is unadjuvanted.14 One problem with assessing the potential use of adjuvants for pandemic vaccine production in developing countries is that they are often highly proprietary. For instance, detailed information on production of vaccines with oil-in-water emulsion adjuvants is limited, as the adjuvants are often patented and their use is covered by trade secrets. Table 2 provides an overview of a number of adjuvants. Sanofi's '¥ proprietary formulation is reportedly similar, but its exact composition does not appear to have been made public. " Because these adjuvants are varied in nature and generally in earlier development stages, this paper focuses on adjuvants in current use or advanced development l4 The Baxter vaccine has an unusual composition and production method. It uses unaltered H5N1 virus isolates that have not been placed on a labadapted backbone or had genetic alterations to reduce pathogenicity. Because the live vaccine virus is virulent for birds and, potentially, humans and other animals, it must be grown under very careful biosafety procedures in P-3 (BSL-3) containment. This method of production requires a cell culture system, with the added challenge of stringent BSL-3 practices and facilities. Page 12 � Observations on Vaccine Production Technologies and Factors Potentially Influencing Pandemic Influenza Vaccine Choices in DevelopingCountries Table 2: Adjuvants that may be used in pandemic influenza vaccines What is it? An inorganic Chemicals An oil-in- An oil-in- An oil-in- Biological chemical, related to water water water materials potassium alum, emulsion, emulsion, emulsion, designed to aluminum including consisting of consisting of whose boost sulfa~e. aluminum squalene, squalene, formulation immune hydroxide polysor'Jate plysorbate does not syst- and 80 (Tween 80, and DL- appear to response. aluminum 801, and a- have been phosphate. sorbitane tocopherol. published. trioleate (Span 85). Yes 1 yes 1 Yes. Includes JVRS-100 Avenlis) fluventus), (Intercell) etc. Use Has long Clinical trials Used in Used in Does not Experimental: been used in are underway vaccines vaccines currently some have various of pandemic licensed in licensed in appear to be advanced to vaccines. flu vaccines some some licensed. human trials. utilizing countries. countries. Regulatory these. Also hurdles likely used in other to be quite vaccines. substantial. Efficacy issues Used in trials Potentially Deemed Deemed AF03 is Unproven. and in one more effective and effective and thought to US-licensed effective than licensed for licensed for be similar to prepandemic alum, but less use in non- use in non- MF59 and vaccine; but so than influenza influenza ,4503. often proprietary vaccines. regarded as adjuvants. inadequate Mixed results for use with in research to ' H5 vaccines. date. Based on their reported composition, adjuvants such a MF59 do not s appear to utilize unusual or expensive ingredients; however, it cannot be assumed that effectively incorporating them into vaccines is as straightforward as their reported chemical composition because details of their use are proprietary. In some countries, vaccination has been associated with social controversies due to perceived risks. Some vaccine critics have claimed that certain adjuvants are unsafe, including aluminum hydroxide (alleged to be Page 13 �A discussion caper linked to Alzheimer disease) and MF59 (which has received scrutiny for its use in a controversial US anthrax vaccine). While the scientific merit of these criticisms is debated-the compounds have passed regulatory review in many countries-where concern exists it would be inappropriate to ignore the potential disruption to vaccination campaigns due to widespread worry over adjuvant safety. It is clear that in the event of a pandemic, the presently limited global vaccine virus production capacity means that the supply of pandemic vaccine antigen (in any form) will be far outstripped by demand, especially in the early stages. With the exception of unadjuvanted LAIVs, in the dominant planning scenario, widespread use of the most effective adjuvants is highly desirable because it will enable more people to be vaccinated with the limited amount of antigen available, especially at earlier stages of the pandemic. Failure to use the most effective adjuvants would "waste" antigen because each suboptimally adjuvanted dose would "rob" antigen from the global supply. Conditions imposed on commercial use of reverse genetics Reverse genetics is a relatively new proprietary technology that is being applied to the development of influenza vaccines as well as other products. At present the technology is used in the creation of WHO GISN H5 vaccine seed strains, although it is not strictly technically obligatory to use it when making pandemic vaccine strains. Because of the advantages it offers, however, the technology will likely be increasingly used in future vaccine strains. Primarily developed by American and British universities, and covered by a large number of patents, reverse genetics intellectual property has been accumulated by Medimmune, a US-based subsidiary of the United Kingdom's Astra Zeneca, a large flu vaccine maker. Meclimmune has thus far allowed use of its reverse genetics intellectual property in pandemic vaccine R&D, however, it has indicated that it will not permit commercial use of the technology without a license. Material transfer agreements for WHO candidate seed strains of H5 vaccines thus include protections for Medimmune's intellectual property and thereby impose restrictions on those that receive seed strains (through contract law), even in countries where Medimmune's patents have not been issued. Reverse genetics technology involves creation of loops of DNA called plasmids whose key parts encode for influenza genes. When the plasmids Page 14 � Observations on Vaccine Production Technologies and Factors Potentially Influencing Pandemic Influenza Vaccine Choices in Developing Countries are introduced into cells, the DNA is transcribed into RNA and influenza virus is produced. The technology enables scientists to "edit" the influenza viral genes by making alterations to the DNA plasmid, for example, deleting bases from the HA gene to make the virus avirulent. In addition to allowing manipulation of individual genes, reverse genetics allows scientists to relatively easily mix and match genes from different influenza strains, particularly when inserting new genes onto 'backbone" strains for which plasmid systems are already constructed. This is useful for research purposes and for creation of vaccine strains, because it can be more straightforward and reliable than the traditional reassortment method, whereby cells are coinfected with different strains and the resulting hybrid viruses identified and selected by scientists. Reverse genetics is potentially a very useful technology for egg-based, cell culture, and other types of flu vaccines. It is, however, controlled by Medimmune and because it is used in current WHO candidate seed strains, recipients of those strains are already obligated to negotiate with Medimmune should they choose to commercially produce vaccine from those strains. This point has perhaps not received the attention it warrants. Biotechnology and public perception An important policy and health consideration underappreciated to date is the potential for problems with social and regulatory acceptance of recombinant pandemic influenza vaccines-that is, those that are the product of biotechnology. Some countries may have additional regulatory requirements for such vaccines. This may influence the decisions that governments take in vaccine supplies. Decisions may be complicated by the fact that influenza vaccines make use of biotechnologies that might or might not be popularly and legally understood as "genetic engineering". It is logical that in the event of a severe pandemic the vast majority of people would opt for vaccination even if concerned about the safety of a recombinant vaccine, for the simple reason that fear of severe illness or death from the disease is greater than concern about the vaccine. It is also true, however, that genetically engineered products used in humans remain controversial in many parts of the world and some citizens may be reluctant to be vaccinated, particularly in scenarios such as a slow-spreading pandemic or widespread use of a recombinant (pre)pandemic vaccine. Page 7 5 �A discussion paper Although not strictly tied to biotechnology, recent cases of problems in polio vaccination campaigns and the rejection of childhood vaccination among some religious communities are evidence of the importance of safety perceptions and belief. In the case of pandemic influenza vaccines, the degree to which the vaccine could be termed "genetically engineered" varies by the technology used. Perceptions may be further influenced by other factors, such as use of animal products in cell culture, and whether the vaccine is live or killed, with killed vaccines presumably engendering less resistance. A brief breakdown of some pertinent influenza vaccine technologies and how they might be consideredis given in Table 3. Table 3: Brief overview of key influenza vaccine technologies lechmtogy - What is it?- Islt-geneticc~ng? Reverse genetics Assenlbly of influenza viruses through Viruses produced by reverse genetics are the creation of DNA plasmids bearing recombinant products and are, as it is influenza genes that are transcribed into generally understood (and regulated), virus in infected cells. Although not genetically engineered. If the virus genes strictly necessary for most influenza have not been significantly changed, vaccines, it may offer time savings and however, then the resulting vaccine virus other R&D advantages. may not substantially differ from reassortant viruses or natural virus isolates. HA gene deletions To facilitate safe handling of H5N1 The manipulation of the HA gene creates research viruses and vaccine production. a recombinant product. The modified HA part of the HA gene is deleted to make gene is not transgenic, however, because it nonpathogenic. This altered gene is it does not incorporate foreign genetic then used in the vacane strain. material. Virus-like particles (VLPs) Insertion of nucleic acids coding for The VLP vaccine itself is non-living; influenza virus genes into other cells, however, i t is the product of an organism triggering the production of non-living that is genetically engineered to express particles that mimic key parts of non-native genes. influenza viruses, and can trigger an immune reaction. Recombinant LAIV While it is possible to create LAIVs A live genetically engineered vaccine is without use of recombinant DNA, lor the type most likely to encounter stricter technical reasons i t is likely that a regulatory requirements and safety pandemic LAIV would be produced questions. with reverse genetics and possibly incorporate additional genetic modifications. For many of the same reasons as LAIVs, These vaccines will contain a genetically (pre)pandemickilled flu vaccines, engineered product Regulatory and social produced in eggs or cell culture, may be concerns may be fewer, however, recombinant products. because the vaccine virus is killed before administration. Page 16 � Observations on Vaccine Production Technologies and factors Pofentially Influencing Pandemic Influenza Vaccine Choices in Revelopinc Countries Export controls Export controls are imposed by national laws. They are designed to regulate and sometimes prevent the transfer of technologies (hat may be used to create nuclear, chemical, or biological weapons as well as certain other items, such as missile-related technology. They are discussed in particular here because they have generally not been discussed with respect to pandemic vaccine production to date. Export controls are necessary to consider because research on highly pathogenic influenza viruses and production of vaccines require facilities, know-how and equipment that could be abused in biological weapons programmes. As a result, some of the same technologies that can be used to protect public health by producing vaccines can be difficult to acquire because they may fall under export control laws. Biological export control laws are controversial and have been a matter of intense debate at the Biological and Toxin Weapons Convention. The countries that impose the most rigorous export controls (mainly developed countries) argue that they are necessary for national security and anti-proliferation reasons. On the other hand, the countries that are most often denied technology (mainly developing countries) counter that export controls are arbitrary and unfair, and that they are often motivated by political or economic considerations not related to weapons proliferation. Export controls are not governed by any international agreement. Some countries that have biological (and chemical) export control systems attempt to coordinate them through the Australia Croup, a collection of countries whose stated aim is "to minimise the risk of assisting chemical and biological weapon (CBW) proliferation". The majority of the members of the Australia Croup are OECD Member States. The Croup calls itself an "informal arrangement" that "meets annually to discuss ways of increasing the effectiveness of participating countries' national export licensing measures to prevent would-be proliferators from obtaining materials for CBW programme^".^^ '" See hltp://www.ai~straliagroup.net. Page 7 7 �A discussion paper For influenza vaccines, export control laws may limit the transfer of a wide variety of research and vaccine production-related technology, and even shipments of vaccines themselves.16 Export controls are applied to equipment, organisms, and ideas. The different types of items that can fall under export controls,include: > Physical items used in research and vaccine production such as bioreactors (fermenters), lyophilizers (freeze dryers), separation and packaging (filling) equipment. > Know-how such a blueprints, design and engineering services s for high-containment laboratories and biological production facilities, as well as certain kinds of scientific procedures and knowledge. > Biological materials-for example, highly virulent disease strains or, in some cases, vaccines. Export controls apply in different degrees to different countries and technologies. Items considered by export-controlling countries to be of highest risk1' may be more difficult to export than items that are considered lower risk (for example, vaccines). Generally, when an export license for a controlled item (or technology) is sought, the item is classified for its intrinsic risk and then cross-referenced against a list of countries that themselves have been categorized according to the degree of weapons proliferation threat they are alleged to impose. An additional pertinent consideration may be the entity in the importing country that seeks access to the technology. For example, a well- known international pharmaceutical company may be less likely to be denied an export controlled item than a government research institute in the same country, if the exporting county is suspicious of the aims of the importing country's government research programme. Finally, when export licenses are issued, typically they are contingent upon the recipient of the controlled items agreeing to no further transfers of "' A particularly severe export conlrol has recently been highlighted in news articles pointing out that export controls in the United States would apply to H5N1 vaccine exports to several countries. See, for example, URL: http://www.exportlawblog.com/archives/406(accessed 25 November 2008). l7 For example, a large, high-quality fermentcr, which might be used to produce biological weapons agents instead of vaccine. Page 7 8 � Observations on Vaccine Production Technologies and Factors Potentially Influencing Pandemic Influenza Vaccine Choices in Developing Countries the technology. While as practical matter this type of re-export restriction is difficult to enforce, entities that transfer export-controlled technologies place at great risk their future ability to obtain export-controlled techn~logies.'~ While the Non-Aligned Movement and others have been critical of the Australia Group's biological export control system,'' there are no signs that export controls are being relaxed even with the prospect of an influenza pandemic. Countries must therefore take into consideration the issue of export controls when making pandemic preparedness decisions. Many developing countries are subject to Australia Group's export control restrictions, which could impede their access to influenza vaccine production technology. The impact of export control regimes will vary by country and technology. While export controls will not be a major issue for all countries, particular technologies, such as cell culture systems, may be more prone to export control problems than others. Countries that wish to develop a domestic production capacity that utilizes imported technologies will need to address these issues. 4. Options Timing and technology choices It is difficult to reconcile the severity of fears of an imminent pandemic with the slow pace of expansion of global influenza vaccination and vaccine production capacity. Years of meetings and rhetoric have passed since the H5 pandemic scare began, yet most countries in the world-including many wealthy countries-have thus far not ensured pandemic vaccine supplies for their own populations. 18 Countries that impose export controls maintain lists of commercial, governmental and other entities that have received (or sought to receive) export-controlled items for transfer to others without the approval of the original exporting country. l9 See, for example, the statement of Cuba (on behalf of NAM) and other statements at the 2007 Meeting of States Parties of the Biological and Toxin Weapons Convention, URL: http://www.opbw.org/newprocess/msp2007/msp2007_s>a~emcn~.htm �A discussion oamr If the pandemic threat is so dire, why is the practical response so muted? Limited resources are certainly a factor; but clearly, not everyone shares the same views with respect to the imminence and likely severity of an outbreak. Those who warn that a pandemic may envelop the world within months from its onset, and there are many experts that do, suggest a health emergency that arguably would require strong government action such as nationalization of pertinent production facilities and invoking of TRIPS flexibilities to allow for greater availability of affordable treatments. A pandemic could circle the globe so quickly that initiating such steps after the appearance of a pandemic strain might be pointless. Despite the dire predictions, steps like compulsory licensing of antivirals have yet to be taken, suggesting that governments may be dubious of the claims made by some scientists of the imminence of a severe H5 human pandemic. Is this foolish, or an efficient use of overstretched resources?It will only become clearer in retrospect Nobody argues against improved pandemic preparedness now and in the future, for everyone seems to accept that a new pandemic will occur, sooner or later. Yet, at the same time, it is clearly not possible today to abandon other public health efforts because the argument that a highly lethal pandemic strain is nearly upon us may turn out to be correct For those seeking to get ready for a pandemic now, proven technology- mainly egg-based production of classic flu vaccine-offers degrees of certainty that emerging biotechnologies cannot. Methods to grow H5 viruses in eggs are improving, and egg-based production is already available and does not require any potentially expensive and unreliable "bleeding edge" technology. And in theory, the same production facility can also be used for production of pandemic LAIVs. Although egg-based production is sometimes maligned as "antique", it is telling that major vaccine makers investing in biotechnology remain heavily reliant on egg-based systems for their own flu vaccine production. The major problem, of course, is what-if anything-to do with the production capacity when it is not required for (pre)pandemic vaccines, in view of the fact that there is limited other use for egg-based facilities and, for many developing countries, seasonal flu vaccination is a losing economic proposition. Maintaining an unused production base is expensive. WHO estimates that maintaining an idle capacity to produce 200 million seasonal vaccine doses would cost US $100 million per year. Page 20 � Observations on Vaccine Production Technologies and factors Potentially Influencing Pandemic Influenza Vaccine Choices in Developing Countries Viewed in a longer timeframe, technology selection may become more complicated. The flexibilities and potential efficiencies of cell culture are attractive because they may offer a faster pandemic response and, especially, a facility with potentially broader public health uses-if the technology is available and markets exist for the other types of human vaccines that may be produced in cell culture. However, the relatively unproven status and considerably greater cost of hardware for cell culture technologies (estimated at ten or more times the cost of egg-based facilities), both in terms of equipment and intellectual property, at present make them a daunting proposition for most developing countries. Fill/finish projects and importation of bulk antigen Indonesian and Mexican vaccine manufacturers, with W H O support, are developing filllfinish capacity for local vaccine sales. In the filllfinish approach, developing country manufacturers import bulk vaccine antigen produced by an overseas company and use it in a locally branded, finished product. In the current WHO-supported projects, the antigen manufacturers are Biken (to Indonesia) and Sanofi-Aventis (to Mexico). The imported bulk antigen, suitable for a classic killed vaccine, is processed in-country into a finished product. The national manufacturer creates filling and packaging facilities, and some associated technology transfer takes place. Importation of bulk antigen and fillinglfinishing in developing countries favours the argument, advanced by some, that it is rational for global influenza antigen production to be concentrated in a few locations with well-developed capacity and expertise. Local manufacturers importing bulk antigen remain dependent, however, on product supplied from abroad, which is unlikely to be available in the event of a pandemic (particularly in its early stages), so long as global production capacity remains well below that which is necessary. Page 21 �A discussion oaoer The option of animal vaccine plant conversion Current global capacity for human influenza vaccine production falls well short of that needed for pandemic response, even with optimistic assumptions about demandlyield of pandemic antigen. Often unmentioned is the substantial additional manufacturing base that uses egg-based production systems to make animal vaccines. These facilities could lessen the gap between pandemic vaccine supply and demand. They use a very similar production process as that used for human influenza vaccines. Estimates of the global size of the egg-based animal vaccine industry, however, vary wildly. On the high end, according to one source20the annual global egg- based animal influenza vaccine capacity, as of 2006, was approximately 41 billion avian doses (at 100 doses per egg), or about 410 million eggs. In terms of human vaccines, this implies a capacity of approximately 410 million doses of human trivalent seasonal vaccine. Using this capacity estimate, output of a monovalent pandemic LAIV could be between 1.8 billion (WHO conversion factor) and up to 4 billion or more vaccinations per year (other conversion fa~tor),~' depending on antigen assumptions. In either case, this would allow vaccination of a substantial proportion of the world's population. But WHO CAP consultants, also citing industry sources, come up with very different numbers for the potential contribution of animal vaccine facilities. They report that the animal vaccine industry can handle only about 78 million eggs annually. This implies an annual pandemic LAIV output of approximately 340 to 750 million human vaccine courses per year, a much lower but still substantial figure. It is thus difficult to be precise about (pre)pandemic capacity of animal vaccine facilities because of conflicting and limited data and the 2fl Hcldens, J G M. Production capacity for human and veterinary influenza, June 2006,at URL: http:// www.dut&bio.org/'meetings/list/dutch_vaccines_group/files/influenza_dag/ DVC%2Ojacco%20Heldens,%2026.06.06.pdf (Heldens represented Akzo Nobel, which owned Inletvet, a major animal vaccine maker, until it was sold to Schering Plough in 2007.) 21 See: Fedson DS, Dunnill P. New approaches to confronting an imminent influenza pandemic. Perm J 2007;11:639, URL: http://xnet.kp.orp/permancnteiournal/SUM07/influeriza-oandemic.h~rnl and Fedson DS, Dunnill P.From Scarcity to Abundance: Pandemic Vaccines and Other Agents for "Have Not"Countries in journal of Public Health Policy (2007) 28,322-340. doi: 10.1057/palgrave.jphp.3200147 Page 22 � Observations on Vaccine Production Jechnohgies and Factors Potentially Influencing Pandemic Influenza Vaccine Choices in Developing Countries variety of assumptions that could be made about antigen production and vaccine type. But even a low-end estimate would represent a large addition to human production capacity. Notably, a large proportion of global animal vaccine production capacity is located in Asia, and additional capacity exists in Latin America. Converting an animal influenza vaccine facility to human vaccine production is not, however, as simple as switching vaccine seed strains. There can be significant hurdles, the severity of which will vary with the specific equipment and process used at each manufacturing plant. Major issues to be addressed in such a conversion are regulatory certification of the manufacturing process to human vaccine standards, ensuring appropriate biosafety practices, adequate egg supply, improved virus purification processes, and adoption of adjuvants approved for human use. Regulatory hurdles will be country-specific. In some places, animal vaccine plants are already held to manufacturing standards near or equal to those for human vaccines; however, this is not always the case. A related issue is biosafety practices which, in some animal vaccine plants, would need improvement-both in operating procedures and, potentially, to equipment. Conversion of animal facilities to human vaccine production may also strain egg supplies, especially in countries or regions where H5 vaccination of poultry currently occurs, because eggs laid by hens vaccinated against H5 cannot be used to produce vaccine. Human flu vaccines produced in eggs go through an extensive filtration process to remove egg proteins and other contaminants that can cause an adverse reaction. Animal vaccines are generally not subjected to the same level of filtration, and improvement of filtration in converted animal vaccine plants would be necessary. The adjuvants used in animal vaccines are not typically approved for use in humans, and animal vaccine plants would have to switch to appropriate adjuvants, unless they are producing a human pandemic LAIV (which is unadjuvanted). Page 23 �A discussion oaoer Human vaccine producers and pharmaceutical companies own a significant proportion of global animal vaccine production capacity. For example, Merial, the world's largest animal vaccine maker, is a joint venture of Sanofi Aventis and Merck. Ft. Dodge, another large animal vaccine company, is a division of Wyeth. Intervet, a third large animal vaccine maker, is owned by Schering Plough. Other drug companies, such as Pfizer and Novartis, also have animcil vaccine businesses. Thus, human and animal vaccine makers should not be thought of as wholly separate industries. 5. Concluding discussion Which technologies should developing countries seek multilaterally to improve pandemic preparedness? The answer, of course, depends on many factors. Reliance on a s m d number of developed country sources for pandemic vaccine and/or antigen is unlikely to remain an acceptable solution for most developing countries, particularly in view of the fact that the developed country industry is not currently in a position to offer sufficient quantities of antigen in a timely manner after the appearance of a pandemic strain. Practically, the present situation of dependency, which is effectively unaltered by the WHO Pandemic Action Plan, means that the vast majority of developing countries will only receive significant quantities of vaccine after the needs of developed countries are met, which will likely be many months after the onset of a pandemic-months during which pandemic mortality may be severe. As a result of the inequity, in the event of a pandemic, developing countries will suffer a disproportionate burden of serious disease and death, a problem that could be ameliorated by increased and equitably distributed global vaccine supplies, particularly in the developing world. These vaccine supply problems may be further exacerbated by non-health factors, in the form of export controls that may inhibit the ability of some countries to prepare for a pandemic because some kinds of technology transfer are unavailable to them. Developing country leaders are likely to face question from their citizens if they remain vulnerable while the citizens of wealthy countries are vaccinated; this situation could become especially tense if a pandemic is severe enough to cause serious socioeconomic disruption. Page 24 � Observations on Vaccine Production Technologies and factors Potentially Influencing Pandemic Influenza Vaccine Choices in Developing Countries Vaccination for the population at the earliest point possible following the onset of a pandemic isn't the entirety of pandemic preparedness; but it is a high priority. But at present, there is little consensus among experts about how best to achieve that. It is also clear that no single technological approach will be appropriate for all countries or regions and that greater funding and improved access to proprietary technologies will be necessary for developing countries to improve protection of their citizens from pandemic flu. Regional cooperation in production and technology to take advantage of economies of scale will likely be far more fruitful than trying to go it alone for most countries. Several options for financing and technology transfer have been mentioned in the context of the Pandemic Influenza Preparedness Intergovernmental Meeting (IGM). These include increasing vaccine production in developing countries, possibly supported by royalty-free licensing of vaccine production technology. Contributions to a global fund, and contributions of vaccines to a WHO stockpile by entities that use pandemic preparedness biological materials in research and development of vaccines and other biomedical items have also been proposed. While a WHO stockpile may be useful to help stamp out or slow down the emergence of a pandemic influenza strain, it is not designed-nor will it serve-to ensure any country's vaccine supply. A WHO vaccine stockpile is also mandated by WHO Member States outside the WHO PIP IGM discussions, and is thus not a central objective of the benefit-sharing discussion. Because increasing national or regional vaccine production capacity in developing countries requires flexibility in technological approaches, no single technology transfer and cooperative arrangement is likely to be effective. There is strong evidence that proprietary and emerging technologies, such as reverse genetics, adjuvants, and in the future cell culture, could serve to greatly increase the efficiency of preparedness efforts. Specific technology selections, however, must be made in the regional and national contexts. In principle, developing countries may seek to formalize a system of equitable reciprocity wherein those developed country companies and other entities that utilize Global Influenza Surveillance Network (GISN) Page 25 �A discussion oaoer materials to develop vaccines commit to transfer their vaccine technologies so that they may be used by developing countries. Therefore, in the PIP ICM negotiations, developing countries have explored the possibility of creating a mechanism for transfer of influenza vaccine technology, through mandatory royalty-free licensing and other low or no-cost means, including for both formal patents and related know-how and trade secrets. The technologies prioritized by any such pandemic preparedness technology transfer program should be those that are used by industry to manufacture products that include WHO GISN materials (e.g. H5 vaccines) or are developed utilizing WHO GISN materials. Reducing proprietary barriers to the technology needed to produce pandemic vaccines would represent a significant step forward; however, making technology available does not guarantee that it will be effectively used. Ways to optimize the use of technologies include, for example, the creation of a financing mechanism by which the real-world transfer of these technologies can be effected (for instance, to pay for the necessary equipment and training to utilize them). A pandemic preparedness cooperation fund could also be established, with contributions from manufacturers that utilize WHO GISN materials in commercial products (to be defined in a WHO material transfer agreement), and possibly contributions from governments. A cooperation fund could also help enable the use of nonproprietary technologies, such as egg-based production lines and fill/finish capacity, which will be important elements of any national or regional effort to increase vaccine production capacity. Pandemic preparedness is a problem of daunting complexity, and solutions will only come with time and contributions from many quarters. The PIP IGM is an important process but not one that by itself can solve all problems. Developing countries may wish to focus on important specific benefits that will enhance their preparedness. With the timing of a pandemic uncertain, but the time needed to construct and validate vaccine facilities typically measured in years, it is urgent that progress be made now to expand developing country vaccine production capacity. Developing countries will have to work together to identify the best technologies for their circumstances. The PIP ICM's decisions may help to make key technologies affordably available to developing countries, and through a cooperation fund, provide means through which to effect their transfer and use. Page 26 � Observations on Vaccine Produaion Technologies and Factors PotentiallyInfluencing Pandemic Influenza vaccine Choices in evel lop& ~ountries Annex 1 Overview table of influenza vaccine technologies .- - - Cell culture produced vacdnes - - - . - vaccines, =-. -- - - etc) F - Z -- Description Inject vaccine Animal, insect, or A vaccine seed Many techniques are virus into other cells are strain using a under study, including: fertilized eggs, cultured in growth special type of allow virus to media, scaling up backbone (from a - Producing grow. Harvest the quantity to the lab-adapted flu recombinant HA in fluid from eggs, desired density of strain) is grown in other, more easily wash with cells in industrial eggs (or potentially grown organisms detergent to kill bioreactors cell culture). The (e.g. transgenic cells, separate out [fermenters) of live virus is bacteria). virus material for hundreds to harvested, purified - "Naked" and vaccine thousands of litres and formulated for plasmid DNA formulation. capacity. The use. Harvesting and vaccines in which Generally, the culture is infected formulation is "codon optimized" vaccine strain with vaccine strain, simpler than with flu genes are used consists of the H A producing large killed vaccines, but directly as vaccine. and NA genes of a quantities of the live final "wild type" of vaccine virus. product is more - Genetically influenza fused Harvesting, delicate. engineered systems onto a lab- purification and to co-express HA, adapted packaging is NA, and other flu "backbone" strain essentially the genes, making a with the other same as with egg- "virus-like particle" viral genes. based methods. (VLP)which is used as vaccine. - "Hard" Large BSL-2 Large BSL-2 + Large BSL-2 . May Will vary with specific technology space, incubators, bioreactors for cell be grown in eggs or technology; however, requirements inoculation and culture, equipment bioreactors (see all are likely to require harvesting to maintain cell respective BSL-2 CMP space and equipment. bank and scale-up. requirements at microbial fermentation Centrifuges In some cases left), but currently /coil culture capacity. (separationand growth substrates. the process is done purification) and After harvestingof in eggs. Purification packaging virus, purification and formulation equipment. and formulation differs from that for requirementsare killed egg and cell the same as for culture vaccines. eggs. �A discussion paper - Egg-based W&sicn' flu vaccine I - 0 1 1 culture producedvaccines - Liveatenuated ("lAIVw) -' - - - -- Major The technology is Theoretically higher Live vaccine is likely Dependent upon advantages well known and has antigen output than to be effective in specific' been successfully eggs, theoretically much lower doses technology. Nearly utilized for decades. more scalable. May than killed vaccines. all purport to be Essentially the same grow some U S Assuming able to provide technology is used vaccines viruses to production capacity more vaa5ne for some poultry higher liter. Cell can be harnessed, faster, but these vaccines, making culture vaccine more LAIV vaccine claims are as yet conversion of animal plants likely to prove may be made unproven. vaccine plants and more flexible for available in a May offer more personnel a producing other shorter time period dependable possibility in an kinds of human than with other vaccine yield per emergency. vaccines than egg '"T'es. production run. based plants. Major Not as efficient as Cell culture vaccines Not suitable for Dependent upon limitations cell culture are a major focus of prepandemic specific theoretically is. R&D; but as yet they vaccines due to technology. Requires many eggs, are in limited recombination risks. the availability of commercial use. Difficult to test with which may be Inability to be certain prepandemic limited in a that a particular cell strains. Requires pandemic (eggs may line will be more stringent be available from the appropriate to grow conditions on egg broiler industry). Egg- 11iepandemic strain. supplies than killed based plants are Requires substantial vaccine production. unlikely to be used bioreactor capacity Higher biosafety for other human of which there is little requirements for vaccines (except for to no global surplus. production. More Japaneseencephalitis Much higher cost difficult to store vaccine). facility at industrial vaccine. Intranasal scale. administration requires special delivery device. Regulatory1 Fewer impediments Few cell-culture Seasonal LAIVs These products, if safety as these vaccines will produced vaccines have limited use in successful, will be approvals he produced in the hwe been approved the U ("FluMist") S new to regulatory same manner and for human use and and in Russia; systems and are with the same they are likely to however, most highly likely to facilities as seasonal prompt more intense regulatory require substantial vaccines, although regulatory scrutiny. authorities would safety review. converted animal Require approval for be encounteringa vaccine plants likely the vaccine as well as live (and likely will not already characteriition and genetically possess approvals to safety demonstration engineered) produce human of the cells used. influenza vaccine vaccine. for the first time. Page 28 � Observations on Vaccine Production Technologies and factors Potentially Influencing Pandemic Influenza Vaccine Choices in Developing Countries Administration Syringe Syringe Intranasal (requires Method of appropriate delivery administration device) (injected, oral, intranasal, etc.) will depend on the specific product Recombinant Probably. Seed strain Same as egg-based Probably, with the Vaccine will be (genetically- may be produced production. Other notable difference genetically engineered?) with reverse genetics genetic modifications that the vaccine is engineered or be and, for example, of the vaccine strain administered live. the product of a may contain a may occur to genetically- modified HA gene optimize growth in engineered (deletions) to make cell cullure. organism. the virus less pathogenic. Virus is killed before use. Adjuvanled Almost certainly, to Same as egg-based. Probably not. The Depends on (pandemic make more efficient One exception is vaccine virus specific vaccine?) use of bulk antigen unadjuvanted killed replicates in the technology. and potentially to ''wild-type" virus upper respiratory reduce the number (being tested by tract, stimulating and size of required Baxter); however, immune response. doses. producingsuch a Nevertheless, some vaccine is a biosafety research has challenge, requiring focused on cell culture in large increasing immune scale BSL-3 response to LAIVs containment. with adjuvants. Intellectual Few IPR problems Many IP R Only a small Impedimentswill property for egg-based impediments. These number of depend on process, except for include patents on backbone strains specific adjuvants where IPR cell lines and are suitable for use. technology; and supply problems production systems, Intellectual property however, it may may exist. as well as trade impediments exist be anticipated that Potential additional secrets on safety on the use of these technologies problem if seed profile of cells. Cell strains; patents and will have robust strain is produced characterizationis trade secrets cover IPR coverage as using reverse only reportedly the formulations. they are mainly genetics. publicly available for Seed may need being developed Vero (monkey) cells. reverse genetics. by biotech companies and/or universities seeking to sell this technology. - Page 29 �A discussionpaper Other issues Some (generally Requires supply of Safe production The vast majority minor) side effects growth media and will require more of R&D in these . from egg proteins other relatively stringent biosafety lines of research and other possible exotic supplies. In procedures than appears to be impurities. addition to technical killed vaccines to conducted by challenges, cell prevent companies in a culture production contamination of handful of may be especially live final product. developed prone to export Societal resistance countries. control issues for a may be significant, number of countries. particularly for seasonal use. Page 30 � Observations on Vaccine Production Technologies and factors Potentially Influencing Pandemic Influenza Vaccine Choices in Developing Countries Annex 2 Relevant reports available online Friede M, Serdobova I, Palkonyay L, Kieny MP. Technology transfer hub for pandemic influenza vaccine. Vaccine. 2008 Nov 18. (ht@://dx.doi.ore/lO. 1016/i.vaccine.2008.10.080 - accessed 9 January2009). Lozano B. The veterinary hiological industry and the production of human pandemic influenza vaccines in Mexico. Geneva: WHO FA0 OIE Consultation Seminar. 2006. (http://www.who.int/entitv/csr/disease/influenza/Bernardo Lozano A v i m e x d f - accessed 9 January2009). National Academy of Engineering. V-36-3 engineering and vaccine production for an influenza pandemic. The Bridge. Fall 2006; 36(3). h~~://w.nae.edu/nae/brideecom.nsf/wel~links/MKEZ- - 6SZRM2?OpenDocument- accessed 9 January 2009). Oliver Wyman Consultants. Influenza vaccine strategies for broad global access: key Findings and project methodology. Scatlle: Path, 2007. (htl~://www.~ath.or~/files/VAC publ rpt 1 0 - 0 7 . d - infl accessed 9 January 2009) World Health Organization. Business plan for the global pandemic influenza action plan to increase vaccine supply. Geneva, WHO, 2008. htt~://www.who.int/entitv/vaccine research/documents~Re~ort%2520McKinsev%2520Business%2520 Plan%2520Flu3.pdf - accessed 9 January2009). World Health Organization. Mapping of intellectual property related to the production ofpandemic Influenza Vaccines. Geneva: WHO, 2007. (httD://www.who.int/vaccine research/diseases/influenza/Ma~~inp Intellectual Propem Pandemic I nfluenza Vaccinemdf - accessed 9 January 2009). World Health Organization. Meeting with internationalpartners on influenza vaccine technology transfer to developing country vaccine manufacturers. Geneva: WHO, 2007. Document WHO/IVB/08.09. (ht~://w.who.int/immunization/documents/WHO IVB 08.09/en/index.html - s accessed 9 January 2009). World Health Organization. Tables on the clinical trials of pandemic influenza prototype vaccines. Geneva: WHO. 1 httD://www.who.int/vacrine rcsearch/diseases/influenza/flu trials tables/en/index3.html - accessed 9 January 2009). World Health Organization. The global action plan (CAP) to increase supply of pandemic influenza vaccines, first meeting of the advisory group. Geneva: WHO, 2007. Document WHO/IVB/08.10. (htt~://www.who.int/imm~~nization/documents/WHO 08.10/en/index.html - accessed 9 January IVB 2009). Page 3 1 � This paper presents an overview of technologies currently available for the production of influenza vaccine, as well as others that are under development. It draws attention to pertinent issues and challenges that policy-makers in developing countries may need to consider when reviewing their options for accessing influenza vaccine production technologies. It is intended as a contribution to the debate on the sharing of influenza viruses and access to vaccines and other benefits arising from their commercial exploitation. World Health Organization ~ e ~ k nOffice for SouthEast Asia al World Health House Indraprastha Estate, Mahatma Gandhi Marg, New Delhi-110002, India