Acemoglu , D and Robinson , JA ( 2006 ) Economic Origins of Dictatorship and Democracy . Cambridge : Cambridge University Press .

Allern , EH and Bale , T ( 2012 ) Political parties and interest groups: disentangling complex relationships . Party Politics 18 ( 1 ), 7 – 25 .

Ansell , BW and Samuels , DJ ( 2014 ) Inequality and Democratization: An Elite-Competition Approach . New York : Cambridge University Press .

Ansolabehere , S , Snyder , JM and Stewart , C ( 2001 ) Candidate positioning in US House elections . American Journal of Political Science 45 ( 1 ), 136 – 159 .

Bartolini , S ( 2000 ) The Political Mobilization of the European Left, 1860–1980: The Class Cleavage . Cambridge : Cambridge University Press .

Bizzarro , F , Hicken , A and Self , D ( 2017 ) The V-Dem Party Institutionalization Index: a new global indicator (1900–2015). V-Dem Working Paper 48. Available from and) The V-Dem Party Institutionalization Index: a new global indicator (1900–2015). V-Dem Working Paper 48. Available from https://ssrn.com/abstract=2968265

Bizzarro , F et al. ( 2018 ) Party strength and economic growth . World Politics , 70 ( 2 ), 275 – 320.

Boix , C ( 2003 ) Democracy and Redistribution . Cambridge, UK, New York : Cambridge University Press .

Boix , C , Miller , M and Rosato , S ( 2013 ) A complete data set of political regimes, 1800–2007 . Comparative Political Studies 46 ( 12 ), 1523 – 1554 .

Boix , C and Svolik , M ( 2013 ) The foundations of limited authoritarian government: institutions, commitment, and power-sharing in dictatorships . Journal of Politics 75 ( 2 ), 300 – 316 .

Bolt , J and Zanden , JL ( 2014 ) The Maddison project: collaborative research on historical national accounts . The Economic History Review 67 ( 3 ), 627 – 651 .

Bueno de Mesquita , B et al. ( 2003 ) The Logic of Political Survival . Cambridge, MA : MIT Press .

Carreras , M ( 2012 ) Party systems in Latin America after the third wave: a critical re-assessment . Journal of Politics in Latin America 4 ( 1 ), 135 – 153 .

Chhibber , P , Jensenius , FR and Suryanarayan , P ( 2014 ) Party organization and party proliferation in India . Party Politics 20 ( 4 ), 489 – 505 .

Coppedge , M , Gerring , J , Lindberg , SI , Skaaning , S-E , Teorell , J , Altman , D , Bernhard , M , Steven , Fish M , Glynn , A , Hicken , A , Knutsen , CH , Marquardt , K , McMann , K , Miri , F , Paxton , P , Pemstein , D , Staton , J , Tzelgov , Ei , Wang , Y-t , and Zimmerman , B ( 2016a ) V-Dem Country-Year Dataset v6. Varieties of Democracy Project. Link: , and) V-Dem Country-Year Dataset v6. Varieties of Democracy Project. Link: https://www.v-dem.net/en/data/data-version-6/

Coppedge , M , Gerring , J , Lindberg , SI , Skaaning , S-E , Teorell , J , Altman , D , Bernhard , M , Steven , Fish M , Glynn , A , Hicken , A , Knutsen , CH , Marquardt , K , McMann , K , Miri , F , Paxton , P , Pemstein , D , Staton , J , Tzelgov , Ei , Wang , Y-t , and Zimmerman , B ( 2016b ) V-Dem Codebook v6. Varieties of Democracy Project. Link: , and) V-Dem Codebook v6. Varieties of Democracy Project. Link: https://www.v-dem.net/en/reference/version-6-mar-2016/

Duverger , M ( 1959 ) Political Parties and Party Systems . Oxford : Oxford University Press .

Ebbinghaus , B ( 1995 ) The Siamese twins: citizenship rights, cleavage formation, and party-union relations in Western Europe . International Review of Social History 40 ( S3 ), 51 – 89 .

Ehrlich , SD ( 2007 ) Access to protection: domestic institutions and trade policy in democracies . International Organization 61 ( 3 ), 571 – 605 .

Esping-Andersen , G ( 1999 ) Social Foundations of Postindustrial Economies . Oxford : Oxford University Press .

Fairfield , T and Garay , C ( 2017 ) Redistribution under the right in Latin America: electoral competition and organized actors in policymaking . Comparative Political Studies 50 ( 14 ), 1871 – 1906 .

Folke , O and Rickne , J ( 2016 ) Electoral competition and gender differences in political careers . Quarterly Journal of Political Science 11 ( 1 ), 59 – 102 .

Frendreis , J , Gibson , J and Vertz , L ( 1990 ) The electoral relevance of local party organizations . The American Political Science Review 84 ( 1 ), 225 – 235 .

Geddes , B ( 1999 ). What do we know about democratization after twenty years? Annual Review of Political Science 2 , 115 – 144 .

Gehlbach , S and Keefer , P ( 2011 ) Investment without democracy: ruling-party institutionalization and credible commitment in autocracies . Journal of Comparative Economics 39 ( 2 ), 123 – 139 .

Gerring , J and Thacker , SC ( 2004 ) Political institutions and corruption: the role of unitarism and parliamentarism . British Journal of Political Science 34 , 295 – 330 .

Goertz , G ( 2006 ) Social Science Concepts : A User's Guide . Princeton, NJ : Princeton University Press .

Haggard , S and Kaufman , RR ( 2008 ) Development, Democracy, and Welfare States: Latin America, East Asia, and Eastern Europe . Princeton, NJ : Princeton University Press .

Henisz , WJ ( 2002 ) The institutional environment for infrastructure investment . Industrial and Corporate Change 11 ( 2 ), 355 – 389 .

Hicken , A ( 2009 ) Building Party Systems in Developing Democracies . Cambridge : Cambridge University Press .

Hicken , A , Kollman , K and Simmons , JW ( 2016 ) Party system nationalization and the provision of public health services . Political Science Research and Methods 4 ( 3 ), 573 – 594 .

Hicken , A , Kuhonta , EM and Weiss , ML ( 2015 ) Party System Institutionalization in Asia : Democracies, Autocracies, and the Shadows of the Past . New York : Cambridge University Press .

Hicken , A and Simmons , JW ( 2008 ) The personal vote and the efficacy of education spending . American Journal of Political Science 52 ( 1 ), 109 – 124 .

Huber , E and Stephens , JD ( 2001 ) Development and Crisis of the Welfare State: Parties and Policies in Global Markets . Chicago, IL : University of Chicago Press .

Huber , E and Stephens , JD ( 2012 ) Democracy and the Left: Social Policy and Inequality in Latin America . Chicago, IL : University of Chicago Press .

Immergut , EM ( 1992 ) Health Politics: Interests and Institutions in Western Europe . Cambidge : Cambridge University Press .

Iversen , T ( 2005 ) Capitalism, Democracy, and Welfare . Cambridge : Cambridge University Press .

Janda , K and Colman , T ( 1998 ) Effects of party organization on performance during the ‘golden age'of parties . Political Studies 46 ( 3 ), 611 – 632 .

Jensen , C ( 2014 ) The Right and the Welfare State . Oxford : Oxford University Press .

Jones , MP and Mainwaring , S ( 2003 ) The nationalization of parties and party systems: an empirical measure and an application to the Americas . Party Politics 9 ( 2 ), 139 – 166 .

Jurado , I ( 2014 ) Party system nationalisation and social spending . European Journal of Political Research 53 ( 2 ), 288 – 307 .

Jurado , I and Leon , S ( 2019 ). Geography matters: the conditional effect of electoral systems on social spending . British Journal of Political Science 49 ( 1 ), 81 – 103 .

Kalvyas , SN ( 1996 ) The rise of Christian democracy in Europe . Ithaca, NY : Cornell University Press

Kalyvas , SN and Kersbergen , K ( 2010 ) Christian democracy . Annual Review of Political Science 13 , 183 – 209 .

Katz , RS ( 2001 ) The problem of candidate selection and models of party democracy . Party Politics 7 ( 3 ), 277 – 296 .

Katz , RS and Mair , P ( 1995 ) Changing models of party organization and party democracy: the emergence of the cartel party . Party Politics 1 ( 1 ), 5 – 28 .

Kim , W and Gandhi , J ( 2010 ) Coopting workers under dictatorship . Journal of Politics 72 ( 3 ), 646 – 658 .

Kitschelt , H and Kselman , DM ( 2013 ) Economic development, democratic experience, and political parties' linkage strategies . Comparative Political Studies 46 ( 11 ), 1453 – 1484 .

Knutsen , CH and Rasmussen , MB ( 2018 ) The autocratic welfare state resource distribution, credible commitments and political survival . Comparative Political Studies 51 ( 5 ), 659 – 695 .

Korpi , W and Palme , J ( 2007 ) The social citizenship indicator program (SCIP). Swedish Institute for Social Research, Stockholm University.

Levitsky , S and Way , L ( 2010 ) Competitive Authoritarianism : Hybrid Regimes After the Cold War . New York : Cambridge University Press .

Lindert , PH ( 2004 ) Growing Public: Social Spending and Economic Growth Since the Eighteenth Century . Cambridge : Cambridge University Press .

Magaloni , B ( 2006 ) Voting for Autocracy : Hegemonic Party Survival and its Demise in Mexico . Cambridge : Cambridge University Press .

Mainwaring , S and Torcal , M ( 2006 ) Party system institutionalization and party system theory after the third wave of democratization . In Katz , RS and Crotty , WJ (eds), Handbook of Party Politics . London : Sage , pp. 204 – 227 .

Mainwaring , S and Zoco , E ( 2007 ) Political sequences and the stabilization of interparty competition: electoral volatility in old and new democracies . Party Politics 13 ( 2 ), 155 – 178 .

Martin , CJ and Swank , D ( 2008 ) The political origins of coordinated capitalism: business organizations, party systems, and state structure in the age of innocence . American Political Science Review 102 ( 2 ), 181 – 198 .

Martínez Franzoni , J and Sánchez-Ancochea , D ( 2016 ) The Quest for Universal Social Policy in the South: Actors, Ideas, and Architectures . New York : Cambridge University Press .

Miller , MK ( 2015 ) Electoral authoritarianism and human development . Comparative Political Studies 48 ( 12 ), 1526 – 1562 .

Moene , KO and Wallerstein , M ( 2001 ) Inequality, social insurance, and redistribution . American Political Science Review 95 ( 4 ), 859 – 874 .

Orloff , AS and Skocpol , T ( 1984 ) Why not equal protection? Explaining the politics of public social spending in Britain, 1900–1911, and the United States, 1880s–1920 . American Sociological Review 49 ( 6 ), 726 – 750 .

Pemstein , D , Tzelgov , E and Wang , Y ( 2017 ) The V-Dem measurement model: latent variable analysis for cross-national and cross-temporal expert-coded data. University of Gothenburg:V-Dem Working Paper 21. Available from and) The V-Dem measurement model: latent variable analysis for cross-national and cross-temporal expert-coded data. University of Gothenburg:V-Dem Working Paper 21. Available from https://www.v-dem.net/media/filer_public/9a/18/9a188a8b-1073-4bbb-9831-20d200a358c3/v-dem_working_paper_2015_1.pdf

Persson , T and Tabellini , G ( 2004 ) Constitutions and economic policy . Journal of Economic Perspectives 18 ( 1 ), 75 – 98 .

Pribble , J ( 2013 ) Welfare and Party Politics in Latin America . New York : Cambridge University Press .

Rasmussen , MB ( 2016 ) How organized labor shaped the origin and structure of the regulatory revolution 1870–2000 (PhD dissertation). Aarhus: Politica.

Rasmussen , MB and Knutsen , CH ( 2019 ) “Replication Data for: Party Institutionalization and Welfare State Development”, and) “Replication Data for: Party Institutionalization and Welfare State Development”, https://doi.org/10.7910/DVN/EDHLIN , Harvard Dataverse, V1, UNF:6:mNEYgpaCeMJjtAABID7Tqg== [fileUNF]

Rothstein , B , Samanni , M and Teorell , J ( 2012 ) Explaining the welfare state: power resources vs. the Quality of Government . European Political Science Review 4 ( 1 ), 1 – 28 .

Samuels , D and Zucco , C ( 2015 ) Crafting mass partisanship at the grass roots . British Journal of Political Science 45 ( 4 ), 755 – 775 .

Schumacher , G ( 2012 ) ‘Marx'or the market? Intra-party power and social democratic welfare state retrenchment . West European Politics 35 ( 5 ), 1024 – 1043 .

Schumacher , G , De Vries , CE and Vis , B ( 2013 ) Why do parties change position? Party organization and environmental incentives . Journal of Politics 75 ( 2 ), 464 – 477 .

Scruggs , L ( 2006 ) The generosity of social insurance, 1971–2002 . Oxford Review of Economic Policy 22 ( 3 ), 349 – 364 .

Shefter , M ( 1977 ) Party and patronage: Germany, England, and Italy . Politics & Society 7 ( 4 ), 403 – 451 .

Spies , DC and Kaiser , A ( 2014 ) Does the mode of candidate selection affect the representativeness of parties? Party Politics 20 ( 4 ), 576 – 590 .

Stokes , SC et al. ( 2013 ) Brokers, Voters, and Clientelism: The Puzzle of Distributive Politics . Cambridge : Cambridge University Press .

Svolik , M ( 2012 ) The Politics of Authoritarian Rule . Cambridge : Cambridge University Press .

Tavits , M ( 2012a ) Party organizational strength and party unity in post-communist Europe . European Political Science Review 4 ( 3 ), 409 – 431 .

Tavits , M ( 2012b ) Organizing for success: party organizational strength and electoral performance in postcommunist Europe . Journal of Politics 74 ( 1 ), 83 – 97 .

Teorell , J et al. ( 2019 ) Measuring polyarchy across the globe, 1900-2017 . Studies in Comparative International Development 54 ( 1 ), 71 – 95 .

Vanhanen , T ( 1997 ) Prospects of Democracy: A Study of 172 Countries . London : Routledge .