This paper revises [P0323r6] and [P0323r5] with feedback received from LWG. [P0323r4] contains motivation, design rationale, implementability information, sample usage, history, alternative designs and related types. r5 onwards only contain wording and open questions because their purpose is twofold:

Present appropriate wording for inclusion in the Library Fundamentals TS v3.

List open questions which the TS should aim to answer.

1. Wording

Below, substitute the � character with a number or name the editor finds appropriate for the sub-section.

1.1. �.� Expected objects [expected]

1.2. �.�.1 In general [expected.general]

This subclause describes class template expected that represents expected objects. An expected<T, E> object holds an object of type T or an object of type unexpected<E> and manages the lifetime of the contained objects.

1.3. �.�.2 Header < experimental / expected > synopsis [expected.synop]

namespace std { namespace experimental { inline namespace fundamentals_v3 { // �.�.4, class template expected template < class T , class E > class expected ; // �.�.5, class template unexpected template < class E > class unexpected ; template < class E > unexpected ( E ) -> unexpected < E > ; // �.�.6, class bad_expected_access template < class E > class bad_expected_access ; // �.�.7, Specialization for void template <> class bad_expected_access < void > ; // �.�.8, unexpect tag struct unexpect_t { explicit unexpect_t () = default ; }; inline constexpr unexpect_t unexpect {}; }}}

1.4. �.�.3 Definitions [expected.defs]

1.5. �.�.4 Class template expected [expected.expected]

template < class T , class E > class expected { public : using value_type = T ; using error_type = E ; using unexpected_type = unexpected < E > ; template < class U > using rebind = expected < U , error_type > ; // �.�.4.1, constructors constexpr expected (); constexpr expected ( const expected & ); constexpr expected ( expected && ) noexcept ( see below ); template < class U , class G > EXPLICIT constexpr expected ( const expected < U , G >& ); template < class U , class G > EXPLICIT constexpr expected ( expected < U , G >&& ); template < class U = T > EXPLICIT constexpr expected ( U && v ); template < class G = E > constexpr expected ( const unexpected < G >& ); template < class G = E > constexpr expected ( unexpected < G >&& ); template < class ... Args > constexpr explicit expected ( in_place_t , Args && ...); template < class U , class ... Args > constexpr explicit expected ( in_place_t , initializer_list < U > , Args && ...); template < class ... Args > constexpr explicit expected ( unexpect_t , Args && ...); template < class U , class ... Args > constexpr explicit expected ( unexpect_t , initializer_list < U > , Args && ...); // �.�.4.2, destructor ~ expected (); // �.�.4.3, assignment expected & operator = ( const expected & ); expected & operator = ( expected && ) noexcept ( see below ); template < class U = T > expected & operator = ( U && ); template < class G = E > expected & operator = ( const unexpected < G >& ); template < class G = E > expected & operator = ( unexpected < G >&& ); // �.�.4.4, modifiers template < class ... Args > T & emplace ( Args && ...); template < class U , class ... Args > T & emplace ( initializer_list < U > , Args && ...); // �.�.4.5, swap void swap ( expected & ) noexcept ( see below ); // �.�.4.6, observers constexpr const T * operator -> () const ; constexpr T * operator -> (); constexpr const T & operator * () const & ; constexpr T & operator * () & ; constexpr const T && operator * () const && ; constexpr T && operator * () && ; constexpr explicit operator bool () const noexcept ; constexpr bool has_value () const noexcept ; constexpr const T & value () const & ; constexpr T & value () & ; constexpr const T && value () const && ; constexpr T && value () && ; constexpr const E & error () const & ; constexpr E & error () & ; constexpr const E && error () const && ; constexpr E && error () && ; template < class U > constexpr T value_or ( U && ) const & ; template < class U > constexpr T value_or ( U && ) && ; // �.�.4.7, Expected equality operators template < class T1 , class E1 , class T2 , class E2 > friend constexpr bool operator == ( const expected < T1 , E1 >& x , const expected < T2 , E2 >& y ); template < class T1 , class E1 , class T2 , class E2 > friend constexpr bool operator != ( const expected < T1 , E1 >& x , const expected < T2 , E2 >& y ); // �.�.4.8, Comparison with T template < class T1 , class E1 , class T2 > friend constexpr bool operator == ( const expected < T1 , E1 >& , const T2 & ); template < class T1 , class E1 , class T2 > friend constexpr bool operator == ( const T2 & , const expected < T1 , E1 >& ); template < class T1 , class E1 , class T2 > friend constexpr bool operator != ( const expected < T1 , E1 >& , const T2 & ); template < class T1 , class E1 , class T2 > friend constexpr bool operator != ( const T2 & , const expected < T1 , E1 >& ); // �.�.4.9, Comparison with unexpected<E> template < class T1 , class E1 , class E2 > friend constexpr bool operator == ( const expected < T1 , E1 >& , const unexpected < E2 >& ); template < class T1 , class E1 , class E2 > friend constexpr bool operator == ( const unexpected < E2 >& , const expected < T1 , E1 >& ); template < class T1 , class E1 , class E2 > friend constexpr bool operator != ( const expected < T1 , E1 >& , const unexpected < E2 >& ); template < class T1 , class E1 , class E2 > friend constexpr bool operator != ( const unexpected < E2 >& , const expected < T1 , E1 >& ); // �.�.4.10, Specialized algorithms template < class T1 , class E1 > friend void swap ( expected < T1 , E1 >& , expected < T1 , E1 >& ) noexcept ( see below ); private : bool has_val ; // exposition only union { value_type val ; // exposition only unexpected_type unex ; // exposition only }; };

Any object of expected<T, E> either contains a value of type T or a value of type unexpected<E> within its own storage. Implementations are not permitted to use additional storage, such as dynamic memory, to allocate the object of type T or the object of type unexpected<E> . These objects shall be allocated in a region of the expected<T, E> storage suitably aligned for the types T and unexpected<E> . Members has_val , val and unex are provided for exposition only. has_val indicates whether the expected<T, E> object contains an object of type T .

A program that instantiates the definition of template expected<T, E> for a reference type, a function type, or for possibly cv-qualified types in_place_t , unexpect_t or unexpected<E> for the T parameter is ill-formed. A program that instantiates the definition of template expected<E> with the E parameter that is not a valid template parameter for unexpected is ill-formed.

When T is not cv void , it shall satisfy the requirements of Destructible (Table 27).

E shall satisfy the requirements of Destructible (Table 27).

1.6. �.�.4.1 Constructors [expected.object.ctor]

constexpr expected ();

Effects: Value-Initializes val if T is not cv void .

Postconditions: bool(*this) .

Throws: Any exception thrown by the selected constructor of T .

Remarks: If value-initialization of T is a constant subexpression or T is cv void this constructor shall be constexpr. This constructor shall not participate in overload resolution unless is_default_constructible_v<T> is true or T is cv void .

constexpr expected ( const expected & rhs );

Effects: If bool(rhs) and T is not cv void , initializes val as if direct-non-list-initializing an object of type T with the expression *rhs .

Otherwise, initializes unex as if direct-non-list-initializing an object of type unexpected<E> with the expression unexpected(rhs.error()) .

Postconditions: bool(rhs) == bool(*this) .

Throws: Any exception thrown by the selected constructor of T or E .

Remarks: This constructor shall be defined as deleted unless:

is_copy_constructible_v<T> is true or T is cv void ; and

is_copy_constructible_v<E> is true .

This constructor shall be a constexpr constructor if:

is_trivially_copy_constructible_v<T> is true or T is cv void ; and

is_trivially_copy_constructible_v<E> is true .

constexpr expected ( expected && rhs ) noexcept ( see below );

Effects: If bool(rhs) and T is not cv void , initializes val as if direct-non-list-initializing an object of type T with the expression std::move(*rhs) .

Otherwise, initializes val as if direct-non-list-initializing an object of type unexpected<E> with the expression unexpected(std::move(rhs.error())) .

Postconditions: bool(rhs) is unchanged, bool(rhs) == bool(*this) .

Throws: Any exception thrown by the selected constructor of T or E .

Remarks: The expression inside noexcept is equivalent to:

is_nothrow_move_constructible_v<T> is true or T is cv void ; and

is_nothrow_move_constructible_v<E> is true .

This constructor shall not participate in overload resolution unless:

is_move_constructible_v<T> is true ; and

is_move_constructible_v<E> is true .

This constructor shall be a constexpr constructor if:

is_trivially_move_constructible_v<T> is true or T is cv void ; and

is_trivially_move_constructible_v<E> is true .

template < class U , class G > EXPLICIT constexpr expected ( const expected < U , G >& rhs );

Effects: If bool(rhs) and T is not cv void , initializes val as if direct-non-list-initializing an object of type T with the expression *rhs .

Otherwise, initializes unex as if direct-non-list-initializing an object of type unexpected<E> with the expression unexpected(rhs.error()) .

Postconditions: bool(rhs) == bool(*this) .

Throws: Any exception thrown by the selected constructor of T or E .

Remarks: This constructor shall not participate in overload resolution unless T and U are cv void or:

is_constructible_v<T, const U&> is true ; and

is_constructible_v<T, expected<U, G>&> is false ; and

is_constructible_v<T, expected<U, G>&&> is false ; and

is_constructible_v<T, const expected<U, G>&> is false ; and

is_constructible_v<T, const expected<U, G>&&> is false ; and

is_convertible_v<expected<U, G>&, T> is false ; and

is_convertible_v<expected<U, G>&&, T> is false ; and

is_convertible_v<const expected<U, G>&, T> is false ; and

is_convertible_v<const expected<U, G>&&, T> is false ; and

is_constructible_v<E, const G&> is true ; and

is_constructible_v<unexpected<E>, expected<U, G>&> is false ; and

is_constructible_v<unexpected<E>, expected<U, G>&&> is false ; and

is_constructible_v<unexpected<E>, const expected<U, G>&> is false ; and

is_constructible_v<unexpected<E>, const expected<U, G>&&> is false ; and

is_convertible_v<expected<U, G>&, unexpected<E>> is false ; and

is_convertible_v<expected<U, G>&&, unexpected<E>> is false ; and

is_convertible_v<const expected<U, G>&, unexpected<E>> is false ; and

is_convertible_v<const expected<U, G>&&, unexpected<E>> is false .

The constructor is explicit if and only if

T and U are not cv void and is_convertible_v<const U&, T> is false or

is_convertible_v<const G&, E> is false .

template < class U , class G > EXPLICIT constexpr expected ( expected < U , G >&& rhs );

Effects: If bool(rhs) initializes val as if direct-non-list-initializing an object of type T with the expression std::move(*rhs) or nothing if T is cv void .

Otherwise, initializes unex as if direct-non-list-initializing an object of type unexpected<E> with the expression unexpected(std::move(rhs.error())) .

Postconditions: bool(rhs) is unchanged, bool(rhs) == bool(*this) .

Throws: Any exception thrown by operations specified in the effect clause.

Remarks: This constructor shall not participate in overload resolution unless: T and U are cv void or:

is_constructible_v<T, U&&> is true ; and

is_constructible_v<T, expected<U, G>&> is false ; and

is_constructible_v<T, expected<U, G>&&> is false ; and

is_constructible_v<T, const expected<U, G>&> is false ; and

is_constructible_v<T, const expected<U, G>&&> is false ; and

is_convertible_v<expected<U, G>&, T> is false ; and

is_convertible_v<expected<U, G>&&, T> is false ; and

is_convertible_v<const expected<U, G>&, T> is false ; and

is_convertible_v<const expected<U, G>&&, T> is false ; and

is_constructible_v<E, G&&> is true ; and

is_constructible_v<unexpected<E>, expected<U, G>&> is false ; and

is_constructible_v<unexpected<E>, expected<U, G>&&> is false ; and

is_constructible_v<unexpected<E>, const expected<U, G>&> is false ; and

is_constructible_v<unexpected<E>, const expected<U, G>&&> is false ; and

is_convertible_v<expected<U, G>&, unexpected<E>> is false ; and

is_convertible_v<expected<U, G>&&, unexpected<E>> is false ; and

is_convertible_v<const expected<U, G>&, unexpected<E>> is false ; and

is_convertible_v<const expected<U, G>&&, unexpected<E>> is false .

The constructor is explicit if and only if

T and U are not cv void and is_convertible_v<U&&, T> is false or

is_convertible_v<G&&, E> is false .

template < class U = T > EXPLICIT constexpr expected ( U && v );

Effects: Initializes val as if direct-non-list-initializing an object of type T with the expression std::forward<U>(v) .

Postconditions: bool(*this) .

Throws: Any exception thrown by the selected constructor of T .

Remarks: If T 's selected constructor is a constant subexpression, this constructor shall be a constexpr constructor. This constructor shall not participate in overload resolution unless:

T is not cv void ; and

is_constructible_v<T, U&&> is true ; and

is_same_v<remove_cvref_t<U>, in_place_t> is false ; and

is_same_v<expected<T, E>, remove_cvref_t<U>> is false ; and

is_same_v<unexpected<E>, remove_cvref_t<U>> is false .

The constructor is explicit if and only if is_convertible_v<U&&, T> is false .

template < class G = E > EXPLICIT constexpr expected ( const unexpected < G >& e );

Effects: Initializes unex as if direct-non-list-initializing an object of type unexpected<E> with the expression e .

Postconditions: !bool(*this) .

Throws: Any exception thrown by the selected constructor of E .

Remarks: If unexpected<E> 's selected constructor is a constant subexpression, this constructor shall be a constexpr constructor. This constructor shall not participate in overload resolution unless is_constructible_v<E, const G&> is true . The constructor is explicit if and only if is_convertible_v<const G&, E> is false .

template < class G = E > EXPLICIT constexpr expected ( unexpected < G >&& e );

Effects: Initializes unex as if direct-non-list-initializing an object of type unexpected<E> with the expression std::move(e) .

Postconditions: !bool(*this) .

Throws: Any exception thrown by the selected constructor of E .

Remarks: If unexpected<E> 's selected constructor is a constant subexpression, this constructor shall be a constexpr constructor. The expression inside noexcept is equivalent to: is_nothrow_constructible_v<E, G&&> is true . This constructor shall not participate in overload resolution unless is_constructible_v<E, G&&> is true . The constructor is explicit if and only if is_convertible_v<G&&, E> is false .

template < class ... Args > constexpr explicit expected ( in_place_t , Args && ... args );

Effects: If T is cv void , no effects. Otherwise, initializes val as if direct-non-list-initializing an object of type T with the arguments std::forward<Args>(args)... .

Postconditions: bool(*this) .

Throws: Any exception thrown by the selected constructor of T .

Remarks: If T 's constructor selected for the initialization is a constant subexpression, this constructor shall be a constexpr constructor. This constructor shall not participate in overload resolution unless:

T is cv void and sizeof...(Args) == 0 ; or

T is not cv void and is_constructible_v<T, Args...> is true .

template < class U , class ... Args > constexpr explicit expected ( in_place_t , initializer_list < U > il , Args && ... args );

Effects: Initializes val as if direct-non-list-initializing an object of type T with the arguments il, std::forward<Args>(args)... .

Postconditions: bool(*this) .

Throws: Any exception thrown by the selected constructor of T .

Remarks: If T 's constructor selected for the initialization is a constant subexpression, this constructor shall be a constexpr constructor. This constructor shall not participate in overload resolution unless T is not cv void and is_constructible_v<T, initializer_list<U>&, Args...> is true .

template < class ... Args > constexpr explicit expected ( unexpect_t , Args && ... args );

Effects: Initializes unex as if direct-non-list-initializing an object of type unexpected<E> with the arguments std::forward<Args>(args)... .

Postconditions: !bool(*this) .

Throws: Any exception thrown by the selected constructor of E .

Remarks: If unexpected<E> 's constructor selected for the initialization is a constant subexpression, this constructor shall be a constexpr constructor. This constructor shall not participate in overload resolution unless is_constructible_v<E, Args...> is true .

template < class U , class ... Args > constexpr explicit expected ( unexpect_t , initializer_list < U > il , Args && ... args );

Effects: Initializes unex as if direct-non-list-initializing an object of type unexpected<E> with the arguments il, std::forward<Args>(args)... .

Postconditions: !bool(*this) .

Throws: Any exception thrown by the selected constructor of E .

Remarks: If unexpected<E> 's constructor selected for the initialization is a constant subexpression, this constructor shall be a constexpr constructor. This constructor shall not participate in overload resolution unless is_constructible_v<E, initializer_list<U>&, Args...> is true .

1.7. �.�.4.2 Destructor [expected.object.dtor]

~ expected ();

Effects: If T is not cv void and is_trivially_destructible_v<T> is false and bool(*this) , calls val.~T() . If is_trivially_destructible_v<E> is false and !bool(*this) , calls unexpect.~unexpected<E>() .

Remarks: If either T is cv void or is_trivially_destructible_v<T> is true , and is_trivially_destructible_v<E> is true , then this destructor shall be a trivial destructor.

1.8. �.�.4.3 Assignment [expected.object.assign]

expected & operator = ( const expected & rhs ) noexcept ( see below );

Effects: See Table editor-please-pick-a-number-0

Table editor-please-pick-a-number-0 — operator = ( const expected & ) effects bool ( * this ) ! bool ( * this ) bool ( rhs ) assigns * rhs to val if T is not cv void if T is cv void destroys unex by calling unexpect.~unexpected<E>() and set has_val to true ,

otherwise if is_nothrow_copy_constructible_v<T> is true destroys unex by calling unexpect.~unexpected<E>() initializes val as if direct-non-list-initializing an object of type T with *rhs ;

otherwise if is_nothrow_move_constructible_v<T> is true constructs a T tmp from *rhs (this can throw), destroys unex by calling unexpect.~unexpected<E>() initializes val as if direct-non-list-initializing an object of type T with std::move(tmp) ;

otherwise constructs an unexpected<E> tmp from unexpected(this->error()) (which can throw), destroys unex by calling unexpect.~unexpected<E>() , initializes val as if direct-non-list-initializing an object of type T with *rhs . Either, the constructor didn’t throw, set has_val to true , or the constructor did throw, so move-construct the unexpected<E> from tmp back into the expected storage (which can’t throw as is_nothrow_move_constructible_v<E> is true ), and rethrow the exception.

! bool ( rhs ) if T is cv void initializes unex as if direct-non-list-initializing an object of type unexpected<E> with unexpected(rhs.error()) . Either the constructor didn’t throw, set has_val to false , or the constructor did throw, and nothing was changed.

otherwise if is_nothrow_copy_constructible_v<E> is true destroys val by calling val.~T() , initializes unex as if direct-non-list-initializing an object of type unexpected<E> with unexpected(rhs.error()) and set has_val to false .

otherwise if is_nothrow_move_constructible_v<E> is true constructs an unexpected<E> tmp from unexpected(rhs.error()) (this can throw), destroys val by calling val.~T() , initializes unex as if direct-non-list-initializing an object of type unexpected<E> with std::move(tmp) and set has_val to false .

otherwise constructs a T tmp from *this (this can throw), destroys val by calling val.~T() , initializes unex as if direct-non-list-initializing an object of type unexpected<E> with unexpected(rhs.error()) . Either, the last constructor didn’t throw, set has_val to false , or the last constructor did throw, so move-construct the T from tmp back into the expected storage (which can’t throw as is_nothrow_move_constructible_v<T> is true ), and rethrow the exception.

assigns unexpected ( rhs . error ()) to unex

Returns: *this .

Postconditions: bool(rhs) == bool(*this) .

Throws: Any exception thrown by the operations specified in the effect clause.

Remarks: If any exception is thrown, bool(*this) and bool(rhs) remain unchanged.

If an exception is thrown during the call to T 's or unexpected<E> 's copy constructor, no effect. If an exception is thrown during the call to T 's or unexpected<E> 's copy assignment, the state of its contained value is as defined by the exception safety guarantee of T 's or unexpected<E> 's copy assignment.

This operator shall be defined as deleted unless:

T is cv void and is_copy_assignable_v<E> is true and is_copy_constructible_v<E> is true ; or

T is not cv void and is_copy_assignable_v<T> is true and is_copy_constructible_v<T> is true and is_copy_assignable_v<E> is true and is_copy_constructible_v<E> is true and ( is_nothrow_move_constructible_v<E> is true or is_nothrow_move_constructible_v<T> is true ).

expected & operator = ( expected && rhs ) noexcept ( see below );

Effects: See Table editor-please-pick-a-number-1

Table editor-please-pick-a-number-1 — operator = ( expected && ) effects bool ( * this ) ! bool ( * this ) bool ( rhs ) move assign * rhs to val if T is not cv void if T is cv void destroys unex by calling unexpect.~unexpected<E>()

otherwise if is_nothrow_move_constructible_v<T> is true destroys unex by calling unexpect.~unexpected<E>() , initializes val as if direct-non-list-initializing an object of type T with *std::move(rhs) ;

otherwise move constructs an unexpected_type<E> tmp from unexpected(this->error()) (which can’t throw as E is nothrow-move-constructible), destroys unex by calling unexpect.~unexpected<E>() , initializes val as if direct-non-list-initializing an object of type T with *std::move(rhs) . Either, The constructor didn’t throw, set has_val to true , or The constructor did throw, so move-construct the unexpected<E> from tmp back into the expected storage (which can’t throw as E is nothrow-move-constructible), and rethrow the exception.

! bool ( rhs ) if T is cv void initializes unex as if direct-non-list-initializing an object of type unexpected<E> with unexpected(move(rhs).error()) . Either the constructor didn’t throw, set has_val to false , or the constructor did throw, and nothing was changed.

otherwise if is_nothrow_move_constructible_v<E> is true destroys val by calling val.~T() , initializes unex as if direct-non-list-initializing an object of type unexpected<E> with unexpected(std::move(rhs.error())) ;

otherwise move constructs a T tmp from *this (which can’t throw as T is nothrow-move-constructible), destroys val by calling val.~T() , initializes unex as if direct-non-list-initializing an object of type unexpected_type<E> with unexpected(std::move(rhs.error())) . Either, The constructor didn’t throw, so mark the expected as holding a unexpected_type<E> , or The constructor did throw, so move-construct the T from tmp back into the expected storage (which can’t throw as T is nothrow-move-constructible), and rethrow the exception.

move assign unexpected ( rhs . error ()) to unex

Returns: *this .

Postconditions: bool(rhs) == bool(*this) .

Remarks: The expression inside noexcept is equivalent to: is_nothrow_move_assignable_v<T> is true and is_nothrow_move_constructible_v<T> is true .

If any exception is thrown, bool(*this) and bool(rhs) remain unchanged. If an exception is thrown during the call to T 's copy constructor, no effect. If an exception is thrown during the call to T 's copy assignment, the state of its contained value is as defined by the exception safety guarantee of T 's copy assignment. If an exception is thrown during the call to E 's copy assignment, the state of its contained unex is as defined by the exception safety guarantee of E 's copy assignment.

This operator shall be defined as deleted unless:

T is cv void and is_nothrow_move_constructible_v<E> is true and is_nothrow_move_assignable_v<E> is true ; or

T is not cv void and is_move_constructible_v<T> is true and is_move_assignable_v<T> is true and is_nothrow_move_constructible_v<E> is true and is_nothrow_move_assignable_v<E> is true .

template < class U = T > expected < T , E >& operator = ( U && v );

Effects: See Table editor-please-pick-a-number-2

Table editor-please-pick-a-number-2 — operator = ( U && ) effects bool ( * this ) ! bool ( * this ) If bool ( * this ) , assigns std :: forward < U > ( v ) to val if is_nothrow_constructible_v<T, U> is true destroys unex by calling unexpect.~unexpected<E>() ,

initializes val as if direct-non-list-initializing an object of type T with std::forward<U>(v) and

set has_val to true ; otherwise move constructs an unexpected<E> tmp from unexpected(this->error()) (which can’t throw as E is nothrow-move-constructible),

destroys unex by calling unexpect.~unexpected<E>() ,

initializes val as if direct-non-list-initializing an object of type T with std::forward<U>(v) . Either, the constructor didn’t throw, set has_val to true , that is set has_val to true , or the constructor did throw, so move construct the unexpected<E> from tmp back into the expected storage (which can’t throw as E is nothrow-move-constructible), and re-throw the exception.



Returns: *this .

Postconditions: bool(*this) .

Remarks: If any exception is thrown, bool(*this) remains unchanged. If an exception is thrown during the call to T 's constructor, no effect. If an exception is thrown during the call to T 's copy assignment, the state of its contained value is as defined by the exception safety guarantee of T 's copy assignment.

This function shall not participate in overload resolution unless:

is_void_v<T> is false ; and

is_same_v<expected<T,E>, remove_cvref_t<U>> is false ; and

conjunction_v<is_scalar<T>, is_same<T, decay_t<U>>> is false ; and

is_constructible_v<T, U> is true ; and

is_assignable_v<T&, U> is true ; and

is_nothrow_move_constructible_v<E> is true .

template < class G = E > expected < T , E >& operator = ( const unexpected < G >& e );

Effects: See Table editor-please-pick-a-number-3

Table editor-please-pick-a-number-3 — operator = ( const unexpected < G >& ) effects bool ( * this ) ! bool ( * this ) assigns unexpected ( e . error ()) to unex destroys val by calling val.~T() if T is not cv void ,

initializes unex as if direct-non-list-initializing an object of type unexpected<E> with unexpected(e.error()) and set has_val to false .

Returns: *this .

Postconditions: !bool(*this) .

Remarks: If any exception is thrown, bool(*this) remains unchanged.

This signature shall not participate in overload resolution unless is_nothrow_copy_constructible_v<E> is true and is_copy_assignable_v<E> is true .

expected < T , E >& operator = ( unexpected < G >&& e );

Effects: See Table editor-please-pick-a-number-4

Table editor-please-pick-a-number-4 — operator = ( unexpected < G >&& e ) effects bool ( * this ) ! bool ( * this ) destroys val by calling val.~T() if T is not cv void ,

initializes unex as if direct-non-list-initializing an object of type unexpected<E> with unexpected(std::move(e.error())) and set has_val to false . move assign unexpected ( e . error ()) to unex

Effects:

Returns: *this .

Postconditions: !bool(*this) .

Remarks: If any exception is thrown, bool(*this) remains unchanged.

This signature shall not participate in overload resolution unless is_nothrow_move_constructible_v<E> is true and is_move_assignable_v<E> is true .

void expected < void , E >:: emplace ();

Effects:

If !bool(*this)

destroys unex by calling unexpect.~unexpected<E>() ,

set has_val to true

Postconditions: bool(*this) .

Throws: Nothing

template < class ... Args > T & emplace ( Args && ... args );

Effects:

If bool(*this) , assigns val as if constructing an object of type T with the arguments std::forward<Args>(args)...

otherwise if is_nothrow_constructible_v<T, Args...> is true

destroys unex by calling unexpect.~unexpected<E>() ,

initializes val as if direct-non-list-initializing an object of type T with std::forward<Args>(args)... and

set has_val to true ;

otherwise if is_nothrow_move_constructible_v<T> is true

constructs a T tmp from std::forward<Args>(args)... (which can throw),

destroys unex by calling unexpect.~unexpected<E>() ,

initializes val as if direct-non-list-initializing an object of type T with std::move(tmp) (which cannot throw) and

set has_val to true ;

otherwise

move constructs an unexpected<E> tmp from unexpected(this->error()) ,

destroys unex by calling unexpect.~unexpected<E>() ,

initializes val as if direct-non-list-initializing an object of type T with std::forward<Args>(args)... . Either, the constructor didn’t throw, set has_val to true , or the constructor did throw, so move-construct the unexpected<E> from tmp back into the expected storage (which can’t throw as E is nothrow-move-constructible), and re-throw the exception.



Postconditions: bool(*this) .

Returns: A reference to the new contained value val .

Throws: Any exception thrown by the operations specified in the effect clause.

Remarks: If an exception is thrown during the call to T 's assignment, nothing changes.

This signature shall not participate in overload resolution unless: T is not cv void and is_nothrow_constructible_v<T, Args...> is true .

template < class U , class ... Args > T & emplace ( initializer_list < U > il , Args && ... args );

Effects:

If bool(*this) , assigns val as if constructing an object of type T with the arguments il, std::forward<Args>(args)...

otherwise if is_nothrow_constructible_v<T, initializer_list<U>&, Args...> is true

destroys unex by calling unexpect.~unexpected<E>() ,

initializes val as if direct-non-list-initializing an object of type T with il, std::forward<Args>(args)... and

set has_val to true ;

otherwise if is_nothrow_move_constructible_v<T> is true

constructs a T tmp from il, std::forward<Args>(args)... (which can throw),

destroys unex by calling unexpect.~unexpected<E>() ,

initializes val as if direct-non-list-initializing an object of type T with std::move(tmp) (which cannot throw) and

set has_val to true ;

otherwise

move constructs an unexpected<E> tmp from unexpected(this->error()) ,

destroys unex by calling unexpect.~unexpected<E>() ,

initializes val as if direct-non-list-initializing an object of type T with il, std::forward<Args>(args)... . Either, the constructor didn’t throw, set has_val to true , or the constructor did throw, so move-construct the unexpected<E> from tmp back into the expected storage (which can’t throw as E is nothrow-move-constructible), and re-throw the exception.



Postconditions: bool(*this) .

Returns: A reference to the new contained value val .

Throws: Any exception thrown by the operations specified in the effect clause.

Remarks: If an exception is thrown during the call to T 's assignment nothing changes.

The function shall not participate in overload resolution unless: T is not cv void and is_nothrow_constructible_v<T, initializer_list<U>&, Args...> is true .

1.9. �.�.4.4 Swap [expected.object.swap]

void swap ( expected < T , E >& rhs ) noexcept ( see below );

Effects: See Table editor-please-pick-a-number-5

Table editor-please-pick-a-number-5 — swap ( expected < T , E >& ) effects bool ( * this ) ! bool ( * this ) bool ( rhs ) if T is not cv void calls using std :: swap ; swap ( val , rhs . val ) calls rhs . swap ( * this ) ! bool ( rhs ) if T is cv void initializes unex as if direct-non-list-initializing an object of type unexpected<E> with unexpected(std::move(rhs)) . Either the constructor didn’t throw, set has_val to false , destroys rhs.unexpect by calling rhs.unexpect.~unexpected<E>() set rhs.has_val to true . the constructor did throw, rethrow the exception.

otherwise if is_nothrow_move_constructible_v<E> is true , the unex of rhs is moved to a temporary variable tmp of type unexpected_type , followed by destruction of unex as if by rhs.unexpect.~unexpected<E>() , rhs.val is direct-initialized from std::move(*this) . Either the constructor didn’t throw destroy val as if by this->val.~T() , the unex of this is direct-initialized from std::move(tmp) , after this, this does not contain a value; and bool(rhs) . the constructor did throw, so move-construct the unexpected<E> from tmp back into the expected storage (which can’t throw as E is nothrow-move-constructible), and re-throw the exception.

otherwise if is_nothrow_move_constructible_v<T> is true , val is moved to a temporary variable tmp of type T , followed by destruction of val as if by val.~T() , the unex is direct-initialized from unexpected(std::move(other.error())) . Either the constructor didn’t throw destroy rhs.unexpect as if by rhs.unexpect.~unexpected<E>() , rhs.val is direct-initialized from std::move(tmp) , after this, this does not contain a value; and bool(rhs) . the constructor did throw, so move-construct the T from tmp back into the expected storage (which can’t throw as T is nothrow-move-constructible), and re-throw the exception.

otherwise, the function is not defined. calls using std :: swap ; swap ( unexpect , rhs . unexpect )

Throws: Any exceptions that the expressions in the Effects clause throw.

Remarks: The expression inside noexcept is equivalent to: is_nothrow_move_constructible_v<T> is true and is_nothrow_swappable_v<T> is true and is_nothrow_move_constructible_v<E> is true and is_nothrow_swappable_v<E> is true .

The function shall not participate in overload resolution unless:

Lvalues of type T are Swappable ; and

Lvalues of type E are Swappable ; and

is_void_v<T> is true or is_void_v<T> is false and either: is_move_constructible_v<T> is true ; or is_move_constructible_v<E> is true .



1.10. �.�.4.5 Observers [expected.object.observe]

constexpr const T * operator -> () const ; T * operator -> ();

Requires: bool(*this) .

Returns: addressof(val) .

Remarks: Unless T is a user-defined type with overloaded unary operator& , the first operator shall be a constexpr function. The operator shall not participate in overload resolution unless: T is not cv void .

constexpr const T & operator * () const & ; T & operator * () & ;

Requires: bool(*this) .

Returns: val .

Remarks: The first operator shall be a constexpr function. The operator shall not participate in overload resolution unless: T is not cv void .

constexpr T && operator * () && ; constexpr const T && operator * () const && ;

Requires: bool(*this) .

Returns: std::move(val) .

Remarks: This operator shall be a constexpr function. The operator shall not participate in overload resolution unless: T is not cv void .

constexpr explicit operator bool () noexcept ;

Returns: has_val .

Remarks: This operator shall be a constexpr function.

constexpr bool has_value () const noexcept ;

Returns: has_val .

Remarks: This function shall be a constexpr function.

constexpr void expected < void , E >:: value () const ;

Throws: bad_expected_access(error()) if !bool(*this) .

constexpr const T & expected :: value () const & ; constexpr T & expected :: value () & ;

Returns: val , if bool(*this) .

Throws: bad_expected_access(error()) if !bool(*this) .

Remarks: These functions shall be constexpr functions. The operator shall not participate in overload resolution unless: T is not cv void .

constexpr T && expected :: value () && ; constexpr const T && expected :: value () const && ;

Returns: std::move(val) , if bool(*this) .

Throws: bad_expected_access(error()) if !bool(*this) .

Remarks: These functions shall be constexpr functions. The operator shall not participate in overload resolution unless: T is not cv void .

constexpr const E & error () const & ; constexpr E & error () & ;

Requires: !bool(*this) .

Returns: unexpect.value() .

Remarks: The first function shall be a constexpr function.

constexpr E && error () && ; constexpr const E && error () const && ;

Requires: !bool(*this) .

Returns: std::move(unexpect.value()) .

Remarks: The first function shall be a constexpr function.

template < class U > constexpr T value_or ( U && v ) const & ;

Returns: bool(*this) ? **this : static_cast<T>(std::forward<U>(v)); .

Remarks: If is_copy_constructible_v<T> is true and is_convertible_v<U, T> is false the program is ill-formed.

template < class U > constexpr T value_or ( U && v ) && ;

Returns: bool(*this) ? std::move(**this) : static_cast<T>(std::forward<U>(v)); .

Remarks: If is_move_constructible_v<T> is true and is_convertible_v<U, T> is false the program is ill-formed.

1.11. �.�.4.6 Expected Equality operators [expected.equality_op]

template < class T1 , class E1 , class T2 , class E2 > friend constexpr bool operator == ( const expected < T1 , E1 >& x , const expected < T2 , E2 >& y );

Requires: The expressions *x == *y and unexpected(x.error()) == unexpected(y.error()) shall be well-formed and its result shall be convertible to bool .

Returns: If bool(x) != bool(y) , false ; otherwise if bool(x) == false , x.error() == y.error() ; otherwise true if T1 and T2 are cv void or *x == *y otherwise.

Remarks: Specializations of this function template, for which T1 and T2 are cv void or *x == *y and x.error() == y.error() are core constant expression, shall be constexpr functions.

template < class T1 , class E1 , class T2 , class E2 > constexpr bool operator != ( const expected < T1 , E1 >& x , const expected < T2 , E2 >& y );

Requires: The expressions *x != *y and x.error() != y.error() shall be well-formed and its result shall be convertible to bool .

Returns: If bool(x) != bool(y) , true ; otherwise if bool(x) == false , x.error() != y.error() ; otherwise true if T1 and T2 are cv void or *x != *y .

Remarks: Specializations of this function template, for which T1 and T2 are cv void or *x != *y and x.error() != y.error() are core constant expression, shall be constexpr functions.

1.12. �.�.4.7 Comparison with T [expected.comparison_T]

template < class T1 , class E1 , class T2 > constexpr bool operator == ( const expected < T1 , E1 >& x , const T2 & v ); template < class T1 , class E1 , class T2 > constexpr bool operator == ( const T2 & v , const expected < T1 , E1 >& x );

Requires: T1 and T2 are not cv void and the expression *x == v shall be well-formed and its result shall be convertible to bool . [ Note: T1 need not be EqualityComparable. - end note]

Returns: bool(x) ? *x == v : false; .

template < class T1 , class E1 , class T2 > constexpr bool operator != ( const expected < T1 , E1 >& x , const T2 & v ); template < class T1 , class E1 , class T2 > constexpr bool operator != ( const T2 & v , const expected < T1 , E1 >& x );

Requires: T1 and T2 are not cv void and the expression *x == v shall be well-formed and its result shall be convertible to bool . [ Note: T1 need not be EqualityComparable. - end note]

Returns: bool(x) ? *x != v : false; .

1.13. �.�.4.8 Comparison with unexpected < E > [expected.comparison_unexpected_E]

template < class T1 , class E1 , class E2 > constexpr bool operator == ( const expected < T1 , E1 >& x , const unexpected < E2 >& e ); template < class T1 , class E1 , class E2 > constexpr bool operator == ( const unexpected < E2 >& e , const expected < T1 , E1 >& x );

Requires: The expression unexpected(x.error()) == e shall be well-formed and its result shall be convertible to bool .

Returns: bool(x) ? false : unexpected(x.error()) == e; .

template < class T1 , class E1 , class E2 > constexpr bool operator != ( const expected < T1 , E1 >& x , const unexpected < E2 >& e ); template < class T1 , class E1 , class E2 > constexpr bool operator != ( const unexpected < E2 >& e , const expected < T1 , E1 >& x );

Requires: The expression unexpected(x.error()) != e shall be well-formed and its result shall be convertible to bool . Returns: bool(x) ? true : unexpected(x.error()) != e; .

1.14. �.�.4.9 Specialized algorithms [expected.specalg]

template < class T1 , class E1 > void swap ( expected < T1 , E1 >& x , expected < T1 , E1 >& y ) noexcept ( noexcept ( x . swap ( y )));

Effects: Calls x.swap(y) .

Remarks: This function shall not participate in overload resolution unless:

T1 is cv void or is_move_constructible_v<T1> is true ; and

is_swappable_v<T1> is true ; and

is_move_constructible_v<E1> is true ; and

is_swappable_v<E1> is true .

1.15. �.�.5 Unexpected objects [expected.unexpected]

1.16. �.�.5.1 General [expected.unexpected.general]

This subclause describes class template unexpected that represents unexpected objects.

1.17. �.�.5.2 Class template unexpected [expected.unexpected.object]

template < class E > class unexpected { public : constexpr unexpected ( const unexpected & ) = default ; constexpr unexpected ( unexpected && ) = default ; template < class ... Args > constexpr explicit unexpected ( in_place_t , Args && ...); template < class U , class ... Args > constexpr explicit unexpected ( in_place_t , initializer_list < U > , Args && ...); template < class Err = E > constexpr explicit unexpected ( Err && ); template < class Err > constexpr EXPLICIT unexpected ( const unexpected < Err >& ); template < class Err > constexpr EXPLICIT unexpected ( unexpected < Err >&& ); constexpr unexpected & operator = ( const unexpected & ) = default ; constexpr unexpected & operator = ( unexpected && ) = default ; template < class Err = E > constexpr unexpected & operator = ( const unexpected < Err >& ); template < class Err = E > constexpr unexpected & operator = ( unexpected < Err >&& ); constexpr const E & value () const & noexcept ; constexpr E & value () & noexcept ; constexpr const E && value () const && noexcept ; constexpr E && value () && noexcept ; void swap ( unexpected & other ) noexcept ( see bellow ); template < class E1 , class E2 > friend constexpr bool operator == ( const unexpected < E1 >& , const unexpected < E2 >& ); template < class E1 , class E2 > constexpr bool operator != ( const unexpected < E1 >& , const unexpected < E2 >& ); template < class E1 > friend void swap ( unexpected < E1 >& x , unexpected < E1 >& y ) noexcept ( noexcept ( x . swap ( y ))); private : E val ; // exposition only }; template < class E > unexpected ( E ) -> unexpected < E > ;

A program that instantiates the definition of unexpected for a non-object type, an array type, a specialization of unexpected or an cv-qualified type is ill-formed.

�.�.5.2.1 Constructors [expected.unexpected.ctor] {#expected.unexpected.ctor}

template < class Err > constexpr explicit unexpected ( Err && e );

Effects: Initializes val as if direct-non-list-initializing an object of type E with the expression std::forward<Err>(e) .

Throws: Any exception thrown by the selected constructor of E .

Remarks: If E’s selected constructor is a constant subexpression, this constructor shall be a constexpr constructor. This constructor shall not participate in overload resolution unless:

is_constructible_v<E, Err> is true ; and

is_same_v<remove_cvref_t<U>, in_place_t> is false ; and

is_same_v<remove_cvref_t<U>, unexpected> is false .

template < class ... Args > constexpr explicit unexpected ( in_place_t , Args && ...);

Effects: Initializes val as if direct-non-list-initializing an object of type E with the arguments std::forward<Args>(args)... .

Throws: Any exception thrown by the selected constructor of E .

Remarks: If E’s selected constructor is a constant subexpression, this constructor shall be a constexpr constructor. This constructor shall not participate in overload resolution unless is_constructible_v<E, Args...> is true .

template < class U , class ... Args > constexpr explicit unexpected ( in_place_t , initializer_list < U > , Args && ...);

Effects: Initializes val as if direct-non-list-initializing an object of type E with the arguments il, std::forward<Args>(args)... .

Throws: Any exception thrown by the selected constructor of E .

Remarks: If E’s selected constructor is a constant subexpression, this constructor shall be a constexpr constructor. This constructor shall not participate in overload resolution unless is_constructible_v<E, initializer_list<U>&, Args...> is true .

template < class Err > constexpr EXPLICIT unexpected ( const unexpected < Err >& e );

Effects: Initializes val as if direct-non-list-initializing an object of type E with the expression e.val .

Throws: Any exception thrown by the selected constructor of E .

Remarks: This constructor participates in overload resolution unless:

std::is_constructible_v<E, Err> is true ; and

is_constructible_v<E, unexpected<Err>&> is false ; and

is_constructible_v<E, unexpected<Err>> is false ; and

is_constructible_v<E, const unexpected<Err>&> is false ; and

is_constructible_v<E, const unexpected<Err>> is false ; and

is_convertible_v<unexpected<Err>&, E> is false ; and

is_convertible_v<unexpected<Err>, E> is false ; and

is_convertible_v<const unexpected<Err>&, E> is false ; and

is_convertible_v<const unexpected<Err>, E> is false .

This constructor is explicit if and only if std::is_convertible_v<Err, E> is false .

template < class Err > constexpr EXPLICIT unexpected ( unexpected < Err >&& e );

Effects: Initializes val as if direct-non-list-initializing an object of type E with the expression std::move(e.val) .

Throws: Any exception thrown by the selected constructor of E .

Remarks: This constructor participates in overload resolution unless:

std::is_constructible_v<E, Err> is true ; and

is_constructible_v<E, unexpected<Err>&> is false ; and

is_constructible_v<E, unexpected<Err>> is false ; and

is_constructible_v<E, const unexpected<Err>&> is false ; and

is_constructible_v<E, const unexpected<Err>> is false ; and

is_convertible_v<unexpected<Err>&, E> is false ; and

is_convertible_v<unexpected<Err>, E> is false ; and

is_convertible_v<const unexpected<Err>&, E> is false ; and

is_convertible_v<const unexpected<Err>, E> is false .

This constructor is explicit if and only if std::is_convertible_v<Err, E> is false

�.�.5.2.2 Assignment [expected.unexpected.assign] {#expected.unexpected.assign}

�.�.5.2.3 Observers [expected.unexpected.observe] {#expected.unexpected.observe}

constexpr const E & value () const & ; constexpr E & value () & ;

Returns: val .

constexpr E && value () && ; constexpr const E && value () const && ;

Returns: std::move(val) .

�.�.5.2.4 Swap [expected.unexpected.ctor] {#expected.unexpected.swap}

void swap ( unexpected & other ) noexcept ( see bellow );

Requires: is_swappable_v<E> is true

Effects: Equivalent to using std::swap; swap(val, other.val); .

Throws:

Remarks: The expression inside noexcept is equivalent to: is_nothrow_swappable_v<E> is true .

1.18. �.�.5.2.5 Equality operators [expected.unexpected.equality_op]

template < class E1 , class E2 > friend constexpr bool operator == ( const unexpected < E1 >& x , const unexpected < E2 >& y );

Returns: x.value() == y.value() .

template < class E1 , class E2 > friend constexpr bool operator != ( const unexpected < E1 >& x , const unexpected < E2 >& y );

Returns: x.value() != y.value() .

�.�.5.2.5 Specialized algorithms [expected.unexpected.specalg] {#expected.unexpected.specalg}

template < class E1 > friend void swap ( unexpected < E1 >& x , unexpected < E1 >& y ) noexcept ( noexcept ( x . swap ( y )));

Effects: Equivalent to x.swap(y) .

Remarks: This function shall not participate in overload resolution unless is_swappable_v<E1> is true .

1.19. �.�.6 Template Class bad_expected_access [expected.bad_expected_access]

template < class E > class bad_expected_access : public bad_expected_access < void > { public : explicit bad_expected_access ( E ); virtual const char * what () const noexcept override ; E & error () & ; const E & error () const & ; E && error () && ; const E && error () const && ; private : E val ; // exposition only };

Wondering if we just need an const& overload as we do for system_error .

The template class bad_expected_access defines the type of objects thrown as exceptions to report the situation where an attempt is made to access the value of expected object that contains an unexpected<E> .

bad_expected_access :: bad_expected_access ( E e );

Effects: Initialize val with e .

Postconditions: what() returns an implementation-defined NTBS.

const E & error () const & ; E & error () & ;

Returns: val;

E && error () && ; const E && error () const && ;

Returns: std::move(val);

virtual const char * what () const noexcept override ;

Returns: An implementation-defined NTBS.

1.20. �.�.7 Class bad_expected_access < void > [expected.bad_expected_access_base]

template <> class bad_expected_access < void > : public exception { public : explicit bad_expected_access (); };

1.21. �.�.8 unexpect tag [expected.unexpect]

struct unexpect_t { explicit unexpect_t () = default ; }; inline constexpr unexpect_t unexpect {};

2. Open Questions

std::expected is a vocabulary type with an opinionated design and a proven record under varied forms in a multitude of codebases. Its current form has undergone multiple revisions and received substantial feedback, falling roughly in the following categories:

Ergonomics: is this the right way to expose such functionality? Disappointment: should we expose this in the Standard, given C++'s existing error handling mechanisms? STL usage: should the Standard Template Library adopt this class, at which pace, and where?

LEWG and EWG have nonetheless reached consensus that a class of this general approach is probably desirable, and the only way to truly answer these questions is to try it out in a TS and ask for explicit feedback from developers. The authors hope that developers will provide new information which they’ll be able to communicate to the Committee.

Here are open questions, and questions which the Committee thinks are settled and which new information can justify revisiting.

2.1. Ergonomics

Name: Is expected the right name?

Does it express intent both as a consumer and a producer? Is E a salient property of expected ? Is expected<void, E> clear on what it expresses as a return type? Would it make sense for expected to support containing both T and E (in some designs, either one of them being optional), or is this use case better handled by a separate proposal? Is the order of parameters <T, E> appropriate? Is usage of expected "viral" in a codebase, or can it be adopted incrementally? Missing expected<T,E>::emplace for unexpected<E> .

The in-place construction from a unexpected<E> using the unexpet tag doesn’t conveys the in-place nature of this constructor.

Do we need in-place using indexes, as variant? Comparisons: Are == and != useful?

Should other comparisons be provided?

What usages of expected mandate putting instances in a map , or other such container?

Should hash be provided?

What usages of expected mandate putting instances in an unordered_map , or other such container?

Should expected<T, E> always be comparable if T is comparable, even if E is not comparable? Error type E : Have expected<T, void> and unexpected<void> a sense?

E template parameter has no default. Should it?

Should expected be specialized for particular E types such as exception_ptr and how?

Should expected handle E types with a built-in "success" value any differently and how?

expected is not implicitly constructible from an E , even when unambiguous from T , because as a vocabulary type it wants unexpected error construction to be verbose, and require hopping through an unexpected . Is the verbosity extraneous? We could alleviate the verbosity by adding a .unexpected() method to expected , so that one doesn’t have to write unexpected(e.error()) when constructing a new expected from an error. Does usage of this class cause a meaningful performance impact compared to using error codes? The accessor design offers a terse unchecked dereference operator (expected to be used alongside the implicit bool conversion), as well as value() and error() accessors which are checked. Is that a gotcha, or is it similar enough to classes such as optional to be unsurprising? Is bad_expected_access the right thing to throw? Should some members be nodiscard ? Should constructors of expected disallow T which are specializations of expected ? Similarly, can T and E be abominable functions?

2.2. Disappointment

C++ already supports exceptions and error codes, expected would be a third kind of error handling.

where does expected work better than either exceptions or error handling? expected was designed to be particularly well suited to APIs which require their immediate caller to consider an error scenario. Do it succeed in that purpose? Do codebases successfully compose these three types of error handling? Is debuggability any harder? Is it easy to teach C++ as a whole with a third type of error handling?

2.3. STL Usage