The National Advisory Commission on Civil Disorders in session in Washington in 1967. Known as The Kerner Commission, after the chair, Otto Kerner, seated at the head of the table, the group was convened by President Lyndon Johnson in the wake of the 1967 race riots. Fred Harris is the second person to the right of Kerner. Underwood Archives/Getty Images

“Our nation is moving toward two societies, one black, one white – separate and unequal.”

Fifty years ago, on March 1, 1968, these were the grim words of the National Advisory Commission on Civil Disorders, called the Kerner Commission after its chairman, Gov. Otto Kerner of Illinois.

President Lyndon Johnson had established the commission to examine the disorders and violent protests in Detroit, Newark and well over 100 other American cities during the summer of 1967, and earlier. What it found was searing. “What white Americans have never fully understood – but what the Negro can never forget – is that white society is deeply implicated in the ghetto,” the commission concluded. “White institutions created it, white institutions maintain it, and white society condones it.”

Mostly moderate and mostly white men, the members of the bipartisan panel carried the imprimatur of the political establishment. Their recommendations attracted widespread public debate. The paperback edition of the report sold over two million copies.

Occupied by the Vietnam War and concerned about the legacy of his Great Society domestic agenda, Johnson distanced himself from the “two societies” warning. But the Rev. Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. and Senator Robert Kennedy strongly endorsed the commission’s findings and recommendations before they were assassinated and before more protests erupted during that traumatic year of 1968.

The Kerner Commission recommended “massive and sustained” investments in jobs and education to reduce poverty, inequality and racial injustice. Have we made progress in the last 50 years?

A Return to Segregation

In many ways, things have gotten no better — or have gotten worse — since 1968. Public schools have been re-segregating for decades.

Progress, Then Backsliding Percentage of each region’s black students in schools with a student body that is more than 90 percent minority, 1968-2011. SEGREGATION INCREASED 78% 75 60 58 51 51 50 41 43 34 43 34 25 SOUTH BORDER STATES MIDWEST WEST NORTH- EAST 1968 ’11 ’68 ’11 ’68 ’11 ’68 ’11 ’68 ’11 Schools in the Northeast are now the most segregated overall. Not Just a Problem in the South The 10 most segregated states are mostly in the North. Percentage of each region’s black students in schools with a student body that is more than 90 percent minority, 2011-12. 1 65% NEW YORK 2 61 ILLINOIS 3 53 MARYLAND 4 50 MICHIGAN 5 48 NEW JERSEY 6 46 PENNSYLVANIA 7 45 MISSISSIPPI 8 45 CALIFORNIA 9 45 TENNESSEE 10 43 WISCONSIN Progress, Then Backsliding Percentage of each region’s black students in schools with a student body that is more than 90 percent minority, 1968-2011. SEGREGATION INCREASED Schools in the Northeast are now the most segregated overall. 78% 75 60 58 51 51 50 41 43 34 43 34 25 SOUTH BORDER STATES MIDWEST WEST NORTHEAST 1968 ’88 ’01 ’11 ’68 ’11 ’68 ’11 ’68 ’11 ’68 ’11 Not Just a Problem In the South 1 65% NEW YORK 2 61 ILLINOIS The 10 most segregated states are mostly in the North. Percentage of each region’s black students in schools with a student body that is more than 90 percent minority, 2011-12. 3 53 MARYLAND 4 50 MICHIGAN 5 48 NEW JERSEY 6 46 PENNSYLVANIA 7 45 MISSISSIPPI 8 45 CALIFORNIA 9 45 TENNESSEE 10 43 WISCONSIN Border states: Delaware, Kentucky, Maryland, Missouri, Oklahoma, West Virginia. Source: “Brown at 60,” University of California Civil Rights Project

Today the gap between poorer and richer American students in access to qualified teachers is among the highest in the world. Fewer African-Americans have access to majority-white (read: generally better financed) schools.

Progress Erased By another measure, segregation has returned to Kerner-era levels across the South. Percentage of all black students in the South who attended majority-white schools, 1968-2011. 44 40 30 23% 23 20 10 ’68 ’72 ’80 ’91 ’00 ’11 The 10 most segregated states in 2011-12, by the same measure, are scattered throughout the country. 1 8 CALIFORNIA 2 13 TEXAS 3 13 NEW YORK 4 14 MARYLAND 5 15 NEVADA 6 15 ILLINOIS 7 19 CONNECTICUT 8 20 GEORGIA 9 21 NEW JERSEY 10 21 FLORIDA Progress Erased By another measure, segregation has returned to Kerner-era levels across the South. Percentage of all black students in the South who attended majority-white schools, 1968-2011. 44 The 10 most segregated states in 2011-12, by the same measure, are scattered throughout the country. 40 1 8 CALIFORNIA 2 13 TEXAS 30 3 13 NEW YORK 4 14 MARYLAND 23% 23 5 15 NEVADA 20 6 15 ILLINOIS 7 19 CONNECTICUT 8 20 GEORGIA 10 9 21 NEW JERSEY ’68 ’72 ’80 ’91 ’00 ’11 10 21 FLORIDA Source: “Brown at 60,” University of California Civil Rights Project

We know why. One reason: When schools are released from court-mandated desegregation, that progress gradually is reversed.

When the Courts Step Away After being released from court oversight, this group of 159 school districts across the South wound up as segregated, on average, as they were before the mandates began. +20% For less than three years, segregation stabilized. +15 That small gain was soon wiped out; segregation eventually matched levels from decades prior. +10 PERCENT MORE SEGREGATED THAN IN YEAR OF RELEASE +5 PERCENT LESS SEGREGATED –5% 15 YEARS BEFORE 10 5 5 10 15 YEARS AFTER YEAR RELEASED When the Courts Step Away After being released from court oversight, this group of 159 school districts across the South wound up as segregated, on average, as they were before the mandates began. +20% +15 For less than three years, segregation stabilized. That small improvement was soon wiped out; segregation eventually matched levels from decades prior. +10 +5 PERCENT MORE SEGREGATED THAN IN YEAR OF RELEASE 0 PERCENT LESS SEGREGATED –5% 15 10 5 YEARS BEFORE 5 YEARS AFTER 10 15 YEAR RELEASED Source: Sean F. Reardon, Elena Tej Grewal, Demetra Kalogrides and Erica Greenberg in The Journal of Policy Analysis and Management

Inequality That Would Shock the Commission’s Members

The disheartening percentage of Americans living in extreme poverty — that is, living on less than half the poverty threshold — has increased since the 1970s. The overall poverty rate remains about the same today as it was 50 years ago; the total number of poor people has increased from over 25 million to well over 40 million, more than the population of California.

Meanwhile, the rich have profited at the expense of most working Americans. Today, the top 1 percent receive 52 percent of all new income. Rich people are healthier and live longer. They get a better education, which produces greater gains in income. And their greater economic power translates into greater political power.

Five Indicators America of the 1960s contrasted with the most recent available data. MEDIAN HOUSEHOLD INCOME MEDIAN HOUSEHOLD WEALTH HOME OWNERSHIP RATE UNEM- PLOYMENT RATE C.E.O.- WORKER PAY RATIO 171 7.5 Income, wealth figures in thousands of 2016 dollars. $160 80% 7% 300 TIMES 71 271 6.7 66 3.8 $80 $80 40 3.5 150 41 41 WHITE 3.2 65 48 48 40 28 17 BLACK 24 2 ’68 ’16 ’63 ’16 ’68 ’15 ’68 ’17 ’68 ’16 Five Indicators America of the 1960s contrasted with the most recent available data. MEDIAN HOUSEHOLD INCOME MEDIAN HOUSEHOLD WEALTH HOME OWNERSHIP RATE UNEMPLOYMENT RATE C.E.O.-WORKER PAY RATIO 171 7.5 All income and wealth figures in thousands of 2016 dollars. $160 80% 7% 300 TIMES 71 6.7 66 271 3.8 41 41 $80 $80 40 3.5 150 WHITE 3.2 65 48 48 40 17 28 BLACK 24 2 ’68 ’16 ’63 ’16 ’68 ’15 ’68 ’17 ’68 ’16 Source: Economic Policy Institute

The Tragedy of Mass Incarceration

At the time of the Kerner Commission, there were about 200,000 people behind bars. Today, there are about 1.4 million. “Zero tolerance” policing aimed at African-Americans and Latinos has failed, while our sentencing policies (for example, on crack versus powder cocaine) continue to racially discriminate. Mass incarceration has become a kind of housing policy for the poor.

2,000 Out of Proportion BLACK Incarcerations far outstrip reported violent crime rates, especially for African-Americans. 1,600 1,251 1,200 VIOLENT CRIMES per 100,000 people INCARCERATIONS per 100,000 people 800 800 400 400 376 WHITE 342 298 223 64 ’70s ’80s ’90s ’00s ’10s ’70s ’80s ’90s ’00s ’10s –35% Change in reported violent crimes from 1968 to 2014 and in incarceration rates from 1968 to 2016. MURDER RATE +26% VIOLENT CRIME RATE +248% WHITE INCARCERATION +266% BLACK INCARCERATION 2,000 BLACK Out of Proportion Incarcerations far outstrip reported violent crime rates, especially for African Americans. 1,600 1,200 1,251 MURDERS per 100,000 people VIOLENT CRIMES per 100,000 people INCARCERATIONS per 100,000 people 800 800 10 7 400 400 5 5 WHITE 376 342 298 223 64 MURDERS ’70s ’80s ’90s ’00s ’10s ’70s ’80s ’90s ’00s ’10s ’70s ’80s ’90s ’00s ’10s CHANGE, 1968–2014: CHANGE, 1968–2014: CHANGE, 1968–2016: –35% +26% +266% BLACK +248% WHITE 2,000 BLACK Out of Proportion Incarcerations far outstrip reported violent crime rates, especially for African-Americans. 1,600 1,200 1,251 MURDERS per 100,000 people VIOLENT CRIMES per 100,000 people INCARCERATIONS per 100,000 people 800 800 10 7 400 400 5 5 WHITE 376 342 298 223 64 MURDERS ’70s ’80s ’90s ’00s ’10s ’70s ’80s ’90s ’00s ’10s ’70s ’80s ’90s ’00s ’10s CHANGE, 1968–2014: CHANGE, 1968–2014: CHANGE, 1968–2016: –35% +26% +266% BLACK +248% WHITE Figures are rounded. Murder includes cases of nonnegligent manslaughter. Sources: Department of Justice (reported crime); The Sentencing Project (incarceration rates)

Fifty Years Later, We’ve Figured Out What Works

Policies based on ideology instead of evidence. Privatization and funding cuts instead of expanding effective programs.

We’re living with the human costs of these failed approaches. The Kerner ethos — “Everyone does better when everyone does better” — has been, for many decades, supplanted by its opposite: “You’re on your own.”

Today more people oppose the immorality of poverty and rising inequality, including middle-class Americans who realize their interests are much closer to Kerner priorities than to those of the very rich.

We have the experience and knowledge to scale up what works. Now we need the “new will” that the Kerner Commission concluded was equally important.

What Doesn’t Work What Does THE ECONOMIC PLAYING FIELD Reduced health care for workers and low-income Americans Insured health care through a single-payer system Small, grudging increases to minimum wage Substantial increases to minimum wage No new tax credits or child allowances Expansion of the Earned Income Tax Credit to reduce gaps in wealth and income Supply-side, trickle-down economics for the rich and corporations; enterprise zones with corporate tax breaks Demand-side, full-employment Keynesian economics for all Americans JOBS Unrestrained corporate globalization Globalization that prioritizes worker rights Fewer and weakened labor unions More labor union power No or minimal job training; “welfare reform” Job training tied to job creation and placement EDUCATION Racial segregation in schools, neighborhoods Racial integration Vouchers, choice and charter schools Investments in public school equity, quality teachers, early childhood education, community schools and other proven models HOUSING Subsidized housing that reaches only one-quarter of eligible low-income citizens Subsidized housing for all eligible citizens Continued neglect of fair-housing laws Rigorous enforcement of those laws THE JUSTICE SYSTEM Zero-tolerance policing; excessive use of force Community-based policing; partnerships with local nonprofit youth development groups Continued mass incarceration Alternatives to incarceration, especially for nonviolent offenders Lack of investment in proven ex-offender reintegration programs Funding and wide use of these programs What Doesn’t Work What Does THE ECONOMIC PLAYING FIELD Reduced health care for workers and low-income Americans Insured health care through a single-payer system Small, grudging increases to minimum wage Substantial increases to minimum wage No new tax credits or child allowances Expansion of the Earned Income Tax Credit to reduce gaps in wealth and income Supply-side, trickle-down economics for the rich and corporations; enterprise zones with corporate tax breaks Demand-side, full-employment Keynesian economics for all Americans JOBS Unrestrained corporate globalization Globalization that prioritizes worker rights Fewer and weakened labor unions More labor union power No or minimal job training; “welfare reform” Job training tied to job creation and placement EDUCATION Racial segregation in schools, neighborhoods Racial integration Vouchers, choice and charter schools Investments in public school equity, quality teachers, early childhood education, community schools and other proven models HOUSING Subsidized housing that reaches only one-quarter of eligible low-income citizens Subsidized housing for all eligible citizens Continued neglect of fair-housing laws Rigorous enforcement of those laws THE JUSTICE SYSTEM Zero-tolerance policing; excessive use of force Community-based policing; partnerships with local nonprofit youth development groups Continued mass incarceration Alternatives to incarceration, especially for nonviolent offenders Lack of investment in proven ex-offender reintegration programs Funding and wide use of these programs