Timeline History A journey through time Introduction History has always been the greatest teacher of mankind. Going through past civilizations leads us to a more advanced and experienced way in order to achieve our goals. Foundations and principles of those ancient civilizations are the best techniques to conclude a better way of living & basing our future. The origin of human civilizations and agriculture is of course much older than the documentation in the form of inscriptions and bas-reliefs or tombs can tell us. This section is only based on documented history. The research in front of you is the most accurate, up-to-date and scientific document according to the latest archeological and historical discoveries and evidence of the ancient history. This sections contains a summarized historical timeline. Persia was a power house of academic knowledge in ancient times. They were leaders in astronomy, medicine, mathematics, literature and philosophy. Throughout the millenniums of invasions and conquests, Persians have been tough enough to live through it and repel the invaders. Even during Middle Ages Persia produced the best scholars in the world in all fields of science. The historical events below are arranged in chronological date order: (oldest to newest).

 Selection Predynastic Era Susiana Civilization Early Dynastic Era Arian migration Zoroastrianism Yalda: Origin of Christmas Persian Median Empire Persian Achaemenid Empire Greco-Persian Wars Invasion of Alexander Persian Parthian Empire Persian Sassanid Empire Arab conquest of Persia Khoramdinan movement Goldenage (Reincarnation of Persia) Mongol conquest Persian Safavid Empire Qajar Dynasty The Pahlavi dynasty Iran’s America policy Persian Identity timeline.htm 0 0 0 Loading... Advertisements (Please disable AdBlock or whitelist us)



Predynastic Era

Predynastic Era The Dawn of Civilization Agricultural Revolution The Agricultural Revolution made permanent settlements possible and the creation of complex civilizations started. Monumental architecture and more elaborate forms of artistic representation reflect an increasingly differentiated social hierarchy. Forms of administration and recording are developed as cities emerge across the region. The Persian Plateau became the cradle of one of the oldest civilizations and Kingdoms in history. In Iran today, there are 1.2 million historical sites, discovered so far, with some 70,000 historical moulds. Our undocumented history goes way back to the 10th millennium B.C.E, buried deep in what is now southwestern Iran. Susiana Civilization Susiana Civilization The ancient Shoosh Civilization or in English Susiana Civilization were among the first civilized civilizations to emerge over 8800 years ago in today’s Khoozestan (southwestern Iran). So far this has been reported as one of the oldest civilizations in recorded history. By civilization, we mean civilized city government, city state or Kingdom and an advanced state of development in human society, marked by progress in the arts and sciences, the extensive use of writing, and complex political and social institutions. Susians were one of the local Iranian races, before the coming of Aryans into Persia. They were an a non-Semitic Hemitic people (one of the main divisions of the Caucasic family) who had migrated to the Persian Plateau in prehistoric times. Today we know that these civilizations are much older than previously thought due to recent archeological discoveries. (Settlements at Susa date to 7th millennium B.C.E.) The magnificent historical city of Susa is mentioned in the Old Testament as the place where the biblical Prophet Daniel lived. Susa was built in south-western Persia and marked the progress in complex political and social institutions. Before 4200 B.C.E. there were Governors ruling Susiana, not Kings. Some Governors were subject rulers, some autonomous, and some independent. After this date, Susa became an independent kingdom and a major power in the region. During this era the number of settled communities increased, particularly in the eastern Zagros mountains. The location of Susa and its closeness to Mesopotamia was the main reason why these civilizations influenced each other in terms of art and monuments despite their racial differences.

Early Dynastic Era

Early Dynastic Era Rise of the first United Kingdom Elamite dynasty Several fragmented small kingdoms were united and created the Elamite Nation (A first dynasty) in the Persian Plateau and began to exert and receive influence from the cultures of the region. This impressive dynasty lasted for over two millenniums. Susa played a vital role in the development and expansion of the Elamite cultural sphere, and the threat of Assyrian attacks prompted the construction of a large 6 meter thick rammed earth wall about the city. The increasing frequencies in foreign invasions led to a need for centralization and organized defenses. Elam is the name of an ancient civilization located in what is now southwest Iran. Chogha Zanbil - A late era Elamite complex that was founded in 1250 B.C.E. The Elamites were non-Semitic Alpine people who had migrated to the Persian Plateau in prehistoric times and Susa became their primary capital of the kingdom. The Elamite language is regarded by the vast majority of linguists as a language isolate and has no close relation to the neighbouring Semitic languages or to Sumerian. Rising Elamite power Susa city-state falls under the rule of the Mesopotamian Akkadian Empire in the early 2300 B.C.E. and later also under the rule of the Third Dynasty of Ur . At the end of this period, the Elamites invaded southern Mesopotamia, destroying the city of Ur as a revenge for the previous Babylonian invasions and marked the beginning of a new era of rising Elamite power within the region. Elamites interfered in Mesopotamian affairs, usually in alliance with Babylon, against the constant pressure of Neo-Assyrian expansion. Susa later played an important part in Babylonian opposition to the brutal Assyrian domination. Susa Kingdom reign ended by start of the Persian Achaemenid Empire. Chogha Zanbil - One of the many ruins of the ancient Elamite complexes today

Arian migration

Arian migration Distinction between Indo-European tribes The era of mass Arian migration (Aryans ) to Persia and the beginning of the distinction between Indo-European tribes is assigned to roughly ~2000–1000 B.C.E.. The Aryans gave Persia its historical name: Airyana, The land of the Aryans from which the name Ērān (Iran/Aryan) comes. Arian Tribes who emigrated to the west became the ancestors of Greeks and people who chose east as their destination came to be known as Indo-Iranians. Aryan (Arian) means noble or honorable . It is widely held to have been used as an ethnic self-designation of the Iranians. When the Arians finally took over most of the Persian Plateau they started organizing their domains. Small cities, headed by local mayors, and each independent of each other with almost no unity. This method soon proved useless, especially under the constant attack of new masters of Mesopotamia, Assyrians. Slowly, the Iranian tribes re-organized themselves into united kingdoms modeled after the Elamite dynasty. Indo-Europeans that went west became the ancestors of Greeks and later Romans, those that went east split into several Indo-Iranian caucasian tribes: (Persians, Medes, Parthians and Scythians etc.)

Zoroastrianism

Zoroastrianism The First Monotheist Religion Zarathushtra was the first prophet to introduce the concepts of: monotheism, equalism, duality of good and evil, mankind’s free choice between the two alternatives, messianic redemption, resurrection, final judgement, heaven (the word Paradise comes from Old Persian), hell and the notion of an almighty, kind, loving and forgiving God. He believed man’s salvation in life and in the afterlife could only be ensured through Good Thoughts, Good Words and Good Deeds. Many of these concepts had a profound influence on Judaism, Christianity and Islam. Persians adopted Zoroastrianism at a time when Greeks and, later, Romans still practiced polytheistic religions, at a time when every race considered itself to be the chosen people of Gods/God, Zarathushtra did not discriminate between race, cast and creed. Zoroaster’s birthday falls on March 26th 1767 B.C.E. (6th of Farvardin in Persian Calendar) This date is more significant and special for the Zoroastrians. The Zoroastrian Year Calendar is based on his 40th Birthday, right now (in 2020), the year is 3758 Zoroastrian Holy Year. * These dates are based on linguistic evidence, language studies and archeology and not the usual Greek anachronism which often corrupts historical fact. (Many wrongly confuse King Vishtasp who reigned during Zarathustra’s life with the father of Darius the Great, with the same name). That mistake alone is the main reason why many ancient Greek historians wrongly believed that Zarathustra lived around (600 B.C.E) 258 years before the reign of the Macedonian king Alexander, when in fact Zarathustra lived over 14 centuries before him. continue » Ruins of Persepolis - Fravashi, the guardian spirit of an individual Yalda: Origin of Christmas Yalda: Origin of Christmas The Christmas celebrations actually derive from the Indo-European celebration of Yalda during the longest night of the year on the eve of the Winter Solstice. On the Yalda night, Persians used to stay awake all night till the dawn and normally the following days were a holiday (December 22–25). It was also the Day of Equality because on this day the Monarchs and Nobles were to dress just like ordinary people so as not to be recognized in the crowd and nobody was supposed to give order. On December 25th Arians celebrated Mithrakana : The Birth of Mithra (Angelic divinity of covenant and oath) and hanged a wreathe of green cypress on their doors, gave gifts to their loved ones and feasted the night together. Many Christian, Jewish and Muslim customs have root in Mithraism and Zoroastrianism: the first Equal, Universal and Monotheist Religion. The birtyday of Mithra (Mehr) was celebrated in Persia, Rome and other parts of Europe as Mithraism rapidly spread throughout the ancient world, Coincidence with Jewish Hanukkah (Festival of Lights) is not just an accident. An old tradition that would serve as a green movement today was that everyone pledged to plant a cedar tree during the festival of Yalda. (Christmas tree, holy bread and more other things entered, in this way) The oldest record of the Yalda night celebrated throughout the Indo-European world dates back to 1600 B.C.E. Merry Mithrakana eventually became Merry Christmas with the spread of Christianity in the Roman Empire. The priests, since could not stop the practice of celebrating Mithra’s birthday on December the 25th. declared this day as the birthday of Jesus, which is still so (Because the date of Jesus’ birth is unknown). Norouz: New Year’s celebrations Norouz or new day, is wonderful and ancient Persian national celebration that reflects the rich cultural heritage of the nation. Norouz is the most cherished of all the Persian festivals and has been celebrated for more than 3500 years according to the latest archeological and historical discoveries. The Persian New Year always begins on the first day of spring (March 20th each year, at the exact time the sun enters Aries) Its exact time is calculated according to ancient astronomical methods established by a solar calendar in Persia. Norouz ceremonies are symbolic representations of two ancient concepts: the End and the Rebirth. It is a celebration of spring equinox and represents ancient Persians’ impressive understanding of science and astronomy. A few weeks before the New Year, Persians clean and rearrange their homes. They make new clothes, bake pastries and germinate seeds as sign of renewal and decorate their family Norouz table. The ceremonial cloth is set up in each household. Troubadours, referred to as Haji Firuz, disguise themselves with makeup and wear brightly colored outfits of satin. These Haji Firuz, singing and dancing, parade as a carnival through the streets with tambourines, kettle drums, and trumpets to spread good cheer and the news of the coming new year. Some of the activities during Norooz are Spring cleaning, painting eggs, family reunions, Persian dancing, exchanging presents, visiting neighbors and friends etc. just to name a few. The Norouz holiday and celebrations ends by having a massive family picnic on the 13th day of Spring.

Persian Median Empire

Persian Median Empire Aryan nomads unite their kingdoms Assyrians Destroyed Susa The glorious, ancient, biblical and historical city of Susa in Persia was captured and razed to ground in 693 B.C.E. by the notorious army of Ashur Banipal . The Assyrians had built a very strong army that ruled over a vast area without any tolerance for other civilizations. Their source of wealth was plundering the weak and not let them regain power. They enslaved many nations including the Jews and most of the Persian Plateau . Assyrians destroyed the Elam kingdom leaving behind an ancient ruin called the Burnt City. This marked the end of 2000 years of Elamite kingdom and the Start of a New Era for the Aryan nomads. Aryan nomads unite their Kingdoms Three groups of Aryan nomads: The Medians (Central and North-Western parts) and the Persians (In South and South-Western parts) and the Parthians (North-Eastern and Eastern parts) united their Kingdoms and established the United Median Dynasty (678–559 B.C.E.) in order to to withstand the brutal Assyrians. An alliance between the Medians and Persians put an end to the Assyrian terror forever. After their defeat, many Medians were settled in Assyrian-territory in the region in order to prevent Assyrians from emerging again. The Persians in the South-Western parts eventually supplanted and absorbed the United-Median Kingdom in the massive Achaemenid Persian World Empire. The Medes were Iranian people, who lived in the north, western, and northwestern portions of present-day Iran, and roughly the areas of present day Tehran, Hamedan, Azarbaijan, north of Esfahan, Zanjan, and Kurdistan. This region was known in Greek as Media . The historical city of Susa which was destroyed by the Assyrians was rebuilt during the Persian Achaemenid Dynasty and became the second winter capital for official affairs and also the ceremonial capital of the Empire. Princess Mandana Mandana (Mandane) (600–559 B.C.E.) was a Median princess, daughter of the mighty King Astyages and later, the Queen consort of Cambyses of Anshan and mother of Cyrus the Great, (ruler of Persia’s Achaemenid Dynasty and the writer of the first declaration of human rights, named: Cyrus Cylinder). Queen Mandana is a central character in legends describing Cyrus the great’s early years. According to ancient greek historian Herodotus, after the birth of Cyrus, King Astyages had a strange dream that his Magi (Court Magician) interpreted as a sign that his grandson would eventually overthrow him. He then ordered his steward Harpagus to get rid of the boy. Harpagus, morally unable to do so hid the child with a shepherd named Mitridates. Cyrus grew up without knowing that he came from a Royal Bloodline. According to this legend, Cyrus would eventually defy his grandfather, King Astyages, leading to a great war between them; as the dream had forecast. There are references to Mandana’s death as 559 B.C.E. in the history books. King Darius the Great named his daughter Mandana after her. Internal conflicts & shift of Power Cyrus the Great (576–530 B.C.E.) defeats the Median king Astyages at the battle of Pasargadae in 551 B.C.E. and becomes the king of both kingdoms. He established the Persian Empire in 550 B.C.E. Cyrus the Great had a concept of One World and the Unification of All People around the known World . By accepting the practices and religions of the subject people he created the world’s first humane and religiously tolerant empire and evolved an administrative system that was sufficiently flexible to cater for the multitude of different languages, races, religions and cultures while maintaining the fundamental unity of government necessary to maintain the huge empire.

Persian Achaemenid Empire

Invasion of Alexander

Invasion of Alexander The king of Macedonia invaded Persia In January 334 B.C.E, The king of Macedonia: Alexander, Invaded Persia and began a series of campaigns that lasted ten years. Alexander broke the power of Persia in a series of decisive battles. He subsequently overthrew the Persian King Darius III and conquered the Achaemenid Empire in its entirety. Alexander was an admirer of Persian Kings and especially Cyrus the Great. He conquered Persia but the Persian culture conquered him. He married with the Persian Princess Roxana and ordered all his generals and 10,000 of his soldiers to follow suit in a mass Persian wedding. Alexander tried to emulate the Persian court customs and attempted to create a new culture, a mixture of both Persian and Hellenistic. Alexander and his Army also plundered Persia, he ordered the execution of many Persians, allowed his troops to indulge themselves in plunder and rape and, in a drunken rage, set torch and destroyed Persepolis, the magnificent palace complex of the kings in revenge for all the Persian-Greek wars many centuries before and also because he was not yet the sole ruler of the Persian Empire, and it was too dangerous to leave the enormous treasures behind, where his enemies could recapture them. When Alexander conquered the Persians, he burned many of the grand buildings and libraries in Persepolis and destroyed or stole many of its royal treasures. The ancient painting below is showing Alexander’s troops burning and looting the palaces in Persepolis. Alexander and the Greek Seleucids Burning & Plundering Persepolis in Persia Alexander paid tribute to Cyrus the Great at his tomb. This shows how much Emperor Cyrus was respected, even in the eyes of his fierce enemies. When Alexander returned several years later and saw the Ruins of Persepolis, he regretted his act deeply. Princess Roxana Roxana (Roxanne) was the Persian princess of Bactria and the daughter of a nobleman named Oxyartes. She married the King of Macedonia: Alexander when he professed his love for her in the fortress around 327 B.C.E. Roxana bravely accompanied him on his campaign in India in 326 B.C.E. She bore him a posthumous son called Alexander IV Aegus, after Alexander’s sudden death. Roxana and her son became victims of the political intrigues of the collapse of the Alexandrian Empire. They were protected by Alexander’s mother, Olympias, in Macedon, but her assassination in 316 B.C.E. allowed Cassander to seek kingship. Since Alexander IV Aegus was the legitimate heir to the Alexandrian empire, Cassander ordered him and Roxana assassinated around 309 B.C.E. This is a factual based portrait and the historically accurate Roxanna. Alexander past away Although a masterful general, he lacked administrative skills. Shortly after his death in 323 B.C.E., his empire was divided among his contesting generals. An important legacy of his conquest of Persia was the introduction of the Persian imperial practices into the West. Many of these practices particularly those relating to state administration and the rule of law were later adopted by the Roman Empire. The Seleucid Empire Seleucid Dynasty was established by one of Alexander’s generals. After Alexander’s conquest, Persia fell under a foreign occupying force. The subsequent Seleucid Empire was obviously not Persian, but Greek. They did not arrive with the intent of evolving Persian culture, but rather to dominate it, use it, and overwhelm it with another culture: Greek. Some of the results were positive, in so much as Greek culture is as rich as ours and has much to offer. Nevertheless, since it set out to overwhelm and subjugate Persian culture instead of simply enriching its foundations, it can be viewed only as a foreign occupation. Fortunately, it did not succeed. The Persians gradually defeated the Greek Seleucids and consolidated their control over all of Persia and restored Persian culture. Parthians gradually defeated the Greek Seleucids and consolidated their control over all of Persia

Persian Parthian Empire

Persian Parthian Empire Broke the Macedonian dynasty The Parthians (Ashkanian), a tribal kingdom from northeastern Persia of the coastal areas broke the Macedonian dynasty, gradually defeated the Greek Seleucids and consolidated their control over all of Persia and they remained true to the spirit and culture of Persia, and did their best to make positive contributions. The Parthians were an Iranian ethnic group and they were also Zoroastrians like the Achaemenid Persians. The name of the founder of the dynasty, Arsaces, became the title of all Parthian kings in much the same way that the name of Caesar was later to become the title of all Roman emperors. They fought numerous times with the Romans. Their victory over the Romans in 53 B.C.E. elevated the Parthians into a superpower of their era. Although the Parthians ruled for almost five centuries, very little of their civilization has survived due to accidents of history, except for some small art objects. The Greco-Persian wars and Alexander’s victories proved that light-armed troops could not stop heavy, well-trained, and brilliantly led infantry of the type of hoplites or phalanx. These could only be encountered with even more heavily armed and highly professional cavalry causing disorder in the massed ranks and then attacking them on vulnerable points with bowshots capable of piercing armour and lances effective against shields. This lesson went home with the Parthians who in ousting the Seleucids from Persia formed their own professional armies and taking into consideration of what was needed against their enemies. Parthian Elite Cataphracts known as the "Ashkanian Savaran" The Parthians originated from the Parni tribe of the coastal areas east of the Caspian Sea. In order to legitimize their rule, the Parthians claimed descent from the Achaemenid Dynasty. In many fields of culture, the Parthians represented a continuation of the Achaeaminds. The administrative system was arranged after the Hellenistic Seleucids, involving cities built according to Hellenistic layout as well as the formation of vassal kingdoms. In extent, the Parthian empire was smaller than that of the Achaemenids and far less centralized. It lacked, for instance, a standing united centralized army. There were of course the garrisons of towns and forts as well as armed retinues of tribal chiefs, feudal lords, and of the King of Kings himself, but these were limited and disunited due to their much more tribal political culture. The Parthian period of Persian history was one of wealth, and great building projects. The region profited from trade between Asia and the Mediterranean. Despite internal stability, the northeastern borders were often under nomad attack, and a wider area suffered from repeated attacks by the Scythians. The Parthian Empire was the most enduring of the empires of the ancient Persia, which ruled for nearly half millennia. The Parthians organized a very strong and unified government and took the army and invaded Roman territory in West Asia. Neither side won a clear victory, and this set the pattern for the next four hundred years: a lot of fighting but no real change in the borders. *The Parthian Dark Age refers to the most confused period of Parthian history, from the late years in the region of Mithradates II (123–88 B.C.E.) to the establishment of the sole rule of Orodes II (c. 57–38 B.C.E.). The Legendary General Surena The Legendary General Surena In 53 B.C.E when the Romans advanced into Parthian territory and were ever ready for full-scale invasions the King of Parthia Orodes II sent his cavalry units under the Legendary General Surena (84–53 B.C.E.) to combat them with maximum force. The two armies subsequently met at the Battle of Carrhae where the superior equipment and clever tactics of the Parthians to lure the Romans out into the middle of the desert and enabled them to defeat the numerically superior Romans. This victory made the Parthians into a superpower of their era and although it did not cause any decisive shift in the balance of power it produced a mighty echo amongst the peoples of the East which in turn caused several revolts against the Romans after this period in history. General Surena, also known as Rustaham Suren-Pahlav was a mighty Parthian general and a member of the House of Suren . He is well known in history for defeating the Romans in the Battle of Carrhae, with an elite army of only 10.000 Parthians against 40.000 Roman soldiers. It is believed that 20,000 Roman troops out of a force of about 36,000 died at the hands of the Parthians. The Romans were especially in awe of the expert mobile Parthian archers (hence the term: the Parthian Shot) who inflicted enormous casualties upon successive Roman armies. General Surena distinguished himself in this battle for dynastic succession. * After this victory the King of Parthia feared that his General Surena might take over the throne and constitute a threat, hence he had him executed at the young age of 31 by hiring secret mercenaries. That decision alone turned out to be a huge historical mistake since Surena and his clever tactics made a big difference to the outcome of each Parthian battle and played a part in building up the tapestry of their military Achievement. Parthian Commander - The Legendary General Surena The Parthian period holds an important place in military history. Several Parthian King of Kings, including the first and the last-fell in action, and their three century long conflicts with Rome had profound effects on Roman military organization. For they not only succeeded in repulsing repeated Roman attempts at the conquest of Persia, but they inflicted severe defeat seven in their last days-upon the Roman invaders; and to face the long-range fighting tactics of the Parthian armoured cavalry and mounted archers, the Romans started to supplement their armies of heavy and drilled infantry with auxiliary forces of riders and bowmen, thereby increasingly modifying traditional Roman arms and tactics. Parthian victory over the Romans at the historical Battle of Carrhae The final stages of the the Battle of Carrhae against the Romans Decline of the Empire Repeated Roman invasions finally destroyed much of the infrastructure of the Parthian kingdom in 198 C.E. after 83 years of non-stop war. The Romans invaded Parthian territory in search of desperately needed gold to fund Roman military campaigns and colonialism with force around the known ancient world. The Romans became much more numerically superior against the Parthians as their empire rapidly expanded. They could keep the war going for as long as needed by hireing unlimited number of mercenaries from their colonial subject territories to constantly attack the Parthian borders from all directions in order to finally exhaust them spiritually. This in turn caused major internal revolts within the Parthian empire and the power and influence of this handful of Parthian noble families was such that they frequently opposed the monarch, and would eventually be a contributory factor in the downfall of the dynasty. The Parthians finally submitted to another Persian dynasty which had close links with them and retained the power of their nobility. The end of this loosely organized empire came in 224 C.E., when the last king was defeated by one of their vassals, the Persians of the Sassanid dynasty. This transition went well and the remaining Parthian army just saw this as a change of ruler and joined the Sassanid army after the takeover. They had previously been fighting alongside each other against the Roman invaders for centuries and they were both tired over the internal instability caused by wars from all fronts and focused their rage against the Romans instead of each other. The Sassanid military tactics differed from the Parthians and they were far more centralized and united. They also changed the tones of war against the Romans from Defensive to Offensive in order to end the threat once and for all and live in peace. The Heroine of Persia Sura (~213–235 C.E.) was one of the Greatest Heroines of Persian History, A strategical and Military Genius during the Parthian dynasty. She was the daughter of Ardavan the Fifth, the last King of the Parthian Empire. She is mentioned in the history books as her father’s right hand. Sura had the rank of: Ashkanid’s General, Sepahbod (Lieutenant General). Although she was not as tactical in the battlefield as the legendary General Surena (who was her role model), she was a great respected Lieutenant General on her own. Her main tactics was to not charge into the enemy line before weakening and exhausting them first. She was unfortunate to live during the decline of the Parthian empire due to centuries of Roman-attacks, major internal revolts and instability. She had a grudge against King Aradeshir because on 225 C.E. Ardeshir (Son of Babak) went to a great war against her father (Ardavan V) and killed him in the war. All she experienced during her short life-span was war, death and misery. Her soldiers were the only friends that she ever had. May her great spirit rest in peace.

Persian Sassanid Empire

Persian Sassanid Empire Recognized as one of the leading world powers The Sassanid Persians (Descendants of Sassan) coexisted with the Roman Empire, and there were many great battles between them. Many of the victories of Persians is carved in stone. They were proud of their Persian heritage, and they wanted to reestablish the borders of the old Persian empire. This meant reconquering all the land to the edge of the Mediterranean Sea from the Romans and also reconquering Egypt from the Romans. Sasanian courtly manners were to be adopted by the Roman Empire, as well as the entire Central Asia and China. Like their Persian ancestors, these Sassanid Persians were Zoroastrians. The Sassanids, second only to the Achaemenids in their service to Persia were also a major defining feature of Persian culture and identity. They considered themselves the direct descendants of the Achaemenids, and obviously sought to preserve Persian culture and identity while serving their nation. They took a great role in advancing the foundations of Persian civilization in many different aspects. Huge Relief of King Ardeshir I in Necropolis at the Ruins of Persepolis Ardeshir Babakan I (226–241 C.E.) founded the Sassanid dynasty and revived Persian culture and Zoroastrianism and made a conscious effort to return to the Persian Achaemenid norms. The most important feature was the alliance of religion and government. He created a national empire based on imperialism and achieved unity through conformity. They sponsored trade both with their arch-enemy, the Romans/Byzantines, and the Chinese. The Sassanids were the Last Zoroastrian Empire and the Strongest. The Empire could not rest cause of never ending wars with the Romans who desperately needed gold to fund Roman military campaigns and colonialism with force around the known ancient world. * Roman emperors always said that in order to Rule the World and acquiring new lands and control over the Silk Road you have to conquer Persia first (known to the ancient world as The wealthiest empire under the sun ). The Romans also wrongly believed that two superpowers could never coexist peacefully and therefore their main goal was to conquer and destroy Persia but they never succeeded despite of centuries of wars and instead lost many wars that weakened their own empire and in the end left both empires very vulnerable against internal revolts and outside threat. The Romans tried to re-write history by calling great civilized and historical nations that they invaded and colonised (Greece, Egypt etc.) along with the entire Non-Roman world for Barbarians when in fact it was the other way around. Persians and Greeks viewed the Romans as the true bloodthirsty Barbarians of their era. The Silk Road (6,500 km): The loaction of Persia and the richness of its vast land was one of the many reasons for all the unnecessary Roman-Persian wars that lasted for nearly 700 years (54 B.C.E. – 629 C.E.). The Mighty Sassanid Army In the character of their warfare, the Persians of the Sassanid period differed greatly from their forebears under the Achaemenid kings. The principal changes which time had brought about were an almost entire disuse of the war chariot, the advance of the elephant corps into a very prominent and important position, and the increased use and pre-eminence of heavy cavalry on the Parthian model, including both heavy cataphracts and horse-archers. Five main arms of the service were recognized, each standing on a different level: the Golden-Armored War Elephants, the Silver-Armored War Horse, The Archers, and the Bronze-Armored elite foot archers who showered the enemy with storms of arrows. The heavy golden-armored war elephant corps always held the first position in line. These giant beasts acted as walking towers on battlefields and caused panic and disorder in enemy ranks, creating openings in the lines that cavalry could take advantage of. And finally the royal elite force called Zhayedan (The Immortals) numbered 10,000 men, like the Achaemenid predecessors, with the difference that they were heavy cavalry. Their task was mainly to secure any breakthroughs and to enter battles at crucial stages. A Silver-Armored Sassanid City Guard (Police) Cavalry at Ctesiphon (Sassanid Capital) Ranks of the Sassanid Army Commander-in chief. (Eran Spahbod) Field General (Spahbod) Commander of each of the four provincial divisions devised. (Padgospan or Padouspan) Margrave or Commander of the border guards. (Marzban or Kanarang) Head of the Royal Guard. (Poshtikban Salar) Senior rank responsible for army supplies. (Eran anbaraghbad) Senior vet who looked after the cavalry elite’s mounts. (Stor-bezashk) Castellan, Commander of a Castle and Fort. (Argbadh) Chief of an infantry division. (Payygan Salar) Head of a cavalry division. (Savaran Sardar) Commander of a gond division. (Gond Salar) Roman Army against the Elite Persian Army The ancient illustration below (angus mcbride) is showing the fatal wounding of the roman emperor Julian during a ambush of Sassanid Persian Elite Warriors (Battle of Samarra). Here you can clearly see the Golden-Armored War Horse and Elephants in Action causing panic and disorder in Roman army-ranks. Sassanid Persian Elite Warriors vs. the Roman Army (Battle of Samarra) The Persian Sassanid High Command often channeled invading forces into kill zones and destoryed them by deploying Heavily Armored Savaran units (Elite cavalry). The right figure is a female warrior who is a local governess (Paygospanan-Banu). Shapur I the Great The Reign of the mighty King Shapur I (215–270 C.E.) started in the year 240 C.E. and that same year also marks the death of the former King Ardeshir (the founder of the Sassanid dynasty) whom was his father. He was also the son of the Arsacid princess Lady Myrōd . Ardashir had towards the end of his reign renewed the war against the Roman Empire and his son Shapur conquered several Roman Emperors and defeated their entire armies. Shapur later on personally considered one of the great achievements of his reign to be the defeat of three Roman emperors: Valerianus, Gordianus III and Philip. The name Shapur, meaning Son of a King . The Reign of the mighty King Shapur I renewed the war against the Roman Empire Roman–Persian Wars & Shift of Power The Great King Shahpur invaded Roman Empire territory in the years (253–260 C.E.) with the goal to reestablish the borders of the old Persian empire and also as a revenge for all the previous centuries of Roman–Persian wars. After the Roman army was defeated and besieged by the Persian forces, King Shahpur took Emperor Valerian and the entire Roman army prisoner as a lesson to never attack Persia again! He was victorious over three Roman emperors during his reign: Valerianus, Gordianus III and Philip. The Roman army was defeated several times and captured in its entirety by the Persian forces; for the first time in Rome’s military history their emperors was taken prisoner. As such, these battles are generally viewed as one of the worst disasters in Roman military history. This in turn forced the Romans to quickly negotiating peace with the Sassanid Persians and they started to pay heavy taxes each time they approached near Sassanid territory in order to avoid unnecessary conflicts. The ancient Painting below is showing the Surrender of Roms Emperor Valerian and Roman Senator to Shapour King of Persia (on horse-top). Emperor Valerian kneels and begs for mercy from King Shahpur of Persia while the Female Persian cavalry officer (left) is guarding along with nobleman of the Suren clan (with tall beaked hat). Rome was a brutal empire with her economy based on slavery, POWs and built on blood and their main goal was to conquer Persia but they never succeeded despite many endless, brutal and unnecessary wars that weakened both sides and cost many lives. King Shahpur I, invaded Roman Empire territory and took Emperor Valerian prisoner Sassanid Capital - Ctesiphon - Royal Palace Entrance Azadokht Shahbanu Azadokht (~220–260 C.E.) was the Queen of the Persian Sassanid Empire and the wise wife of Shapur the Great, they established Jondi Shahpur university, a major center of higher learning. Azadokht was not a military woman but she was very skilled with her sword. Persia were constantly in war with the Roman Empire for many centuries and the Roman army had never seen women soldiers in war fighting so bravely and brutally next to male soldiers and valiantly defending the empire. During the Sassanid dynasty many of the Persian soldiers captured by Romans were women who were fighting along with the men. Manichaeism Prophet Mani (216–274 C.E.) was the founder of a religion now called Manichaeism. He preached a universal philosophy which included elements of Zoroastrianism, Buddhism, Christianity and Hinduism. Mani practised under the protection of the Persian emperor, Shapur, the Persian King himself seems to have favoured his ideas. The Shapurgan, Mani’s only treatise in the Middle Persian language, is dedicated to Shapur. As his teaching quickly gained ground, he came in opposition to the Zoroastrian priests and after the death of Emperor Shapur Mani lost his protection and was forced to leave Persia, he wandered the east, preaching a gnostic version of Mithraism. He considered himself an apostle of christ. When he returned to Persia, he was imprisoned and crucified by the orders of emperor Bahram and the Manichaean creed was suppressed. The death of Mani (276 C.E.) is retold as an incident similar to the crucifixion of Jesus. Mani was born in 216 C.E. in the province Babylon which was under Persian rule, his family was Persian, but his name is Aramaic-Persian. At the age of 12 and 24, Mani had visions where an angel told him that he would be the prophet of a last divine revelation. A the age of 26 Mani started on a long journey, where he stood forward as Messenger of Truth , and he travelled through the Persian Empire and reached as far as India. Father of socialism Mazdak was the founder of the philosophy called Mazdakism (488–528 C.E.). He was the son of Bamdad who was a Zoroastrian priest and started preaching his doctrines. Mazdak believed in equal rights among human beings and advocated abolition of private property, the division of wealth, as well as nonviolence and vegetarianism. His ideas brought about a major class struggle between the peasants and the nobility. The followers of Mazdak raided the Palaces and Harems of the rich who, he believed, had oppressed the Persian population and caused much poverty. Mazdak embarked on a program of social reform and equal rights, which involved pacifism, anti-clericalism (anti-religious) and aid programs for helping the poor. Mazdak had government warehouses opened to help the poor. Mazdak emphasized good conduct, which involved a moral and ascetic life, no killing and not eating flesh and being kind and friendly and living in peace with other people. The leaders of the feudalist society and the political ranks staged several conspiracies that led to the total elimination of Mazdakism in 528 C.E. Mazdakism is believed to be the first form of socialism (communalism and populism) 1360 years before Marx published his famous manifest. Mazdak is considered to be the world’s first socialist . The counselor of the Persian Courthouse Princess Parin (490–540 C.E.) was a Persian Sassanid politician, daughter of Emperor Kavadh I (Qobad). She was the counselor of the Persian Courthouse and a confident female politician who mastered the art and practice of conducting negotiations between representatives of states in order to prevent unnecessary conflicts between Roman/Byzantine Empire and Persia. The mighty populist king of Persia Persia recovered her glory during the reign of Khosrow I (Anushiravan 531–579 C.E.), who defeated the Roman Empire and marked the height of the Sassanid dynasty. He promoted scholarship and sponsored the translation of Indian and Greek scientific and medical texts into Middle Persian or Pahlavi, Persia’s native language. By the time of Khosrow I, Jondi Shahpur’s library had amassed one of the largest collections of books in the world. He also gave refuge and financial assistance to philosophers fleeing oppression in the Byzantine Empire. Khosrow I was also a populist king, possibly a reflection of Mazdak’s ideology and the civil conflicts that subsequently ensued. He made himself available to all his subjects; anyone could rattle his chain of justice and have an audience with the king. His famous prime minister, Bozorgmehr, reportedly invented the game of backgammon for the king. Empress & Counselor of the Persian courthouse Zand Shahbanu (~510–560 C.E.) was the Queen of Persia and the mighty Wife of King Khosrow Anushirvan (The most illustrious of the Sassanid Rulers) and the niece of General Bahram Chubin. She was also the counselor of the Persian courthouse, extremely intelligent and confident lady. The last holdout of Sassanid Persia was in the east, and it is to this little studied part of the world that scholars need next to approach, for it seems certain that the small states of Central Asia, too, were part of the ancient Persian world, and their role in bringing Persian influences to China and to Russia should not be forgotten. Christian princess & Empress Shirin Shahbanu was the Queen of the Persian Sassanid Empire and the wife of the mighty King Khosrow II (590–628 C.E.) whose military exploits extended the empire to its furthest extent and conquered much Byzantine empire territory. Shirin was a christian princess who eventually consents to marry King Khosrow after several romantic and heroic episodes, including his rescue of her from a lion. Their historical love story has been further romanticized by Persian scholars. During his reign, King Khosrow Parviz built several magnificent palaces in the Kermanshah Province (west of Iran) and named them after his queen, Shirin; hence the city got its name from there and is now called Qasr-e Shirin , literary meaning Palace of Shirin . Empress Purandokht Purandokht (Buran 590–632 C.E.) was the twenty-sixth Sassanid monarch of Persia, reigning from 629 to 632. She was the daughter of emperor Khosrow II and the older sister of Azarmidokht. Her father was overthrown and killed in 628 C.E. by a group of members of the nobility which ushered in a period of instability in the empire. When Purandokht ascended to the throne she attempted to quickly bring stability to the empire. This stability was brought about by a peace treaty with the Byzantine Empire, the revitalization of the empire through the implementation of justice, reconstruction of the infrastructure, lowering of taxes, and minting coins. She was committed to revive the memory and prestige of her father, during whose reign the Sasanian Empire had grown to its largest territorial extent. She was largely unsuccessful in her attempts to restore the power of the central authority which was weakened considerably by civil wars, and resigned. An icon of nobility and stature Turandokht (~605–633 B.C.E.) was the beautiful Princess of Persia during the Sassanid dynasty era and the youngest daughter of King Khosrow Parviz. The legend and fairy tale of Princess Turandokht (Turandot) is very famous in Europe and it was taken from the Persian collection of stories called: The Book of One Thousand and One Nights (Hezar o-yek shab), she became an icon of nobility and stature. The Europeans changed the nationalities of the historical characters but other than that everything else is intact and true to the original. Turan is the ancient Persian name for Central Asia which used to be part of the Persian Empire. The original Turanians are the Tuirya Iranian people of the Avesta age (1737 B.C.E.). Empress Azarmidokht Azarmidokht was the younger daughter of King Khosrow Parviz. She was the twenty-seventh Sassanid Monarch of Persia and she ruled the empire after her sister Purandokht during the last decade of the Sassanid Dynasty era. In the years following King Khosrow’s death, there were internal revolts which caused major instability and left the empire very vulnerable against outside threat. Decline of the Empire The endless Wars and Rivalry between the two superpowers; Rome and Persia lasted for nearly 700 years (54 B.C.E. – 629 C.E.) and weakened both empires significantly. Neither side won a clear victory, a lot of fighting but no real change in the borders. The final and most devastating of the series of wars fought between Byzantine (Eastern Roman Empire) and the Sassanid Persian Empire took place between 602–628 and was fought throughout nearly all of the subject countries of Rome and Persia in both Europe and Asia from all directions. By the end of the conflict both sides had exhausted their human and material resources. Consequently, they were vulnerable to the sudden emergence of the Islamic Caliphate, whose forces invaded both empires after these series of wars. In the years following the death of the Persian King Khosrow, there were major internal revolts, instability and power struggle that lasted for years in the exhausted empire. The central authority was weakened considerably by civil wars. At the same time the Arab forces (brutal nomadic tribesmen) were trying to attack and invade Persia from South. The Persian King Yazdegerd III was strictly focused on protecting the Persian borders against the Eastern Roman Empire (Byzantine) and was not paying any attention to the rise of Islam and the invading barbaric savage Arabs. The first encounter between Sassanids and Muslim Arabs was in the Battle of the Bridge in 634 which resulted in a Sassanid victory, however the Arab threat did not stop there as the united Muslim army repeatedly attacked the southern borders of persia again and again. The united barbaric tribes of Arabia eventually conquered the entire Sassanid Persian Empire and deprived the Byzantine Empire of its territories. The final devastating wars between Byzantine and Persia The Fall of the Empire Rostam Farrokhzad was the head of Persian forces & the Grand General in charge of the defence under King Yazdegerd III. A large Arab army had united against Persia (battle of Nehavand) and a long and brutal war against the savage invaders started in the southern borders of Persia at the worst time possible, during civil wars within the empire which weakened the central authority. Rostam figured what the Bloodthirsty Arabs were fighting for... for their hunger, and their new God Allah and his so-called Holy War against the civilized World and all non-believers. (Arabs believed that they could rape & plunder the population, and if they would die during the holy-war they would go directly to heaven and meet their 72 virgins). It was not possible for the Persians to fight an official war against the rebellious Jihadist Arabs who deliberately targeted un-armed civilians to spread fear and terror among the population. For the first time Rostam, The Mighty Lion of Persia as they called him... felt outnumbered and could finally see the End.. They thought the Sassanid Empire would last for thousands of years. Rostam stood in the front of his horse giving his last speech telling his army if he falls, he will take as many savage Arabs as he can. Let this last day be the worse for them... The persian borders falls, but the resistance from the people makes it more bloody though they were not armed, Resistance in the final stages was led by a mighty woman named Apranik. Governor Rostam Farrokhzad - Mighty Sassanid Army General and Warrior The Final Resistance Apranik (620–655 C.E.) was a Persian Sassanid High Ranking Commander of Army and the daughter of Piran (the great General of King Yazdgird III) and she fought gracefully, as a resistance commander, fighting against the invading Arabs (brutal nomadic tribesmen). Apranik was more like a TomBoy! Since childhood, she loved military and was her Father’s Right hand and eventually followed his footsteps and become a military person. Like her father Apranik decided to become a professional soldier and she climbed the steps of progress, one by one and after her complete education, she managed to rise from a petty officer, to a high ranking commander. Apranik was a tireless inspiration for her troops in defense against outside aggressors. Apranik fully took the command of a major battalion of the Persian Army directly after the full-scale invasion and occupation by the united Arab armies and she led her devoted warriors against the Arab invaders even after the loss of the Persian Empire. As she got wiser, she found out that Organized Warfare with the Arabs or The Desert Rats as she refered to them, who invade and hide, and then reinforce and invade again, does not work; therefore, she started a campaign of a treacherous battle against the occupiers. For years to come, Apranik, first fought an official war and later on when all hopes were destroyed, Apranik, started her Hit and Run Rebellious Campaign. Apranik’s Dedicated Commando Warfare were legendary and relentless. Her white horse has always been a famous symbol of freedom and still is til this day. Legendary Commander Apranik of the Persian Sassanid Army Commander Apranik of Sassanid Army in Battle against the invaders ... Apranik and her Ranks, never surrendered, they have fought an on going bloody battle to the bitter ends. Her braveries were so known, that she became a symbol for the Persian Resistance & Freedom and Persians created an expression for her! Every time a female soldier would have shown bravery among the resistance, other soldiers would smile and call her: Apranik . Apranik’s famous words and policy were: No retreat, no surrender . Apranik acted as a battery charger for resistances spirit and chose to fight with her soldiers, until the bitter end and eventually Apranik became a legend. May her great spirit rest in peace. Apranik, the mighty daughter of renowned general Piran or as they used to call her Apranik of Piran’s will always be in the Persian Resistance Hall of Fame . This is what the Persian women were made of! A Gentler side of Commander Apranik of the Persian Sassanid Army The last Sassanid ruler, Yazdegerd III , died in 651 C.E. as a fugitive. Persia was again faced with an enemy from within which aimed to completely undermine its civilization and identity. The first factor used to destroy a national identity was an attack on its predominant religion: Zoroastrianism. Read the Historical letter of Yazdgird III to the Arab Caliph Omar.

Arab conquest of Persia

Arab conquest of Persia The Dark and Brutal Arab Caliphate Era oppression, misery and massacre The history of Persians after the Arab conquest can be summarized in three words: oppression, misery and massacre. The Arabs invaded Persia not only for its reputed wealth, but to bring into the faith new converts and to impose Islam as the new state religion. They were religious zealots who believed that in a religious war if one kills or is killed, one’s place in heaven is secure . To impose the new religion, the old culture and creed had to be destroyed. Therefore first they targeted the libraries, universities and schools. Only few examples reflect the enormity of the calamity that befell upon Persia at 630 C.E. To conquer Persia and force Islam, the Arab invaders resorted to many inhumane actions including massacre, mass enslavement of men, women and children, and imposition of heavy taxes on those who did not convert. Arab Taziz Raping and Killing Civilians in Persia and enslaving women and children Erasing history by burning books and killing scholars In 641 C.E. When the Arab commander Saad ibn-e Abi Vaghas faced the huge Persian library of Ctesiphon (capital city), he wrote to Omar (Caliph/Ruler of Arab Muslims): what should be done about the books?. Omar replied that the blasphemous books are not needed, as for us only Koran is sufficient. Thus, the huge library was destroyed and the books or the product of the generations of Persian scientists and scholars were burned in fire or thrown into the Euphrates (waters of Euphrates ran black with ink from the enormous quantities of books flung into the river). Later by the order of another Arab ruler (Ghotaibeh ibn-e Moslem) in Khwarezmia, those Persians who were literate with all the historians, writers and Mobeds were massacred and their books burned so that after one generation the people were illiterate. Other libraries in Ray and Khorassan received the same treatment and the famous international University of Gondishapour declined and eventually abandoned, and its library and books vanished. Only few books survived, because the Persian scholars quickly translated them into Arabic in order to save them. It was a tremendous loss. Our knowledge would be richer and, potentially, our path from the ancient world to the modern world would have been shorter and easier, had some of these works survived. Mass massacre and conversion By the order of the Arab commander Yazid ibn-e Mohalleb in Gorgan so many Persians were beheaded that their blood mixed with water would energize the millstone to produce as much as one day meal for him, as he had vowed and ordered the soldiers to cut off the tongue of anyone who dared to speak Persian. This is why in Arabic, Persians are called Ajam , meaning mute! The event of blood mill has been quoted by the generations of historians and Persian Zoroastrian families to this day, yet our books of history have been silent about it. In recent years however, disenchanted Persian scholars have been writing about the blood mills and in fact this event has been reported by our historians of the Islamic era. On the way to Mazandaran (northern Iran) the same commander ordered 12,000 Persian captives to be hanged at the two sides of the road so that the victorious Arab army pass through. Upon arrival, many more were massacred in that province and heavy tax (Jizya) was imposed on the survivors who did not convert. One of the Umayyad Caliphs was quoted saying: milk the Persians and once their milk dries, suck their blood. Some historians have estimated that a total of 400,000 Persian civilians were massacred. After the battle of Alis, the Arab commander (Khalid ibn-e Valid) ordered all the prisoners of war be decapitated so that a creek of blood flows. When the city of Estakhr in the south put up stiff resistance against the Arab invaders, 50,000 residents were slaughtered. One of the battles by the Arabs has been named, Jelovla (covered), because an estimated 100,000 bodies of the slain Persians covered the desert. It is reported that 130,000 Persian women and children were enslaved and sold in the Mecca and Medina markets and large amount of gold and silver plundered. One respected Persian scholar recently wrote, Why so many had to die or suffer? Because one side was determined to impose his religion upon the other who could not understand . The Arabs colonized, exploited, raped and despised the population. They even named the Persian converts Mavali or liberated slaves . Persian women became second rate citizens when the Arabs conquered Persia in a very brutal way, they lost all their rights and consistently assigned a passive role in the society. Many Persian women joined the resistance fighters against the barbaric Arab oppressors and fought to the end, they rather chose to be cut to pieces by the Arab Sword, than to become a slave or whore in the Arab Bed. Nevertheless history reflects the extent of atrocities committed by the Arab conquerors. Persians have developed a surprising ability to adapt, but only outwardly, superficially & when absolutely required. Persian culture is both very strong & resilient. Iran was neither truly Arabized nor Islamized. Arabs Raping and Enslaving women and selling them in Mecca and Medina markets Women actively took part in many of the future movements for freedom of Iran and repossession of their human rights from Arabs. Women were the most oppressed segment of Iranian society by the Arabs and they were a significant part of the many Revolutionary Movements of Iran including the Sanbad movement in Neyshabour of Khorasan (Northeast of Iran), Ostadsis’ movement in Sistan (Southeast of Iran), Moqanna’ and Sarbedaran movement in Khorasan (Northeast of Iran), and Babak Khoramdin’s movement in Azerbaijan (Northwest of Iran). The Umayyad Caliphate Umayyad Caliphate (661–750 C.E.) emerged as the rulers of the Islamic world. Although they maintained the Persian Sassanid administrative practices, the Umayyads considered Islam as primarily an Arab religion and were wary of Persian culture. They tried to force the Arabic language upon the Persians, leading to the demise of the Middle Persian or Pahlavi alphabet in favor of the new Arabic/Persian alphabet in use to this day. They also tried to eradicate the independent and unique sense of Persian identity in the same way that they Arabized and assimilated the Egyptians and the Assyrians, but with minimal success. Arabic became the official language of the Islamic world but not in Persia. During the Islamic period many Persian scholars attempted to revive the Persian culture and history and reintroduce the national identity to the despised nation. As the Arabs destroyed and burned all the non-Arabic and Pahlavi writings, Persian scholars found a solution to save the books that was to translate them into Arabic. One of the rare books that survived the carnage was Khodai-namak , a Pahlavi writing of the Sassanid era. A Persian general ended Umayyad rule The Abbasids had depended heavily on the support of Persians in their overthrow of the Umayyads and in 750 C.E. their victorious armies were led by a Persian general named Abu Khorasani. The Islamic capital was relocated from Damascus to Baghdad, a newly built city adjacent to the old Sassanid capital, Ctesiphon. This relocation symbolized the rising power of Persians in the Islamic world. The Abbasid Caliphate relied on Persian ministers and bureaucracy for many state functions. Persian customs began to take deep roots under the Abbasids. The offices of the vizier (minister) and the divan (or bureau for state revenue) were copied from the Sassanid model and later caliphs adopted the Persian courts’ ceremonial procedures and the trappings of the Sassanid kings. The Persian Barmakid family became architects of the Abbasid political structure and several members of their family became notable grand viziers. The Abbasid reign marked the pinnacle of the power and glory of the Islamic world.

Khoramdinan movement

Khoramdinan movement Persian Freedom Fighters (Red-Shirts) Babak Khoramdin is considered as one of the most heroic freedom fighters of Persia who initiated the Khoramdinan movement. It was a freedom fighting movement aimed to overthrow the Tazi Arab Caliph occupiers and at the time rulers of Persia. He was born in Balal Abad region of Azarbaijan (Northwest of Iran). Babak’s knowledge of history, geography, and the latest battle tactics strengthened his position as a favorite candidate for commander during the early wars against the Arab occupiers. One of the most dramatic periods in the history of Persia was set under Babak’s leadership between 816–837 C.E. During these most crucial years, they not only fought against the Caliphate, but also against Tazi Arab barbaric behaviors and customs. Eventually, Babak, his wife Banu, and his warriors were forced to leave The Castle of Babak (Ghaleye Babak) after 23 years of constant successful campaigns that killed over 500,000 invading Arabs and Babak’s mighty army (Red-Shirts) was never once defeated. According to historians of the era; For every Persian that died 10 Arabs followed them to the grave! He was eventually betrayed by an officer under his command named Afshin and was handed over to the Abbasid Caliph. During Babak’s execution, the Arab Caliph’s henchmen first cut off his legs and hands in order to convey the most devastating message to his Persian followers. Legend has it that Babak bravely rinsed his face with the drained blood pouring out of his cuts, thus depriving the Caliph and the rest of the Abbasid arab army from seeing his pale face, a result of the heavy loss of blood. Banu was the Wife of Babak Khoramdin (Persian Legendary Freedom Fighter), she fought side by side to her husband Babak. They are considered as one of the most heroic freedom fighters of Persia. Banu and Babak worked as revolutionary resistance fighters leading the Persian Resistance Militia. The famous female commando and revolutionary Banu, was a lioness. The central area of activity for Banu was Atropatgan state of Persia. Now this woman was amazing! She was the better half of Babak Khoramdin (Legendary Freedom Fighter). Banu was a temperamental Woman and a very skilled archer, she grew up with her bow and arrows! She was Babak’s partner in life and death, in war and peace. Banu was a symbol of Pure Persian Pride! Banu and Babak fought the Arab Occupation for years. They lived and they died as Proud Persians until the last drop of blood was shed. After Babak and Banu’s execution many Persians started revolts in different regions of the country in order to regain their freedom. This in turn, forced the Arab Caliphs to use more violence against the Persian population in order to keep the country under control but they failed and eventually Arab rule over Persia began to diminish. Babak’s sensational and legendary campaign to defend Persia’s national identity and interest is still pursued after nearly 1200 years. Every year on his birthday in July the Iranian pilgrims visit Babak’s fortress in Southern Azerbaijan to hail their Persian hero, Babak, as the symbol of Persian resistance against Tazi Arab occupiers. The pilgrims read poetry including Shahnameh (Epic of Kings - Iran’s most famous epic by Ferdowsi) and play traditional Persian music. They also light up bonfires to follow traditional rituals of ancient Persia. View a summary video clip in Persian about Babak’s life and History

Goldenage

Goldenage Reincarnation of Persia Arab rule over Persia began to diminish. The Arabs ruled parts of Iran for some 80 years, before local Persian princes emerged in Sajestan and Khorassan. It was indeed the darkest chapter of Iran’s history and has been compared to a nightmare associated with the moans of widows and orphans, a dark night of silence that was interrupted only by the hoot of owls and the harsh sound of thunder . Finally the Arabs were driven out of Persia. Various local Persian monarchs rose to power: the Tahirids (821–873), Saffarids (867–903), Samanids (873–999), Ziyarids (928–1077) and Buyids (945–1055). The lost ancient Persian language was restored and it soon blossomed into one of the most poetic languages of the world. The Samanids were the first to adopt Persian as the official language of their court. Once again, Persia became a world center for art, literature and science. It was renowned for the impulse that it gave to Persian national sentiment and learning. All the cultural, scientific and philosophical advances of the so-called Islamic world came out of Persia, these advancements were not Islamic, but Persian. Khwarazmi, the father of modern Algebra Khwarazmi (780–850 C.E.), a remarkable mathematician, astronomer and the Father of Algebra. He wrote precise astronomical tables and the first work of algebra, The Book of Integration and Equation. The word Algebra is derived from this book’s title and the word Algorithm from his own name. He helped establish the concept of zero and perfect the decimal system. The culmination of his work, along with that of other Persian scholars, produced the Arabic numerals - a modified version of which replaced the Roman numerals in the West and which is still in use to this day. Persians openly revolt against the Arabs Ya’qūb-i Layth-i Saffārī (840–879 C.E.) was the founder of the Saffarid dynasty and the first Persian ruler to openly revolt against the Arabs. He brought much of Persia under his control and promoted the Persian language. The Saffarids (861–1003 C.E.) gave great care to the Persian culture. The empire did not last long after Ya’qūb’s death but it gave impetus to a renaissance of New Persian rulers, literature and culture. The statue of Ya’qūb can be found in the old Sassanid city of Dezful in southwestern Iran. Razi, a very important figure in the history of medicine Razi (865–925 C.E.) was a Persian polymath, physician, alchemist, philosopher, and important figure in the history of medicine. He also wrote on logic, astronomy and grammar. He was one of the most accomplished physicians, chemists and philosophers of his era, invented the medical usage of alcohol and wrote a number of books on a variety of topics, especially medicine. One of his more famous treatises, On Small Pox and Measles, was translated into many European languages. Rudaki, the Adam of Poet Rudaki (857–941 C.E.) also known as Adam of Poet crystallized the new Persian language and its lyrical poetry. He was the first major poet of the Persian language. His contribution was especially important since poetry was to become one of the main pillars of Persian culture and identity. The statue of Rudaki can be found in Dushanbe, Tajikistan at the heart of the central park named after him. Ferdowsi, Persia’s national Hero Ferdowsi (940–1020 C.E.), Persia’s national poet and possibly its greatest hero, completed the national Persian epic, Shahnameh (Epic of Kings) in 1010. It took him over 30 years and consisted of some 50,000 couplets. He was a genuine defender of Persian national identity and he deeply resented the Arab influence. He wrote his entire epic story with minimal usage of Arabic-derived words. Shahnameh consists of mythical stories of pre-Islamic Persia. The book’s chief epic hero is a noble knight named Rostam, who embodies values such as integrity, strength and chivalry. Ferdowsi is revered by all Persians and most consider him single-handedly responsible for reawakening the Persian language & pre-Islamic history, identity & heritage of Iran. Shahnameh is written in almost pure Persian language, which in itself is extremely significant. Persian Buyid dynasty defeated the Arab armies The Buyids (945–1055 C.E.), from north-central Iran, defeated the Arab armies and captured Baghdad. Although they allowed the Caliph to retain his title, they reduced the role of the Caliph to that of a powerless religious figurehead. The Buyids held the actual political power in the eastern Islamic world for a century. Avicenna, the father of modern medicine Avicenna (Sīnā) (980–1037 C.E.), one of the most significant scientists and philosophers, wrote over 200 books, including The Cannon of Medicine, an encyclopedia summarizing all the then known medical knowledge from across the world. This book was translated into Latin and remained the most influential book of medicine in the world. He was also a renowned philosopher who emphasized the use of logic and reason as means of discovering the truth. He is still considered by many to be the Father of Modern Medicine . The most prominent jurist and theologian Ghazali (1058–1111 C.E.) was recognized as the most prominent jurist and theologian of his time. He argued against a merely rational and logical interpretation of existence, in favor of a more mystic and spiritual understanding. He represented the view opposite to Ibn Sina’s rationalism and significantly undermined the influence of Avicenna Sina. He was an important intellectual pillar of Sufism. Sufis strive for a deeper understanding of life and a closer communion with God through meditation, inner self-examination and the rejection of worldly possessions. The Genius of Khayyam Khayyam (1048–1122 C.E.), a great mathematician, philosopher, poet and astronomer, performed the mathematical calculations to reform the Persian calendar, one of the most accurate calenders in the world and still in use to this day. Khayyam was often admonished because he was viewed as an un-Islamic iranian-nationalist. He helped build an important observatory in Isfahan and wrote his collection of quatrains, Rubaiyat. Dealing with the great enigmas of human existence, his poems celebrate the divine gifts of love and life. The Rubaiyat was translated by FitzGerald in the 19th century, helping Khayyam to become the most famous oriental poet in Europe. His work has since been translated into many other languages and millions of copies have been sold.

Mongol conquest

Mongol conquest The Dark and Brutal Mongol Era Gangis Khan (1162–1227 C.E.) united the Mongol clans and began his attempt at world conquest. The Mongol hordes attacked Persia with unparalleled brutality in 1220 C.E., bringing about one of the worst catastrophes in the history of mankind. In Persia’s northeastern provinces, his descendants, especially Hulagu Khan, razed almost every major city, destroyed libraries and hospitals and slaughtered entire populations. The death toll estimates ranged in the millions. Gangis Khan died After the death of Gangis Khan in 1227 C.E., his empire was divided among his sons. The Il-Khanid dynasty gained control of the segment of the Mongol Empire covering Persia (1258–1353 C.E.). The Mongols extended their hegemony over major part of the Eurasian landmass from the Danube to the Pacific for the better part of two centuries. Nasir Al-Din Tusi, a Medieval Persian genius Nasir Al-Din Tusi (1201–1274 C.E.) was a Medieval Persian scholar: An architect, astronomer, biologist, chemist, mathematician, philosopher, physician, physicist, scientist, theologian and Marja Taqleed. He put forward the basic theory of evolution over 600 years before Darwin and built the Maraghah observatory, the first observatory in the modern sense in the history of science. He developed the mathematical calculations showing the earth’s revolution around the sun and its spherical shape and size. His work was later translated into Latin and predated, by some 200 years, that of Copernicus, considered the founder of modern astronomy and the originator of the idea of a solar-centered universe. Rumi the greatest mystical poet Rumi Mawlana (1207–1273 C.E.) the greatest mystical poet of the Persian language and the author of Mathnawi, elevated Sufism to unprecedented heights. Although a Persian, he lived in Anatolia (his parents had migrated in fear of the Mongols’ brutality). His poetry and philosophy had a significant influence throughout the Islamic world. His disciples founded the famous Whirling Dervish mystic order. His poems have been widely translated into many of the world’s languages and transposed into various formats; BBC News has described him as The most popular poet in the world . Saadi of Shiraz Saadi Shirazi (1210–1292 C.E.) is one of the major Persian poets of the medieval period. He is recognized not only for the quality of his writing, but also for the depth of his social thoughts. His best and most significant Persian known works are Bustan and Gulistan . His poems exercised wide influence in India, Central Asia and as far as in China. His poems emphasized the interdependence of all mankind regardless of nationality, race or religion. He asked for the following inscription on his tomb: From the tomb of Sa’di, son of Shiraz, the perfume of love escapes, thou shall smell it still 1,000 years after his death . Marco Polo journeyed through Persia Marco Polo (1254–1324 C.E.) an Italian merchant, explorer, and writer journeyed through Persia on his way to China in 1271. In his Book of Travels, he wrote about the Mongols’ savagery: How sad it is, the destruction, waste and death inflicted upon this once mighty, prosperous and beautiful Persia . Major advances in the field of optics Kamal Al-Din Farsi (1265–1319 C.E.) pioneered major advances in the field of optics with his theories on refraction and reflection. Farsi was the most prominent Persian author on optics and he also made a major contributions to science on number theory. Mongols became Persianized Ghazan Khan became the first Mongol leader to convert religion. After his conversion in 1295 C.E., the Mongols, like the Greek, Arab and Turkic invaders before them, became Persianized. Ghazan Khan’s prime minister, Rashid ad-Din, was a Persian scholar who wrote one of the earliest works of universal history, Jami’ Al-Tawarikh. After almost one hundred years of Mongol devastation, Rashid ad-Din’s policies brought about a short-lived period of peace and prosperity. The vast Mongol Empire helped to facilitate the exchange of ideas and goods among China, India and Persia. Hafez of Shiraz Hafez Shirazi (1315–1390 C.E.), the greatest lyric poet of the Persian language, wrote his most famous work, The Divan. Hafiz is a beloved mystical poet who always refreshes the love of Zoroastrian faith in his poetry by calling himself a follower of the old Magi. Hafez was a Sufi and his poetry is characterized by the sense of beauty, love of humanity and devotion to God. Jamshid Kashani Jamshid Kashani (1380–1429 C.E.) was a major Persian astronomer and mathematician, he advanced number theory, invented the first calculating machine and participated in the astronomical activities at Samarqand. He wrote many Astronomical books. He was still working on his final book, called The Treatise on the Chord and Sine , when he died in 1429. Some scholars believe that Ulugh Beg, a Timurid ruler as well as a rival astronomer and mathematician may have ordered his murder. Brutal invasion of Turco-Mongols After the death of the ruler of the Ilkhanate, in 1335, there was a power vacuum in Persia. In the end Persia was split into several smaller independent dynasties. In 1383, Timur (Tamerlane), a Turco-Mongol leader started his lengthy military conquest of Persia. He conquered much of Persia and its surrounding areas. His conquests yet again consisted of unimaginable cruelty and devastation. Although brutal, he was also a patron of arts. He made Samarqand his capital and brought artists from all over Persia. Tamerlane is probably remembered most for his massacres and brutality. 80 000 were slain at Delhi (many of them flayed and burned alive) and the city itself did not recover until almost a century later, whole irrigation systems and agriculture centres were destroyed beyond repair, towers were made from the skulls of his enemies, at Sabzawar live captives were cemented between clay and brick to create minarets. He was responsible for ruining trade in the region and reducing populations by sometimes staggering amounts. Tamerlane died in 1405. After his death, his empire disintegrated, but his descendants ruled over various parts of Persia for almost a century.

Safavid Empire

Safavid Empire Persia united again under Iranian leadership Shah Ismail united all of Persia under Iranian leadership in 1501 after some nine centuries of foreign or fragmented Iranian rule. He declared Shi’ism as the state religion and converted virtually all of Persia and some surrounding areas under his control from Sunnism to Shi’ism. Shi’ism became a medium for the Persians to differentiate themselves from the rest of the Islamic world, in particular from the Sunni Ottomans. To ensure its continuation as the state religion, the Safavid kings in general supported the Shi’ite clergy. Ismail declares himself shah by entering Tabriz The Safavid dynasty founded by Shah Ismail would rule for over two centuries, being one of the greatest Persian empires after the brutal Muslim conquest of Persia and at its height being amongst the most powerful empires of its time, ruling all of Iran, Azerbaijan, Armenia, most of Georgia, the North Caucasus, Iraq, Kuwait, and Afghanistan, as well as parts of modern day Syria, Turkey, Pakistan, Uzbekistan, and Turkmenistan. It also reasserted the Iranian identity in large parts of Greater Iran. The legacy of the Safavid Empire was also the revival of Persia as an economic stronghold between East and West, the establishment of an efficient state and bureaucracy, its architectural innovations and its patronage for fine arts. Ismail was also a prolific poet and contributed to Persian literature, though few of his Persian writings survive. Shah Abbas the Great The reign of Shah Abbas the Great (1571–1629 C.E.) marked the pinnacle of the Safavid dynasty. He developed a disciplined standing army and defeated the Ottomans. In 1598, he chose Isfahan as his capital. A strong supporter of the arts, especially architecture, he adorned Isfahan with some of the finest monuments in the world. He built a number of temples, schools, bridges and a major bazaar. During his reign (1588–1629), Persian craftsmen and artists excelled in creating fine silks, cloths, porcelain, metalwork, calligraphy, miniatures and carpets. Khaju Bridge (Pol-e Khāju) in the province of Isfahan was built by Shah Abbas II around 1650 The Age of Gunpowder Empires Gunpowder Empires (1501–1722 C.E.) is a term used to describe the Safavid, Ottoman and Mughal empires which all had considerable military success using the newly developed firearms, especially cannon and small arms, in the course of their empires. These three empires dominated Asia, Europe and North Africa in the 16th century. The two arch rivals of the Safavids: the Ottomans in Anatolia and the Mughals in India, relied on Persian artisans and poets for much of their arts and literature. Persian was the language of choice in both of their courts. This preference is evident from their poems and miniature paintings whose texts were almost exclusively written in Persian. Persian influence was especially prevalent in India, where it was also the cultural and administrative language; it remained so until the colonization of India by the British. The Taj Mahal’s principle architect was a Persian named Ustad Isad and its architectural style was significantly influenced by Persian designs. Vassal of the Safavids, attacked Persia Mahmoud Khan (Moghul Khan), an Afghan chieftain and a vassal of the Safavids, attacked Persia and captured Isfahan with virtually no resistance, he overthrew the heavily declined Safavid dynasty to briefly become the king of Persia from 1722–1725. Suffering from mental illnesses and fearing a revolt by his subjects, Mahmud invited his Persian ministers and nobles to a meeting under false pretences and had them slaughtered. He also executed up to 3,000 of the Persian royal guards. At the same time the Persian arch rivals, Ottomans, and the Russians took advantage of the chaos in Persia to seize land for themselves. The mighty Nader Shah Nader Shah Afshar (1688–1747 C.E.), an officer of the Safavids, was able to expel the Afghans and reunite the country again during his reign (1736–1747). He was a brilliant military strategist, defeating the Ottomans, Russians, Indians and various local tribes. In his invasion of Mughal India, Nader Shah captured two of the world’s greatest diamonds, the Sea of Light (now in Iran) and the Mountain of Light (now part of the British Crown Jewels). Nader Shah became increasingly paranoid and was assassinated by his own guardsmen. After his death, his great military machine collapsed. Zand Dynasty Karim Khan Zand was the founder of the Zand Dynasty (1747–1779 C.E.) and gained control of central and southern parts of Persia. He was a compassionate ruler who refused to assume the title of Shah and referred to himself as the Representative of the People. While Karim was ruler, Persia recovered from the devastation of 40 years of war, providing the war ravaged country with a renewed sense of tranquility, security, peace, and prosperity. The years from 1765 to Karim Khan’s death in 1779 marked the zenith of Zand rule. After Karim Khan Zand’s death in 1779 C.E. Aqa Khan Qajar from a rival tribe gradually vanquished the Zands dynasty and established the Qajar dynasty.

Qajar Dynasty

Qajar Dynasty Succeeded in reuniting Persia Although The Qajars succeeded in reuniting the country, they were generally weak and corrupt rulers. The economic and military gap between Iran and the West widened considerably under their reign - especially in light of the Industrial Revolution that was taking place in the West. However, the Qajar period also enjoyed a high degree of artistic excellence, producing some of Iran’s finest paintings, tileworks and architectural monuments. European imperialism The European imperialism resulted in English and Russian penetration in Iranian affairs. The Qajars lost the Caucasus (present day Georgia, Armenia and Azerbaijan) to the Russians in two separate treaties: the Gulistan in 1813 and the Turkmanchay in 1828. As a result of the 1828 treaty, the Qajars were forced to enact the Capitulation law, exempting all foreign citizens from Iranian jurisdiction. This law deeply humiliated the Iranian people. Britain & Russia manipulated Iran’s politics In 1851–1906 C.E. The Qajars lost their central Asian provinces to the Russians and were forced to give up all claims on Afghanistan to the British. These two European powers dominated Iran’s trade and manipulated its internal politics. The Qajars and influential members of their court were bribed to sell many valuable concessions to the British, such as the Tobacco Concession which triggered a massive popular uprising. Social and Economic Chaos Discontent with Qajar corruption and mismanagement led to the Constitutional Revolution and the establishment of Iran’s first parliament or Majles. The constitutional aspirations for a limited monarchy were never to be fully realized. Although Iran never became an actual colony of imperial powers, in 1907 it was divided into two spheres of influence. The north was controlled by Russia and the south and the east by Britain. By the end of World War I, Persia was plunged into a state of political, social and economic chaos. Reza Khan the Great Reza Khan, an officer in the army disliked the foreign influence in his country, namely, Britain and Russia. He wanted to regenerate Iran and staged a coup in 1921. Initially the minister of war and then the prime minister, in 1925 Reza Khan decided to become the Shah himself. Although Reza Khan’s initial objective was to install a republic, the clergy, fearing a diminished role in a republic, persuaded him to become the Shah (1925–1941).

The Pahlavi dynasty