After or while a compiler parses a program, the compiler usually translates the source code into a tree format called Abstract Syntax Tree, or AST for short.

The optimizer works on this program representation, and then the code generation stage turns it into a format that the platform underneath it can understand. Actually I wanted to write about the optimizer, but noticed that understanding the AST is crucial to understanding the optimizer, so let's talk about the AST first.

The Rakudo Perl 6 Compiler uses an AST format called QAST. QAST nodes derive from the common superclass QAST::Node , which sets up the basic structure of all QAST classes. Each QAST node has a list of child nodes, possibly a hash map for unstructured annotations, an attribute (confusingly) named node for storing the lower-level parse tree (which is used to extract line numbers and context), and a bit of extra infrastructure.

The most important node classes are the following:

QAST::Stmts A list of statements. Each child of the node is considered a separate statement. QAST::Op A single operation that usually maps to a primitive operation of the underlying platform, like adding two integers, or calling a routine. QAST::IVal, QAST::NVal, QAST::SVal Those hold integer, float ("numeric") and string constants respectively. QAST::WVal Holds a reference to a more complex object (for example a class) which is serialized separately. QAST::Block A list of statements that introduces a separate lexical scope. QAST::Var A variable QAST::Want A node that can evaluate to different child nodes, depending on the context it is compiled it.

To give you a bit of a feel of how those node types interact, I want to give a few examples of Perl 6 examples, and what AST they could produce. (It turns out that Perl 6 is quite a complex language under the hood, and usually produces a more complicated AST than the obvious one; I'll ignore that for now, in order to introduce you to the basics.)

Ops and Constants

The expression 23 + 42 could, in the simplest case, produce this AST:

QAST::Op.new( :op('add'), QAST::IVal.new(:value(23)), QAST::IVal.new(:value(42)), );

Here an QAST::Op encodes a primitive operation, an addition of two numbers. The :op argument specifies which operation to use. The child nodes are two constants, both of type QAST::IVal , which hold the operands of the low-level operation add .

Now the low-level add operation is not polymorphic, it always adds two floating-point values, and the result is a floating-point value again. Since the arguments are integers and not floating point values, they are automatically converted to float first. That's not the desired semantics for Perl 6; actually the operator + is implemented as a subroutine of name &infix:<+> , so the real generated code is closer to

QAST::Op.new( :op('call'), :name('&infix:<+>'), # name of the subroutine to call QAST::IVal.new(:value(23)), QAST::IVal.new(:value(42)), );

Variables and Blocks

Using a variable is as simple as writing QAST::Var.new(:name('name-of-the-variable')) , but it must be declared first. This is done with QAST::Var.new(:name('name-of-the-variable'), :decl('var'), :scope('lexical')) .

But there is a slight caveat: in Perl 6 a variable is always scoped to a block. So while you can't ordinarily mention a variable prior to its declaration, there are indirect ways to achieve that (lookup by name, and eval() , to name just two).

So in Rakudo there is a convention to create QAST::Block nodes with two QAST::Stmts children. The first holds all the declarations, and the second all the actual code. That way all the declaration always come before the rest of the code.

So my $x = 42; say $x compiles to roughly this:

QAST::Block.new( QAST::Stmts.new( QAST::Var.new(:name('$x'), :decl('var'), :scope('lexical')), ), QAST::Stmts.new( QAST::Op.new( :op('p6store'), QAST::Var.new(:name('$x')), QAST::IVal.new(:value(42)), ), QAST::Op.new( :op('call'), :name('&say'), QAST::Var.new(:name('$x')), ), ), );

Polymorphism and QAST::Want

Perl 6 distinguishes between native types and reference types. Native types are closer to the machine, and their type name is always lower case in Perl 6.

Integer literals are polymorphic in that they can be either a native int or a "boxed" reference type Int .

To model this in the AST, QAST::Want nodes can contain multiple child nodes. The compile-time context decides which of those is acutally used.

So the integer literal 42 actually produces not just a simple QAST::IVal node but rather this:

QAST::Want.new( QAST::WVal(Int.new(42)), 'Ii', QAST::Ival(42), )

(Note that Int.new(42) is just a nice notation to indicate a boxed integer object; it doesn't quite work like this in the code that translate Perl 6 source code into ASTs).

The first child of a QAST::Want node is the one used by default, if no other alternative matches. The comes a list where the elements with odd indexes are format specifications (here Ii for integers) and the elements at even-side indexes are the AST to use in that case.