The Explorer

The Adventures of a Pythonista in Schemeland/10

by Michele Simionato

November 1, 2008



Summary

Yet another episode fully devoted to macros. I will discuss introspection, guarded patterns, literal identifiers, and a couple of common beginner's mistakes.


syntax-match and introspection features of sweet-macros In the last episode I have defined a very simple multi-define macro by using my own sweet-macros framework. I have also claimed that sweet macros provides introspection facilities, but I have not shown them. Here I will substain my claim. First of all, let me show how you can get the patterns accepted by multi-define : > (multi-define <patterns>) ((multi-define (name ...) (value ...))) Since multi-define is a simple macro it accepts only a single pattern. However, it is possible to define macros with multiple patterns by relying on the second form of def-syntax , i.e. (def-syntax name transformer) where the transformer is a procedure which is typically built on top of syntax-match . For instance, suppose we wanted to extend multi-define to work also as a replacement of define , i.e. suppose we want to accept the pattern (multi-define name value) where name is an identifier. Here is how to do that by using syntax-match : (def-syntax multi-define2 (syntax-match () (sub (ctx (name ...) (value ...)) #'(begin (define name value) ...)) (sub (ctx name value) #'(define name value)) )) syntax-match recognizes the literal identifier sub as an expected keyword when it appears in the right position, i.e. at the beginning of each clause. sub is there for two reasons: in my opinion it makes the code more readable: you should read a clause (sub pattern skeleton) as "substitute a chunk of code matching the pattern with the code obtained by expanding the pattern variables inside the skeleton"; it makes syntax-match look different from syntax-case and syntax-rules , which is fine, since syntax-match is a little different from the Scheme standard macro systems. The identifier ctx that you see as first element of each pattern denotes the context of the macro, a concept that I will explain in a future installment; you can use any valid identitier for the context, including the name of the macro itself - that is a common convention. If you are not interested in the context (which is the usual case) you can discard it and use the special identifier _ to make clear your intent. I leave as an exercise to check that if you invert the order of the clauses the macro does not work: you must remember to put the most specific clause first. In general you can get the source code for all the macros defined via def-syntax and syntax-match . For instance, the source code (of the transformer) of our original multi-define macro is the following: > (multi-define <source>) (syntax-match () (sub (multi-define (name ...) (value ...)) #'(begin (define name value) ...))) As you see, for better readability def-syntax use the name of the macro for the context, but any name would do. I have not explained everything there is to know about syntax-match , but we need to leave something out for the next episode, right?

A couple of common mistakes If you try to write macros of your own, you will likely incur in mistakes. I think it is worth warning my readers about a couple of such common mistakes. The first one is forgetting the begin for macros expanding to multiple expressions. For instance, you could be tempted to write multi-define as follows: > (def-syntax (multi-define-wrong (name ...) (value ...)) #'((define name value) ...)) If you try to use this macro, you will get an exception: > (multi-define-wrong (a) (1)) Unhandled exception Condition components: 1. &who: define 2. &message: "a definition was found where an expression was expected" 3. &syntax: form: (define a 1) subform: #f The problem is that Scheme interprets a pattern of the form (func arg ...) as a function application, but in this case func is the definition (define a 1) which is certainly not an function, it is not even an expression! Actually, R6RS Scheme distinguishes definitions from expressions, a little bit like in other languages statements are distinguished from expressions, except that in Scheme there are no statements other than definitions. You will get exactly the same error if you try to print a definition (display (define a 1)) : since a definition does not return anything, you cannot print it. A second common mistake is to forget the sharp-quote #' . If you forget it - for instance if you write (begin (define name value) ...) instead of #'(begin (define name value) ...) - you will get a strange error message: reference to pattern variable outside a syntax form. To understand the message, you must understand what a syntax form is. That requires a rather detailed explanation that I will leave for a future episode. For the moment, be content with a simplified explanation. A syntax form is a special type of quoted form: just as you write '(some expression) or (quote (some expression)) to keep unevaluated a block of (valid or invalid) Scheme code, you can write #'(some expression) or (syntax (some expression)) to denote a block of (valid or invalid) Scheme code which is intended to be used in a macro and contains pattern variables. Pattern variables must always be written inside a syntax expression, so that they can be replaced with their right values when the macro is expanded at compile time. Note: R6RS Scheme requires the syntax #'x to be interpreted as a shortcut for (syntax x) ; however there are R5RS implementation that do not allow the #'x syntax or use a different meaning for it. In particular, that was the case for old versions of Chicken Scheme. If you want to be fully portable you should use the extended form (syntax x) . However, all the code in this series is intended to work on R6RS Schemes, therefore I will always use the shortcut notation #' which in my opinion is ways more readable.

Guarded patterns There are a few things I did not explain when introducing the multi-define macro. For instance, what happens if the number of the identifiers does not match the number of the values? Of course, you get an error: > (multi-define (a b c) (1 2)) Unhandled exception Condition components: 1. &assertion 2. &who: ... 3. &message: "length mismatch" 4. &irritants: ((#<syntax 1> #<syntax 2>) (#<syntax a> #<syntax b> #<syntax c>)) The problem is that the error message is a bit scary, with all those #<syntax > things. How do we get an error message which is less scary to the newbie? Answer: by using the guarded patterns feature of sweet-macros ! Here is an example: (def-syntax (multi-define (name ...) (value ...)) ; the pattern #'(begin (define name value) ...) ; the skeleton (= (length #'(name ...)) (length #'(value ...))) ; the guard (syntax-violation 'multi-define "Names and values do not match" #'((name ...) (value ...)))) The line (= (length #'(name ...)) (length #'(value ...))) is the guard of the pattern (multi-define (name ...) (value ...)) . The macro will expand the patterns in the guard into lists at compile time, then it will check that the number of names matches the number of values; if the check is satified then the skeleton is expanded, otherwise a syntax-violation is raised (i.e. a compile time exception) with a nice error message: > (multi-define (a b c) (1 2)) Unhandled exception: Condition components: 1. &who: multi-define 2. &message: "Names and values do not match" 3. &syntax: form: ((a b c) (1 2)) subform: #f Because of their working at compile time, guarded patterns are an ideal tool to check the consistency of our macros (remember: it is very important to check for errors as early as possible, and the earliest possible time is compile time).

Literal identifiers Guarded patterns can also be (ab)used to recognize keyword-like identifiers in a macro. For instance, here is how you could implement the semantics of the for loop discussed in episode #8 with a macro (notice how all the funny characters ',@` disappeared): (def-syntax (for i from i0 to i1 action ...) #'(let loop ((i i0)) (unless (>= i i1) action ... (loop (+ i 1)))) (and (eq? (syntax->datum #'from) 'from) (eq? (syntax->datum #'to) 'to))) Here the R6RS primitive syntax->datum is used to convert the syntax objects #'from and #'to into regular Scheme objects so that they can be compared for equality with the literal identifiers 'from and 'to . You can check that the macro works by trying to use a wrong syntax. For install if you mispell from as fro you will get a syntax error at compilation time: > (for i fro 1 to 5 (display i)) Unhandled exception: Condition components: 1. &message: "invalid syntax" 2. &syntax: form: (for i fro 1 to 5 (display i)) subform: #f Notice that this is an abuse of guarded patterns, since syntax-match provides a built-in mechanism just for that purpose. Moreover this macro is subject to the multiple evaluation problem which I will discuss in the next episode: thus I do not recommend it as an example of good style when writing macros. Still, I have written it here to compare it with the approach in episode #8: with this macro I have been able to extend the Scheme compiler for within, with just a few lines of code: that is much simpler than writing an external compiler as a preprocessor, as I planned to do before. As I said, syntax-match has the built-in capability of recognizing literal identifiers in the patterns as if they were keywords. This is what the empty parenthesis are for. If you write (syntax-match (lit ...) clause ...) the identifiers listed in (lit ...) will be treated as literal identifiers in the macro scope. Literal identifiers can be used to enhance readability, or to define complex macros. For instance our for macro can be written without need for guarded patterns as: (def-syntax for (syntax-match (from to) (sub (for i from i0 to i1 action ...) #'(let loop ((i i0)) (unless (>= i i1) action ... (loop (+ i 1))))))) You can even introspect the literal identifiers recognized by syntax-match : > (for <literals>) (from to) Let me close this paragraph by suggesting an exercise in macrology. Try to implement a Python-like for loop working as in the following examples: > (for x in '(1 2 3) (display x)) 123 > (for (x y) in '((a b) (A B) (1 2)) (display x) (display y)) abAB12 Clearly it should work for a generic number of arguments and in should be treated as a literal identifier. I will give the solution in episode 12, so you will have some time to play. Have fun!

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About the Blogger

Michele Simionato started his career as a Theoretical Physicist, working in Italy, France and the U.S. He turned to programming in 2003; since then he has been working professionally as a Python developer and now he lives in Milan, Italy. Michele is well known in the Python community for his posts in the newsgroup(s), his articles and his Open Source libraries and recipes. His interests include object oriented programming, functional programming, and in general programming metodologies that enable us to manage the complexity of modern software developement.

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