2035-2075

The Very Large Hadron Collider is operational

By smashing particles together in high-energy collisions, it is possible to recreate the conditions in the earliest moments of the universe. The higher the energy, the further back in time researchers can simulate, and the more likely it is that exotic interactions will be observed.

The Large Hadron Collider (LHC) was built by the European Organisation for Nuclear Research (CERN) from 1998 until 2008. Described as "one of the great engineering milestones of mankind", it allowed physicists to test the predictions of different theories of particle physics and high-energy physics – and most importantly, to prove or disprove the existence of the long-theorised Higgs Boson, as well as the large family of new particles predicted by supersymmetric theories.

The Higgs was confirmed by data from the LHC in 2013, and in subsequent decades the LHC would continue to address many unsolved questions, improving knowledge of physical laws. An upgrade was completed in 2015, doubling its energy from 3.5 to 7 tera-electronvolts (7 TeV) per beam. A further performance boost in the 2020s increased the luminosity of the machine by a factor of 10 – providing a better chance to see rare processes and improving statistically marginal measurements.

The Very Large Hadron Collider (VLHC) is the successor to the Large Hadron Collider (LHC).* The detailed design and location choice were finalised in the mid-2020s, with construction taking a decade after that. With a tunnel measuring 60 miles (100 km), the VLHC is by far the largest particle accelerator ever built, dwarfing the LHC. Reaching from the Jura mountains in the west, to the Alps in the east, its diameter is so huge that it requires excavation under Lake Geneva. Its collision energy is over 50 tera-electronvolts (50 TeV) per beam, more than seven times that of its predecessor.*

The VLHC leads to a revolution in particle physics – vastly improving our knowledge of dark matter, dark energy, string theory and supersymmetry (the latter is a theory that suggests a second, "superpartner" may be coupled to each and every Higgs boson). New information is gleaned on the structure and nature of extra dimensions and how these influence the universe, giving credence to theories beyond the Standard Model.*

Longer term, the VLHC helps in the development of picotechnology enabling new applications at scales that are orders of magnitude smaller than nanotechnology.* Particle accelerators continue to grow in size and power, eventually becoming too large for Earth to support them and requiring space-based locations. By the middle of the 4th millennium, the very earliest moment of the Big Bang can be simulated, demonstrating a state known as the Grand Unification Energy, in which fundamental forces are united into a single force.*



Map of the Very Large Hadron Collider (VLHC) and its location compared to the Large Hadron Collider (LHC). Credit: CERN

2035-2045

The first definitive evidence of life beyond Earth

During this period, the number of confirmed exoplanets (i.e. planets around stars beyond our Solar System) begins to reach into the millions. The first exoplanet was announced in 1988 and a total of 50 had been catalogued by the year 2000. The rate of discovery began to accelerate dramatically following the launch of the Kepler Space Telescope in 2009, which uncovered thousands of new worlds, including 20 of two Earth sizes or less and in habitable zones. These were in addition to those found by ground-based observatories.

Many more planet-hunting missions would follow in the years and decades ahead. Each new generation of telescopes brought orders of magnitude improvements in sensitivity, resolution and computational abilities. Most of the earliest discoveries had been so-called "hot Jupiters" – gas giants in extremely close proximity to their parent star. In subsequent decades, however, much smaller candidates were capable of being identified and seen at greater distances in their systems. Eventually it was possible to determine the atmospheric compositions and even weather patterns on these unimaginably distant worlds, 10 billion times dimmer than the stars they orbited. By 2040, optics were so powerful that continent-sized features on terrestrial exoplanets were being directly imaged and mapped.*

Not only were these highly detailed scans emerging, vast numbers of them were being generated. Like many areas of technology, space observatories were advancing exponentially in terms of raw data. Moreover, their results were increasingly interpreted, not by humans, but by AI software algorithms – using new and ever more sophisticated methods to recognise patterns, avoid the "false positives" and spot the proverbial needle in the haystack.

Some of the criteria for evaluating candidate planetary biosignatures included the presence of liquid water, oxygen, complex organic molecules, the ratio of certain chemicals like hydrogen and methane, and changes in the surface or atmosphere that could not be explained by abiotic (non-living) processes. Based on these various observations and datasets, researchers could form categories for gaseous, surface, or temporal biosignatures. For example, oxygen might be detected in sufficient amounts to be the waste product of photosynthetic organisms, while an exoplanet's colour might give away the presence of vegetation pigments. Meanwhile, carbon dioxide (CO2) levels that varied in a way resembling Earth's Keeling curve* might also suggest a carbon cycle influenced by life.*

For many years, candidate planets had been observed with only one, or at most a few, of these biosignatures. Although interesting from a scientific and observational point of view, they lacked the weight of evidence required to prove the existence of life. During the late 2030s and early 2040s, however, the sheer volume of data being acquired by telescopes, combined with revolutionary new ways of analysing the results, leads to a profound discovery. The first definitive evidence of life beyond Earth is uncovered during this period** with high levels of confidence based on a large and varied body of mutually supporting research. While some are cautiously sceptical initially, the observations are verified over and over again, to leave most people in little doubt that something incredibly special and unique has been found.

The discovery of life on another world has enormous cultural impact, and even religious implications for many people. It is one of the biggest and most significant historical milestones of the 21st century, if not the millennium, reshaping the zeitgeist in numerous ways. One of the most obvious benefits is an immediate boost in support for space exploration funding, which helps in part to justify the crewed missions to Mars and the Moon that are coinciding around this time.

Earlier studies had attempted to constrain the parameters of the famous Drake Equation and these suggested that primitive life was relatively common in our region of the galaxy.*** Indeed, many more planets with life are found in subsequent years. Later in the 21st century, however, the rate of exoplanet discovery begins to slow as most of the "low hanging fruit" in our galactic neighbourhood has been catalogued. The remaining candidates are to be found primarily in the core regions and beyond. These are much harder to observe, due to the combined brightness and density of so many stars in the galactic centre.

2035-2040

The final collapse of the European Union

Rising global temperatures are beginning to markedly increase both the frequency and severity of climate disasters. Europe is now experiencing a wave of major political unrest, the already fragile alliance having split along north-south lines.*

Britain has withdrawn from the EU entirely, focussing on its own domestic ambitions that include self-sufficiency in food production. The EU has been reorganised as a "Northern Union" – which includes France, Benelux, Germany, the Scandinavian countries and Poland. This has now split away from the southern nations, closing its borders to them after struggling to contain a surge in migration.

The famine-stricken Mediterranean has been overrun by refugees from even harder-hit nations in North Africa. Many refugees have died attempting to cross the sea in makeshift boats. Russia, meanwhile, is benefiting from its new-found status as a food superpower.

Russia is a global food superpower

With a population inching towards 9 billion, the world now requires over 50% more food than it did at the beginning of the century.* At the same time, however, many regions are faced with peak phosphorous* and the effects of climate change which are beginning to accelerate.*

Africa's Sahel region – which transitions between the Sahara in the north and Sudanian Savannas in the south – is threatened by ever-worsening droughts and desertification. Indian and Southeast Asian crop yields, meanwhile, are being hit by increasingly violent and irregular monsoons. Pakistan is experiencing shortfalls of water due to receding snowcaps that are the main source of its rivers. Farms in South America, too, are being badly affected by ice loss. The once fertile plains of the American Midwest have been ravaged by dust-bowlification, while European nations in the Mediterranean are struggling with chronic drought.

A number of regions, however, are actually prospering at this time – these include Canada, Russia and Scandinavia. Melting permafrost and a retreating polar icecap have opened up vast tracts of land in the north. Russia is benefiting the most of all, now that seemingly endless stretches of arable land are appearing in Siberia. The country is taking full advantage of this, with areas being quickly bought up and divided for farms.



Credit: University Corporation for Atmospheric Research

In previous decades, genetic engineering was viewed with suspicion. In today's world of increasing food stress, nations are readily adopting this and other methods. Russia is no exception, with GM crops being widely used throughout the country. Vertical farms, too, are being deployed more rapidly in response to the warmer climate. Third-generation biofuels – such as genetically-engineered algae and halophyte plants – have also emerged. Aquaculture is being expanded all along Russia's northern coast, due to rapid warming and melting of the Arctic. Climate change is having another benefit here, since it is increasing the stock of herring, cod, capelin, and mackerel in the region, allowing the expansion of traditional wild-catch fishing. Changing currents and warming seas have resulted in a more north-eastward distribution of the fish stock located in the Barents Sea, at great benefit to the Russian exclusive economic zone. With the Barents Sea largely free of ice for many months,* production of cod alone has jumped by over 50%.*

Besides food, Russia is now also secure in terms of fresh water. With much of Brazil affected by chronic droughts, Russia along with Canada holds an increasingly large percentage of the world's available fresh water. Now that it is able to support itself, Russian food is in great demand, especially in Europe and Central Asia. Russia's influence on the world stage grows considerably during the 2030s.*

In light of the unfolding crisis in Europe, this constitutes a significant shift in power and resources, which inevitably results in friction with the other superpowers. One side effect of this, however, is the increasing flow of immigrants and refugees attracted by Russia's new-found abundance and wealth. Many are fleeing resource conflicts throughout Eurasia. Due to its sheer size, it is virtually impossible for Russia to fully close its borders. This is a particular issue with those fleeing the drought-stricken Tibetan Plateau of Western China.

As a result of all this, Russia's population has begun to stabilise, having recently undergone a decline. This trend is due to both domestic food security and the growing numbers of immigrants fleeing disasters at lower latitudes.

Swarm robotics are reaching the nanometre scale

Swarm robotics is a relatively new field, having emerged in the first decade of the 2000s. It is based on the idea of controlling very large numbers of robots simultaneously, in order to perform tasks that an individual machine would be unable to accomplish alone. This is achieved using a combination of miniaturised computers and locomotive systems, ultra-light materials, compact sensors and wireless technologies.

Early generations of these robots were comparatively large and bulky, lacking the necessary processing power to engage in any complex activities. Although capable of flight, they were mostly experimental, often bird-sized and relied on heavy components with poor battery life. The technology improved greatly in the 2010s, however, leading to a new era of spy drones the size of insects.** These could mimic the body structure, movements and behaviour of real insects.

Over the next two decades, further improvements in AI and remote guidance allowed these machines to operate in increasingly large and capable networks, while at the same time, electronic components were shrinking in size by two orders of magnitude per decade.**

Among their most important uses during this time was functioning as artificial pollinators in response to the collapse in honey bee populations.** They could also serve in other environmental roles, such as monitoring the atmosphere, land and water – including urban areas – with unprecedented speed and detail. These devices were also useful in search and rescue missions, helping to improve real-time data acquisition.

A more sinister application would be seen in military engagements. By 2030, the machines had been scaled down to match even the smallest known insect, less than 0.15 mm (0.0059") long.** Towards the end of this decade, they are so compact and miniaturised that some variants are now invisible to the naked eye. They can be manufactured in vast networks, numbering in the trillions and together resembling clouds of gas. This effectively is a form of programmable matter, with each "particle" being a robot capable of flight. Released from capsules dropped by UAVs, the swarms perform advanced reconnaissance, coordinate cyber attacks and invade bases – taking down human targets and even disabling large vehicles. Like termites, they use specialised appendages to chew through electronics and mess up defensive equipment, leaving enemies completely vulnerable. Even those in underground bunkers are not safe – the swarms dissolve all but the most heavily reinforced armour and can easily penetrate cracks, keyholes, air vents and the like.**

As well as their offensive abilities, nanobots can serve in defensive roles. Floating at low altitude, they can provide cover to advancing ground forces, acting as shields or "buffers" to incoming projectiles, somewhat like the barrage balloons of World War II. They can also coalesce to form temporary structures, like simple bridges to cross a river, stretchers to carry injured personnel, ropes and ladders, and so on.*



Adoption of military nanotech has accelerated in recent decades, as nations try to gain the edge in warfare.** Nanobot swarms are the latest and by far the most powerful step in this race. They are classified as weapons of mass destruction by the UN, placing them in the same category as nuclear, chemical and biological weapons. International treaties are subsequently signed, limiting their use. Safety mechanisms are also introduced in order to minimise the potential for adaption.* Self-replicating variants, for example, are flat-out banned, since these could consume the entire biosphere. Fears are growing of a potential terrorist attack (or "grey goo" incident).

Establishment of the first manned lunar bases

By the latter half of this decade, a number of government and private ventures have created a permanent human presence on the Moon.*** This marks a significant milestone during a period of accelerated development in space, which has seen major technological advancements and the increased commercialisation of space flight. Despite the upheaval being seen around the world as a result of climate change and other concerns, public participation via the proliferation of information technology and the promised resources of space have succeeded in renewing public interest in human exploration.**

Over the previous decade, a number of countries returned to the Moon, or entered the final stages of planning for the first time in half a century.* By the late 2020s and early 2030s, NASA and other agencies had built a station in lunar orbit. Subsequently constructed were a number of robotic platforms for remote surface exploration.** This was finally followed by the first crewed bases on the lunar surface in the mid-late 2030s. Construction was made easier and cheaper thanks to advanced 3D printing. This made it possible to forge new tools, spare parts and even components for entire buildings, using the lunar regolith as construction material.* The poles were the most favoured regions for settlement, having the twin advantages of both (a) permanently illuminated spots for near-continuous solar power, and (b) permanently shadowed craters known to contain water and other volatiles. This was a result of the Moon's axis of rotation.*

The Moon's South Pole. Permanently shadowed regions appear black. Locations with highest average illumination – highlighted pink – are distributed in a few clusters. The best-illuminated spot is near Shackleton crater, shown by the arrow. Credit: NASA/GSFC

Though much of this has resulted from international cooperation, it is also the long-term culmination of individual national space programs. Russia had been planning a lunar base since the early 2010s, for example.* Its success has been thanks in part to a series of heavy lift rockets developed in recent years. After landing its first man on the Moon at the beginning of the decade, Russia would go on to develop a base just a few years later.*

China, too, is now developing a base, following recent manned missions.* Unlike other efforts, China's space program is largely singular, without much international collaboration. This has led to questions about the political, military and other consequences of a Chinese lunar presence.*



Credit: ESA/Foster & Partners

NASA had contracted a number of private companies to research and develop habitation structures on the lunar surface, such as Bigelow Aerospace and its large inflatable modules. However, the agency itself is also playing a more active role now.* With completion of the first human mission to Mars,* there has been a renewed focus in recent years on lunar projects. Though a NASA base is not yet complete, crewed operations are underway at this time.* This is done in conjunction with both private and international government partners and utilises the infrastructure already present.

The participation of other countries – such as Japan, India, Iran and the nations of Europe – is largely limited to joint ventures. The cost of going to the Moon is still considerable and faces major economic and political barriers in many places. Though advances are being made, they are still a few years away from independent programs. India is making the greatest strides, largely thanks to the ongoing expansion of its economy and its emergence as a major world power.*



Credit: ESA/Foster & Partners

The RAF Typhoon is phased out and replaced by the Tempest

In 2035, a next-generation aircraft known as the Tempest enters service in Britain's Royal Air Force (RAF).* By 2040, it has superseded the aging Typhoon as the latter is phased out completely. The new fighter jet is developed and built by companies specialising in four key technology areas: advanced combat air systems and integration (BAE Systems); advanced power and propulsion systems (Rolls-Royce); advanced sensors, electronics and avionics (Leonardo) and advanced weapon systems (MBDA).

Capable of being used either with pilots, or as a drone, the Tempest includes "swarming" technology that uses AI and machine learning to hit its targets, combined with directed energy weapons (DEW) firing concentrated bursts of laser, microwave or particle beam energy to inflict damage.* It is the first British-designed jet to carry such weapons.* The outline and shape of the aircraft makes it difficult or impossible for enemies to detect by radar. It also features a "virtual" cockpit with VR/AR options, distributed multi-spectral sensors, resistance to cyberattacks, a flexible payload configuration and automated support/maintenance on the ground.

Click to enlarge



RAF Tempest, entering service in 2035. © Copyright BAE Systems

2035

Millennials are enjoying an inheritance boom

In earlier decades, the Baby Boomers (defined as those born between 1946 and 1964) were vilified by younger generations. In the post-War period they had inherited a host of societal benefits – such as lower education costs, cheaper healthcare, affordable homes, wage increases that matched productivity gains and so on. During the late 20th century, however, as the Boomers became the dominant part of the electorate, their voting patterns supported and gave rise to the neoliberal economics of Reagan, Thatcher, et al. Policies introduced by these and subsequent governments began to strip away and reverse much of what the Boomers had once enjoyed, passing the costs on to Generation X and the incoming Millennials.*

Following the economic crash of 2008 and ongoing stagnation across much of the West, it became clear that these younger generations would be faced with enormous debts, reduced social mobility, an environmental crisis and other problems. The very real prospect of being saddled with lower incomes and poorer living standards than their parents led Millennials, in particular, to accuse the Boomers of a selfish individualism and short-termism.

However, the Boomers would not be around forever. By 2020, their influence was diminishing* as many began to enter their final years. In addition to waning electoral power, the Boomers were passing on record sums of wealth to their offspring. In some countries, inheritance figures more than doubled between the 2010s and 2030s, reaching a peak by 2035.* This would help in offsetting the decline of living standards that the younger generations had experienced earlier. However, it leads to greater inequality within the Millennial cohort (not all of whom had parents with large sums of money or property), while for many it arrives too late to be used during their expensive child-rearing years that require a larger home.*

Lion populations in Africa have declined by half

Between 1990 and 2015, lion populations throughout many parts of Africa declined sharply. The reductions were especially alarming in West* and Central Africa. In two national parks, the Mole and Comoé – located in Ghana and the Ivory Coast, respectively – the animals were found to be extinct.

The main threats to lions were the spread of subsistence farming into woodlands, open plains and thick bush where lions hunted and bred. Being in close proximity to human settlements meant they were often killed in retaliation for attacks on livestock or humans. Alongside this, a thriving trade in bush meat was depleting the prey that lions depended on for survival. Trophy hunting was another problem, one notable example being the death of Cecil the lion, a major attraction at Hwange National Park in Zimbabwe, who was killed by a recreational big-game hunter.*

Having once been found in southeastern Europe and throughout much of the Middle East and India, lions had lost 85% of their historic range by 2015.* Conservation efforts were impeded due to most African nations lacking the money and resources that were needed – so inevitably, lion populations underwent further declines. By 2035, their numbers have halved again, with about 10,000 surviving mostly in southern parts of the continent, which has better wildlife protection measures and a lower density of humans.*

World tin reserves are running out

Tin is a silvery-white metal that is soft, ductile and malleable. Among the oldest metals known to mankind, it was discovered around 3000 BC during the bronze age, which is in fact named for an alloy of tin and copper. Its role in casting as an alloy created a valuable trade network that linked ancient civilisation for thousands of years.*

Tin does not occur naturally in pure form, so it must be extracted from other ores. Because of tin dioxide's high specific gravity, tin is often mined downstream of a primary deposit – along river banks, in valleys, or at the bottom of the ocean. Therefore, the most economical extraction methods are dredging, open-pit and hydraulic mining. Historically, the largest producers of tin have been China, Indonesia, Malaysia, Peru, Brazil and Bolivia.

Tin is primarily used in soldering, metal plating, a wide range of alloys, superconducting magnets and PVC plastics. As China and other emerging nations continue to demand resources beyond what the Earth can provide, tin is among the metals now in critical decline. By the mid-2030s, most of the large economically recoverable deposits have been completely exhausted.**

Local, individual and small-scale mines – not reporting their reserves in the manner of large mining corporations – have continued to supply the markets. Recent new discoveries in Columbia* have also provided some temporary relief to demand. However, an adequate long-term solution can only be found with a complete replacement for tin.* Recycling has increased sharply as the market trends away from mineral sources.

Distributed propulsion systems are revolutionising air travel

During this decade,** a number of national militaries and commercial aerospace firms are adopting turbo-electric distributed propulsion systems for their aircraft, replacing the more traditional wing-attached engines. This is a result of recent advances in materials science, cryogenic cooling systems, novel fuels, high fidelity computational fluid dynamics (CFD) and experimental tools. Along with hypersonic engines,* this technology is contributing to an ongoing revolution in aircraft design.

The basic concept of distributed propulsion is that the thrust-generating components of an aircraft are now fully integrated into the airframe of the vehicle. Instead of one or two large singular engines attached to the outside of the wing or fuselage, thrust is generated by a spanwise distribution of smaller engines or fans across the width of the wing. These are also more seamlessly merged into the body of the plane, offering major advantages in terms of aerodynamics and thrust. This is usually combined with a blended wing body design, creating a more streamlined, synergistic combination of all aircraft components.

Airflow around the plane is optimised – allowing for steeper climbs during take-off, greater degrees of control and manoeuvrability, higher bypass ratios and much greater fuel efficiency. In addition, the majority of these systems utilise electrical propulsion.* Advances in energy storage, as well as a new generation of ultra-lightweight superconductors, have finally paved the way for large-scale production of electric aircraft. These have the benefits of lighter weight, less maintenance, a noise reduction of up to 70 decibels and lower carbon footprints. Construction of these planes is also considerably cheaper in many cases.*

Self-driving vehicles dominate the roads

Accelerating breakthroughs in the fields of artificial intelligence, sensors and telecommunications have led to a new generation of self-driving cars. These vehicles are considerably safer and more reliable than previous models and now dominate the mainstream markets, particularly in developed nations.** Today, annual purchases of autonomous vehicles are nearing 100 million worldwide, representing almost 75% of all light-duty vehicle sales.* This compares with 60 million total light-duty vehicle sales in 2012, and is largely due to soaring populations and the rapid industrialisation of many countries.

Simpler versions of this technology were seen in the 2010s in the form of emergency braking systems,* connected vehicle networks,* self-parking and freeway cruising features. Now though, computing power and stronger AI mean that today's autonomous vehicles can outperform even the best human drivers. A combination of GPS, on-board sensors, traction and stability control, and adaptive cruise control allow a car to sense incoming objects from all directions, detect incoming crashes and impacts, predict the movements of other vehicles on the road, and adapt to changing road and weather conditions. Real-time updates are constantly received by the car's on-board computer, giving up-to-date information on traffic, allowing the vehicles to determine the optimal route to their intended destination.



Credit: GM

A number of hurdles had to be overcome in order to reach this point. One was the reluctance of automakers to take on responsibility for both the construction and operation of their vehicles. Another was the disruption autonomous vehicles posed to the insurance industry.* Shifting responsibility from driver to manufacturer added a whole series of complications to the legal and financial proceedings of potential accidents. Indeed, the early adoption period of self-driving cars was marked by a number of high-profile lawsuits and court hearings, often hyped up by media outlets. Alongside this were the ethical implications of putting the lives of passengers and pedestrians into the hands of a machine.

Despite these problems, the rapidly improving performance and inherent safety of these vehicles succeeded in boosting demand substantially. The efficiency offered by self-driving cars also helps to cut down on congestion and pollution. As well as improving road safety, most of these cars are now electric, or hybrid electric, reducing their CO2 impact.* These and other factors mean that by the middle of this century, the vast majority of cars on the road will be fully autonomous.*

Holographic recreations of dead people

Throughout this time many dead celebrities, presidents and historical figures from the past are "resurrected" via the immense AI and supercomputing powers now available. This phenomenon is aided by the recent human brain simulations that have been made possible. Data mining of every single word ever spoken, written, or otherwise recorded by the person is undertaken, then analysed to recreate their character traits and emotions. This allows the construction of a highly accurate "shell" personality, surrounding a generic "core" program, run as an entirely independent AI simulation.

The project sparks much controversy when first announced (especially among the religious community) but soon gains momentum, as a whole host of actors, musicians, artists, scientists, politicians and other individuals from the past are made available.* Advanced holographic techniques – combined with real-time audio-visual interaction – make them appear as lifelike as any other person alive in the world today.

This form of computerised resurrection is soon extended and made possible for ordinary citizens wishing to preserve a loved one in digital form; though once again, it is more popular among the non-religious (and the process is generally less accurate, since the average person tends to leave behind less data, written words, video recordings and other information for use in constructing the programs). The technology involved is also expensive. It is used mainly by the rich for now – or in certain public locations such as museums, galleries and other venues.

Robots are dominating the battlefield

Highly mobile, autonomous fighting machines are appearing on the battlefield now. Guided by AI, they can aim with inhuman precision* and come equipped with powerful sensors, GPS and thermal vision. They can be deployed for weeks or months at a time if necessary, without need for rest or maintenance. They have other advantages too – such as a complete lack of remorse or fear; no need for training or retirement payments or other such costs. However, debates are raging over the morality and ethics of these weapons systems.



Credit: Qinetiq

London's population exceeds 10 million

By 2035, the Greater London area has a population that exceeds 10 million people.* As humanity's first major "world city", the British capital had experienced phenomenal growth during the 19th and early 20th centuries, growing from 1.1 million people in 1800 to over six times that figure by 1900. London reached a peak in 1939 with over 8.6 million residents. This was followed by 50 years of decline after the ravages of the Blitz and World War II,* its population dropping to 6.4 million by 1990. In the early 21st century, the city saw a major resurgence and economic boom with vast amounts of immigration and construction activity. This continued in subsequent decades, London retaining its position as a leading centre of global finance, commerce, education, entertainment, fashion, media, research and development, tourism and travel.

It was not without problems, however, as growing demand placed ever greater pressure on public transport, housing, social services and other areas;* issues which had already caused residents considerable stress in earlier decades. To deal with its lack of space, the city was forced to build upwards, rather than outwards into the green belt. Having once been a traditionally low-rise city without much of a skyline, London had become more and more receptive to skyscrapers, with a relaxation of formerly protected views and planning regulations around historic buildings. As such, London by 2035 has a dramatic number of tall buildings in its urban core, but also around high density transport nodes in the outer boroughs. The ethnic diversity of the city has also expanded further. In 2015, just over 3.8 million of the 8.6 million residents (44%) were of black and minority ethnicity origin. This figure has increased to almost 50% by 2035. As a haven of economic, legal and political stability, London continues to attract people and draw talent from all around the world – its population will reach 11 million by 2050.*

Norway's underwater suspended tunnels are completed

A major feat of engineering is completed in Norway this year as the final in a series of submerged floating tunnels (SFT) is opened. This novel concept consists of parallel tubes measuring 1,200 m (4,000 ft) in length, each carrying two lanes of traffic across the Sognefjord – the largest and best known fjord in Norway and second longest in the world. Supported by their own buoyancy, the structures exploit the physics of hydrostatic thrust, or the Archimedes' principle. They are suspended at depths of 65 to 100 ft, below any possible contact with ships and withstanding any tidal movements or adverse weather effects.

The initial phase of this project became the first underwater suspended tunnel to be operational anywhere in the world.* In subsequent years, it was joined by several others in nearby regions, together costing a total of $25 billion. This project is designed to ease the congestion of local ferry services and to slash travel times between the north and south of the country. For example, a car journey of 21 hours from Kristiansand to Trondheim is reduced by more than half. Most of the vehicles on the nation's roads are self-driving by now, which helps to further improve road travel times. Being underwater and out of sight (as opposed to highly visible bridges over land) also means the scenic landscapes of each region can be preserved.



Credit: The Norwegian Public Roads Administration

The global airline fleet has doubled

By 2035, the number of commercial airplanes in service has doubled compared to 2015 – going from 22,500 to over 45,000 with a total worldwide value of nearly $6 trillion.* Most of this growth has come from smaller, single-aisle planes, stimulating demand for low-cost carriers and providing replacements for older, less-efficient planes. Perhaps unsurprisingly, airlines in the Asia Pacific region comprise the largest share of new orders (38%), followed by North America (21%), Europe (19%) and the Middle East (8%).

The customer base for airplanes has become increasingly diverse and globalised, thanks to emerging markets and new business models. In 1995, airlines in Europe and North America represented 64% of all traffic. By 2035, that share has fallen to 37%, with Asia Pacific and Middle Eastern airlines becoming far more prominent in global aviation.* Meanwhile, hypersonic travel is now possible on a number of routes, greatly reducing journey times and making the world feel smaller and more interconnected than ever before.

However, all regions still face the challenges of fuel-price volatility, emission controls, and ever-increasing airport and airspace congestion. Biofuels and other low or zero-carbon technologies – including solar power for short to medium haul flights* – are used for many more planes than in earlier decades, but still account for only a fraction of the total number. With air traffic growth outpacing efforts to reduce pollution, the aviation sector has become an increasingly significant contributor to global greenhouse gas emissions.