What we know about the developers who are writing the script for the future

Geography Geography

Each month, about 50 million people visit Stack Overflow to learn, share, and build their careers. We estimate that 21 million of these people are professional developers and university-level students.

Our estimate of professional developers comes from the things people read and do when they visit Stack Overflow. We collect data on user activity to help surface jobs we think you might find interesting and questions we think you can answer. You can download and clear this data at any time.

Back-end developer 57.9% Full-stack developer 48.2% Front-end developer 37.8% Mobile developer 20.4% Desktop or enterprise applications developer 17.2% Student 17.1% Database administrator 14.3% Designer 13.1% System administrator 11.3% DevOps specialist 10.4% Data or business analyst 8.2% Data scientist or machine learning specialist 7.7% QA or test developer 6.7% Engineering manager 5.7% Embedded applications or devices developer 5.2% Game or graphics developer 5.0% Product manager 4.7% Educator or academic researcher 4.0% C-suite executive (CEO, CTO, etc.) 3.8% Marketing or sales professional 1.2%

92,098 responses; select all that apply

Almost 60% of respondents identify as back-end developers, and about 20% consider themselves mobile developers. The median number of developer type identifications per respondent is 2, and the most common pairs are combinations of back-end, front-end, and full-stack developer. Pairs that are highly correlated are database administrator and system administrator, DevOps specialist and system administrator, and designer and front-end developer.

No 56.4% Yes 43.6% 98,855 responses No 55.5% Yes 44.5% 87,450 responses

Almost half of professional developers on Stack Overflow contribute to open source projects. Involvement in open source varies with language. Over 70% of developers who work with Rust, Julia, and Clojure contribute to open source, while less than 40% of developers who work with VBA, VB.NET, and C# do so.

Yes 80.8% No 19.2% 98,855 responses Yes 81.0% No 19.0% 87,450 responses

Many developers work on code outside of work. Over 80% of our respondents say that they code as a hobby. Other interests or responsibilities outside of software don't seem to reduce developers' interest in coding as a hobby. Those who said they are parents or have other caretaking responsibilities, those who exercise daily, or those who spend the most time outside were slightly more likely to code as a hobby than other groups.

Experience Experience

0-2 years 11.4% 3-5 years 24.8% 6-8 years 20.6% 9-11 years 13.0% 12-14 years 8.6% 15-17 years 6.5% 18-20 years 5.4% 21-23 years 2.8% 24-26 years 2.0% 27-29 years 1.1% 30 or more years 3.8% 93,835 responses 0-2 years 9.6% 3-5 years 24.4% 6-8 years 21.4% 9-11 years 13.5% 12-14 years 8.9% 15-17 years 6.8% 18-20 years 5.6% 21-23 years 2.9% 24-26 years 2.0% 27-29 years 1.2% 30 or more years 3.8% 87,259 responses

There is a wide range of experience levels among developers, and a full third of professional developers on Stack Overflow learned to code within the past five years.

0-2 years 30.1% 3-5 years 27.4% 6-8 years 14.6% 9-11 years 9.7% 12-14 years 5.5% 15-17 years 3.9% 18-20 years 3.6% 21-23 years 1.8% 24-26 years 1.1% 27-29 years 0.6% 30 or more years 1.7%

77,903 responses

Over half of respondents have five years of professional coding experience or less. Developers who work with languages such as Cobol and Perl have the most years of professional coding experience, while developers who work with languages like Matlab, Haskell, and Kotlin have the fewest.

Engineering manager 10.2 DevOps specialist 8.0 Desktop or enterprise applications developer 7.7 Embedded applications or devices developer 7.5 Data or business analyst 7.2 System administrator 7.0 Database administrator 6.9 Full-stack developer 6.3 Back-end developer 6.2 Educator or academic researcher 6.2 Designer 6.0 QA or test developer 5.8 Front-end developer 5.5 Data scientist or machine learning specialist 5.5 Mobile developer 5.2 Game or graphics developer 4.6

Mean of 77,078 responses

Developers who work in different areas of software development have different average amounts of experience. DevOps specialists and developers who code for desktop and enterprise applications have the most experience. DevOps as a discipline and professional identity is relatively new, but the people working in this field are highly experienced. Game/graphics developers and mobile developers have the fewest years of experience.

Education Education

No 74.2% Yes, full-time 19.4% Yes, part-time 6.4%

94,901 responses

About one-quarter of respondents are enrolled in a formal college or university program full-time or part-time.

I never completed any formal education 0.7% Primary/elementary school 1.7% Secondary school 9.5% Some college/university study without earning a degree 12.4% Associate degree 3.1% Bachelor's degree 46.1% Master's degree 22.6% Professional degree 1.5% Doctoral degree 2.3% 94,703 responses I never completed any formal education 0.6% Primary/elementary school 1.3% Secondary school 8.2% Some college/university study without earning a degree 12.1% Associate degree 3.1% Bachelor's degree 47.7% Master's degree 23.2% Professional degree 1.5% Doctoral degree 2.2% 85,710 responses

Worldwide, about three-fourths of professional developers have the equivalent of a bachelor's degree or higher. It is not that rare to find accomplished professional developers who have not completed a degree.

Computer science, computer engineering, or software engineering 63.7% Another engineering discipline (ex. civil, electrical, mechanical) 8.8% Information systems, information technology, or system administration 8.2% A natural science (ex. biology, chemistry, physics) 3.9% Mathematics or statistics 3.6% Web development or web design 3.1% A business discipline (ex. accounting, finance, marketing) 2.4% A humanities discipline (ex. literature, history, philosophy) 2.0% A social science (ex. anthropology, psychology, political science) 1.7% Fine arts or performing arts (ex. graphic design, music, studio art) 1.4% I never declared a major 0.9% A health science (ex. nursing, pharmacy, radiology) 0.3% 79,036 responses Computer science, computer engineering, or software engineering 64.4% Another engineering discipline (ex. civil, electrical, mechanical) 8.5% Information systems, information technology, or system administration 8.3% A natural science (ex. biology, chemistry, physics) 3.6% Mathematics or statistics 3.5% Web development or web design 3.1% A business discipline (ex. accounting, finance, marketing) 2.3% A humanities discipline (ex. literature, history, philosophy) 2.0% A social science (ex. anthropology, psychology, political science) 1.7% Fine arts or performing arts (ex. graphic design, music, studio art) 1.4% I never declared a major 0.8% A health science (ex. nursing, pharmacy, radiology) 0.3% 75,134 responses Computer science, computer engineering, or software engineering 69.6% Information systems, information technology, or system administration 8.6% Another engineering discipline (ex. civil, electrical, mechanical) 6.6% Web development or web design 4.2% Mathematics or statistics 3.1% A natural science (ex. biology, chemistry, physics) 2.8% A business discipline (ex. accounting, finance, marketing) 1.8% A humanities discipline (ex. literature, history, philosophy) 0.9% A social science (ex. anthropology, psychology, political science) 0.9% I never declared a major 0.5% Fine arts or performing arts (ex. graphic design, music, studio art) 0.5% A health science (ex. nursing, pharmacy, radiology) 0.3% 17,652 responses

Of professional developers who studied at the university level, over 60% said they majored in computer science, computer engineering, or software engineering. This proportion is somewhat higher in currently enrolled students, and the proportion of respondents majoring in other engineering disciplines like electrical and mechanical engineering is lower among current students than among professionals.

Taught yourself a new language, framework, or tool without taking a formal course 86.7% Taken an online course in programming or software development (e.g. a MOOC) 48.6% Contributed to open source software 40.9% Received on-the-job training in software development 35.1% Participated in a hackathon 26.3% Participated in online coding competitions (e.g. HackerRank, CodeChef, TopCoder) 24.3% Taken a part-time in-person course in programming or software development 17.9% Completed an industry certification program (e.g. MCPD) 13.7% Participated in a full-time developer training program or bootcamp 10.3% 67,960 responses; select all that apply Taught yourself a new language, framework, or tool without taking a formal course 87.0% Taken an online course in programming or software development (e.g. a MOOC) 48.6% Contributed to open source software 41.6% Received on-the-job training in software development 36.1% Participated in a hackathon 26.9% Participated in online coding competitions (e.g. HackerRank, CodeChef, TopCoder) 24.5% Taken a part-time in-person course in programming or software development 17.8% Completed an industry certification program (e.g. MCPD) 14.1% Participated in a full-time developer training program or bootcamp 10.5% 63,711 responses; select all that apply

Developers are lifelong learners; almost 90% of all developers say they have taught themselves a new language, framework, or tool outside of their formal education. Among professional developers, almost half say they have taken an online course like a MOOC, and about a quarter have participated in a hackathon.

The official documentation and/or standards for the technology 83.0% Questions & answers on Stack Overflow 82.7% A book or e-book from O’Reilly, Apress, or a similar publisher 50.2% Online developer communities other than Stack Overflow (ex. forums, listservs, IRC channels, etc.) 50.1% The technology’s online help system 48.1% A college/university computer science or software engineering book 19.7% Tapping your network of friends, family, and peers versed in the technology 19.4% Internal Wikis, chat rooms, or documentation set up by my company for employees 16.6% Pre-scheduled tutoring or mentoring sessions with a friend or colleague 4.1% 57,354 responses; select all that apply The official documentation and/or standards for the technology 83.5% Questions & answers on Stack Overflow 82.8% A book or e-book from O’Reilly, Apress, or a similar publisher 50.4% Online developer communities other than Stack Overflow (ex. forums, listservs, IRC channels, etc.) 50.0% The technology’s online help system 48.3% Tapping your network of friends, family, and peers versed in the technology 19.2% A college/university computer science or software engineering book 19.2% Internal Wikis, chat rooms, or documentation set up by my company for employees 16.4% Pre-scheduled tutoring or mentoring sessions with a friend or colleague 4.1% 54,007 responses; select all that apply

Over 80% of respondents rely on Stack Overflow Q&A when learning something new. Additionally, developers understand the value of good documentation, as over 80% also use documentation as a resource when learning.

Because I find it enjoyable 76.3% To improve my general technical skills or programming ability 66.1% To improve my knowledge of a specific programming language, framework, or other technology 51.2% To improve my ability to work on a team with other programmers 30.0% To build my professional network 27.5% To help me find new job opportunities 20.8% To win prizes or cash awards 18.9%

25,691 responses; select all that apply

Among the respondents who said they have participated in hackathons or online coding competitions, their number one reason for engaging is that they find them enjoyable. These are also opportunities for learning, both general and specific.

I already had a full-time job as a developer when I began the program 45.5% Immediately after graduating 16.3% Less than a month 7.5% One to three months 10.0% Four to six months 5.2% Six months to a year 3.6% Longer than a year 3.2% I haven’t gotten a developer job 8.7%

6,652 responses

Bootcamps are typically perceived as a way for newcomers to transition into a career as a software developer, but according to our survey, many participants in coding bootcamps were already working as developers. Almost half of our respondents who said they went to a coding bootcamp said they were already working as developers; these developers are likely updating their skills and moving to new areas of the tech industry. Of other bootcamp participants, the most common outcome is to find a job immediately or soon after graduating.

Demographics Demographics

Male 92.9% Female 6.9% Non-binary, genderqueer, or gender non-conforming 0.9% 64,364 responses; select all that apply Male 93.1% Female 6.7% Non-binary, genderqueer, or gender non-conforming 0.9% 60,389 responses; select all that apply Male 92.5% Female 7.4% Non-binary, genderqueer, or gender non-conforming 1.1% 13,985 responses; select all that apply

We asked our respondents about their gender identity, and found that over 90% of our respondents are male. According to Quantcast, women account for about 10% of Stack Overflow’s US traffic; this year 9% of US survey respondents are women. We had survey participation at almost the rate we would expect from our traffic, although such a low percentage points to problems with inclusion in the tech industry in general and Stack Overflow in particular. In regions including the United States, India, and the UK, women are represented at higher levels among students than among professional developers.

This year, 0.7% of respondents identified as transgender men or women. The gender identifications are select all that apply, so transgender men and women are included in the categories shown here.

White or of European descent 74.2% South Asian 11.5% Hispanic or Latino/Latina 6.7% East Asian 5.1% Middle Eastern 4.1% Black or of African descent 2.8% Native American, Pacific Islander, or Indigenous Australian 0.8% 57,473 responses; select all that apply White or of European descent 74.3% South Asian 11.5% Hispanic or Latino/Latina 6.7% East Asian 5.0% Middle Eastern 4.1% Black or of African descent 2.7% Native American, Pacific Islander, or Indigenous Australian 0.8% 53,982 responses; select all that apply White or of European descent 64.2% South Asian 15.3% Hispanic or Latino/Latina 8.6% East Asian 7.4% Middle Eastern 6.1% Black or of African descent 4.0% Native American, Pacific Islander, or Indigenous Australian 0.9% 12,023 responses; select all that apply

Here again we see evidence for problems with diversity and inclusion. We see higher proportions of developers of color in students than professional developers. This year, 7.4% of professional developers in the United States identified as black, Hispanic or Latino/Latina, or Native American while over 10% of students in the United States identified as a member of one of these groups.

Straight or heterosexual 93.2% Bisexual or Queer 4.3% Gay or Lesbian 2.4% Asexual 1.9% 59,765 responses; select all that apply Straight or heterosexual 93.4% Bisexual or Queer 4.2% Gay or Lesbian 2.4% Asexual 1.8% 56,131 responses; select all that apply Straight or heterosexual 91.7% Bisexual or Queer 5.2% Asexual 2.9% Gay or Lesbian 2.5% 12,552 responses; select all that apply

This is the first year we asked our respondents about their sexual orientation.

They never completed any formal education 1.9% Primary/elementary school 5.2% Secondary school 17.3% Some college/university study without earning a degree 9.2% Associate degree 4.6% Bachelor's degree 29.3% Master's degree 22.1% Professional degree 4.4% Doctoral degree 6.0% 61,813 responses They never completed any formal education 1.9% Primary/elementary school 5.2% Secondary school 17.4% Some college/university study without earning a degree 9.2% Associate degree 4.6% Bachelor's degree 29.4% Master's degree 22.0% Professional degree 4.4% Doctoral degree 5.8% 58,064 responses They never completed any formal education 2.4% Primary/elementary school 5.9% Secondary school 16.3% Some college/university study without earning a degree 9.2% Associate degree 4.5% Bachelor's degree 29.1% Master's degree 22.4% Professional degree 4.3% Doctoral degree 5.9% 13,326 responses

Like developers themselves, most developers' parents have the equivalent of a bachelor's degree or higher. Just under 40% of respondents said their parents do not hold a bachelor's degree.

I have a mood or emotional disorder (ex. depression, bipolar disorder) 8.5% I have an anxiety disorder 7.8% I have a concentration and/or memory disorder 5.9% I identify as autistic / a person with autism 2.1% 11,431 responses identified as having a mental difference I am blind / have difficulty seeing 1.4% I am deaf / have difficulty hearing 0.8% I am unable to / find it difficult to walk and/or stand without assistance 0.3% I am unable to / find it difficult to type 0.3% 1,702 responses identified as having a physical difference

We know developers can experience many forms of disability and difference, from mental health challenges to physical disability. Mental health issues like depression and anxiety are particularly common among our respondents. In the United States, almost 20% of respondents said they deal with either or both.

0-2 years 8.1% 3-5 years 21.9% 6-8 years 20.7% 9-11 years 13.9% 12-14 years 9.7% 15-17 years 7.5% 18-20 years 6.3% 21-23 years 3.4% 24-26 years 2.4% 27-29 years 1.4% 30 or more years 4.7% 59,749 responses; gender categories were select all that apply 0-2 years 17.3% 3-5 years 30.6% 6-8 years 20.5% 9-11 years 10.4% 12-14 years 6.2% 15-17 years 4.9% 18-20 years 4.4% 21-23 years 2.0% 24-26 years 1.4% 27-29 years 0.4% 30 or more years 2.0% 4,404 responses; gender categories were select all that apply 0-2 years 10.1% 3-5 years 22.9% 6-8 years 17.8% 9-11 years 14.3% 12-14 years 10.1% 15-17 years 6.7% 18-20 years 6.9% 21-23 years 3.2% 24-26 years 1.5% 27-29 years 1.3% 30 or more years 5.1% 594 responses; gender categories were select all that apply

We find differences among developers by gender in our survey responses. For example, twice as many women than men have been coding two years or less, evidence for the shifting demographics of coding as a profession. Also, developers who identify as transgender men or women or of non-binary gender contribute to open source at higher rates (58% and 60%, respectively) than developers who identify as men or women overall (45% and 33%.)

The dashed line shows the average ratio of men's to women's participation

We see varying representation by men and women in different developer roles on our survey. All categories have dramatically more developers who identify as men than women but the ratio of men to women varies. Developers who are educators or academic researchers are about 10 times more likely to be men than women, while developers who are system admins or DevOps specialists are 25-30 times more likely to be men than women. Women have the highest representation as academics, QA developers, data scientists, and designers.

Under 18 years old 2.5% 18 - 24 years old 23.6% 25 - 34 years old 49.2% 35 - 44 years old 17.8% 45 - 54 years old 5.1% 55 - 64 years old 1.5% 65 years or older 0.3% 64,574 responses Under 18 years old 1.9% 18 - 24 years old 22.4% 25 - 34 years old 50.8% 35 - 44 years old 18.2% 45 - 54 years old 5.1% 55 - 64 years old 1.4% 65 years or older 0.2% 60,583 responses

About three-fourths of professional developers who took our survey are younger than 35.

Australia 29.0 United States 28.7 United Kingdom 28.2 Canada 27.7 Germany 26.6 France 26.0 Brazil 25.0 Russian Federation 24.7 Poland 24.6 India 22.7 Mean of 42,042 responses Australia 11.7 United Kingdom 11.3 United States 10.7 Canada 10.2 Germany 10.2 France 9.2 Brazil 8.0 Poland 7.6 Russian Federation 7.6 India 4.2 Mean of 59,559 responses

Developers on Stack Overflow are older with more experience in Australia, countries in Western Europe, and North America and younger with less experience in countries like India and Russia.

I feel a sense of kinship or connection to other developers 3.6 I think of myself as competing with my peers 2.7 I'm not as good at programming as most of my peers 2.2

68,577 responses; agreement on a 1-5 scale, from strongly disagree to strongly agree

We asked how much respondents agree or disagree with several statements about their place in the developer community. Overall 70% of developers agree or strongly agree that they feel a sense of connection with other developers. Developers are overall confident about their own skills compared to their peers, with only 18% agreeing or strongly agreeing that they are not as good at programming as their colleagues.

Respondents' feelings on how much they belong and how they stack up to their peers change with how much experience they have. More experienced developers feel more connected, more confident, and less competitive. Notice that feeling less skilled drops quickly with experience while feeling less competitive drops more gradually and continues to drop into the second decade of coding experience.

No 71.1% Yes 28.9%

62,596 responses

This year we asked respondents if they have children or other dependents that they care for, and about a quarter of respondents say that they do. We asked in a free response question what these developers do for dependent care during work hours, and our respondents talked about options like school, their spouses/partners, and daycare.

The developers who said they do not have dependents to care for are younger on average than those who do. Over 30% of the developers without dependents are younger than 25, while only 5% of those with dependents are younger than 25. Almost 60% of developers with 10 or more years of professional coding experience have children or other dependents.

Before 5:00 AM 2.4% Between 5:00 - 6:00 AM 12.4% Between 6:01 - 7:00 AM 28.2% Between 7:01 - 8:00 AM 29.5% Between 8:01 - 9:00 AM 14.7% Between 9:01 - 10:00 AM 4.8% Between 10:01 - 11:00 AM 1.4% Between 11:01 AM - 12:00 PM 0.5% After 12:01 PM 0.4% I work night shifts 0.5% I do not have a set schedule 5.3%

72,146 responses

We are confident that most developers have pulled a late night here and there, but most of our respondents say they are up by 8am.

Less than 1 hour 0.3% 1 - 4 hours 3.3% 5 - 8 hours 30.6% 9 - 12 hours 52.7% Over 12 hours 13.2%

72,133 responses

Our respondents include people who code as professionals, students, and hobbyists. The overwhelmingly majority spend large fractions of their waking hours on a typical day with their desktops and laptops.

Less than 30 minutes 15.6% 30 - 59 minutes 33.3% 1 - 2 hours 38.6% 3 - 4 hours 10.0% Over 4 hours 2.5%

72,024 responses

Developers get outside for recreation, commuting, or other reasons. About half of our respondents spend an hour or more outside a day.

Never 63.6% 1 - 2 times per week 25.2% 3 - 4 times per week 6.0% Daily or almost every day 5.2% 71,946 responses I don't typically exercise 37.4% 1 - 2 times per week 29.0% 3 - 4 times per week 19.9% Daily or almost every day 13.7% 72,108 responses

Developers tell us they do not often skip meals because of their workload, and a majority say they exercise at least some. Over 60% of respondents exercise at least weekly, but the most often chosen exercise frequency is 'never'.