In the last five years, Russia has increased its underwater activity four to five times (Redstar.ru, November 8, 2017). Thirteen new Russian nuclear and conventional submarines have been commissioned since 2014 (24tv.ua, December 27, 2017). These vessels are capable of carrying out various offensive and multipurpose underwater missions, as well as to launch navy seals (special forces) for operations against enemy maritime infrastructure.

Yet, attack and multipurpose submarines should not be the only assets and capabilities counted in the context of Russian underwater operations. Moscow has also exerted great effort to develop naval assets for “hybrid” (New Type) underwater and seabed actions. These assets specifically combine civil and military, conventional and special, technological and operational capabilities. Among other missions and tasks, this allows such naval platforms to secretly tap undersea cable information streams as well as disable undersea communication lines, if needed. Such “dual use” assets directly fit Russia’s hybrid warfare doctrine, as they can conduct clandestine underwater operations under the cover of, for example, carrying out “oceanic research” or “search-and-rescue activities.” At least two types of such hybrid warfare maritime platforms are particularly worth pointing out in more detail.

The first are Russia’s so-called “nuclear deep-water stations,” which, in reality, are actually deep-water special operations submarines (DWSOS). These can be transported inside special nuclear submarine carrier vessels and furtively deployed to any ocean spot around the world to begin their long-term secret missions along the seabed. In recent years, Russia has commissioned or modernized Kalitka/Losharik-, Kashalot-, Paltus– and X-Ray-class DWSOSs (Oborona.ru, November 11, 2017). Perhaps the most capable of these is the Kalitka (also nicknamed the “Losharik”), commissioned in 2006. This sub is capable of diving down to 6,000 meters (20,000 feet) and can reportedly be used to destroy seabed infrastructure, primarily undersea communication lines (Topwar.ru, March 27, 2017). Moscow is increasing the number of DWSOS carriers in its fleet as well: the Delta IV–class special nuclear submarine Podmoskovye is conducting sea trial after its modernization. And the next generation of submarine-carriers is already undergoing refitment (Svobodnaya Pressa, August 12, 2015). All of the above-mentioned assets belong to 29th Special Purpose Submarine Brigade of the Russian North Fleet.

In addition to DWSOSs, the second major asset type for conducting underwater hybrid warfare are Russia’s so-called “oceanographic research vessels” (ORV) and “search-and-rescue vessels” (SRV). None of these surface ships carry anti-submarine warfare (ASW) weapons or cruise missiles on board, but their strategic intelligence-gathering capabilities against seabed targets should be taken seriously. Both types of ships belong to the Russian Ministry of Defense (MOD): ORVs to the MOD’s Main Directorate of Underwater Research, and SRVs to the Search and Rescue Service of the Russian Navy.