I’ve seen a lot of misconceptions around what the unsafe keyword means for the utility and validity of Rust and its marketing as a “safe systems language”. The truth is a lot more complicated than a single pithy tweet can possibly sum up, unfortunately; here it is as I see it.

Basically, the unsafe keyword does not turn off the advanced type system that keeps Rust code honest. It only allows a few select “superpowers”, like dereferencing raw pointers. It is used to implement safe abstractions over a fundamentally unsafe world so that the majority of Rust code can use those abstractions and avoid memory unsafety.

The Promise of Safety

Rust promises safety as one of its core tenets; it is, in some ways, the raison d'être of the language. It does not, however, go about providing that safety in the traditional way, using a runtime and a garbage collector; rather, Rust uses a very advanced type system to keep track of which values are safe to access when, and the compiler then statically analyzes each Rust program to ensure that certain invariants are upheld.

Safety in Python

Let’s take, as an example, the Python programming language. Pure Python code cannot corrupt its memory. List accesses have bounds checking, references returned by functions are reference counted to prevent dangling pointers, and there’s no way to perform arbitrary pointer arithmetic.

This has two consequences: first, a lot of types have to be “special”. For example, it’s not possible to implement an efficient Python list or dict in pure Python; instead, the CPython interpreter implements lists and dicts internally. Second, access to external (non-Python-managed) functions, called “foreign function interface”, requires the use of the special ctypes module and breaks the language’s safety guarantees.

In a certain sense, this means that everything written in Python is memory unsafe.

Safety in Rust

Rust also provides safety, but instead of implementing unsafe structures in C, it provides a so-called “escape hatch”: the unsafe keyword. This means that the foundational data structures in Rust like Vec , VecDeque , BTreeMap , and String are all implemented using Rust.

“But Nora,” I hear you asking, “if Rust provides an escape hatch from its guarantees, and the standard library is implemented using that escape hatch, isn’t everything written in Rust unsafe?”

In a word, dear reader, yes - in exactly the same way that everything in Python is. Let’s dig into that.

What Is Prohibited in Safe Rust?

Safety, in Rust, is very well-defined; we think about it a lot. In essence, safe Rust programs cannot:

Dereference a pointer that does not point to the type the compiler thinks it points to. This means no null pointers (because they point to nothing), no memory-out-of-bounds and/or segmentation faults, and no buffer overflows, but it also means no use-after-free or double-free (because freeing memory counts as dereferencing a pointer), and no type punning.

This means no null pointers (because they point to nothing), no memory-out-of-bounds and/or segmentation faults, and no buffer overflows, but it also means no use-after-free or double-free (because freeing memory counts as dereferencing a pointer), and no type punning. Cause there to be either multiple mutable references or both mutable and immutable references to the same data at the same time. This is, if you have a mutable reference to some data, only you have that reference, and if you have an immutable reference to that data, it will not change while you hold that reference. This means it is impossible to cause a data race in safe Rust, which is a guarantee most other safe languages do not provide.

Rust encodes this information in the type system, either through the use of algebraic data types like Option<T> to encode presence/absence and Result<T, E> to encode failure/success, or references and lifetimes like &T vs &mut T to encode the difference between shared (immutable) and exclusive (mutable) references and &'a T versus &'b T to denote references that are valid in different contexts/frames. (These are usually elided; that is, the compiler is generally smart enough to figure them out.)

Examples

For example, the following code does not compile because it would cause a dangling reference; specifically, my_struct does not live long enough . In other words, the function would return a reference to something that no longer exists, and therefore the compiler won’t (and really, doesn’t know how to) compile it.

fn dangling_reference (v: & u64 ) -> & MyStruct { // Create a new value of type MyStruct with the value field set to v, // the function's one parameter. let my_struct = MyStruct { value: v }; // Return a reference to the local variable my_struct. return &my_struct; // my_struct is deallocated (popped off the stack, really). }

This code does the same thing, but tries to get around the problem by placing the value on the heap ( Box is Rust’s name for a basic smart pointer with no wacky behavior.)

fn dangling_heap_reference (v: & u64 ) -> & Box<MyStruct> { let my_struct = MyStruct { value: v }; // Put the struct in a Box, allocating space for it on the heap and moving it there. let my_box = Box::new(my_struct); // Return a reference to the local variable my_box. return &my_box; // my_box is popped off the stack. It "owns" my_struct and thus is responsible // deallocating it, so the MyStruct is deallocated. }

The correct code returns the Box<MyStruct> itself, rather than a reference to it. This encodes the transfer of ownership - responsibility for deallocation - in the type signature of the function. Just by looking at the signature, it’s clear the the caller is responsible for what happens to the Box<MyStruct> , and indeed, the compiler handles this automatically.

fn no_dangling_reference (v: & u64 ) -> Box<MyStruct> { let my_struct = MyStruct { value: v }; let my_box = Box::new(my_struct); // Return local variable my_box by value. return my_box; // Nothing is deallocated. The caller is now responsible for managing the heap memory // allocated in this function; it will almost certainly be deallocated automatically // when the `Box<MyStruct>` goes out of scope in the caller, barring a double-panic. }

Some bad things are not prohibited in safe Rust. For example, it is absolutely permissible, from the point of view of the compiler, to:

deadlock a program

leak an arbitrarily large amount of memory

fail to close file handles, database connections, or missile silo covers

A strength of the Rust ecosystem is that many projects take the approach of using the type system to enforce correctness to heart, but the compiler does not require such enforcement except for the case of memory safety.

What is Permitted in Unsafe Rust?

Unsafe Rust is Rust code annotated with the unsafe keyword. unsafe can be applied to a function or a block of code. When applied to a function, it means, “this function requires that its caller manually uphold variants otherwise upheld by the compiler”; when applied to a block of code, it means, “this block of code manually upholds variants required to prevent causing memory unsafety, and should therefore be permitted to do unsafe things”.

In other words, on a function, unsafe means “you need to check”, and on a block of code, it means “I checked”.

As mentioned in TRPL, code in a block annotated with the unsafe keyword can:

Dereference a raw pointer . This is the key “superpower” that lets us implement doubly-linked lists, hashmaps, and other fundamental data structures.

. This is the key “superpower” that lets us implement doubly-linked lists, hashmaps, and other fundamental data structures. Call an unsafe function or method . More discussion on this below.

. More discussion on this below. Access or modify a mutable static variable . Static variables whose scope is not controlled cannot be statically checked, so their use is inherently unsafe.

. Static variables whose scope is not controlled cannot be statically checked, so their use is inherently unsafe. Implement an unsafe trait. Unsafe traits are used to mark whether or not specific types guarantee certain invariants; for instance, the Send and Sync traits determine whether or not a type can be sent across a thread boundry or used in multiple threads at once.

Those dangling pointer examples I gave above? Annotate the functions with unsafe and you’ll just get the compiler complaining twice as much, because it doesn’t like the use of unsafe on code that doesn’t need it.

Instead, the unsafe keyword is used to implement safe abstractions over otherwise arbitrary manipulations of pointers. For example, the Vec type is implemented using unsafe , but it’s safe to use, since it checks accesses and doesn’t allow overflow, and while it does provide operations like set_len which could cause memory unsafety, those operations are all marked unsafe .

For example, we could do the same thing as the no_dangling_reference example with the gratuitous use of unsafe :

fn manual_heap_reference (v: u64 ) -> * mut MyStruct { let my_struct = MyStruct { value: v }; let my_box = Box::new(my_struct); // Convert the Box into a regular old pointer. let struct_pointer = Box::into_raw(my_box); return struct_pointer; // Nothing is dereferenced; this functions just returns a pointer. // The MyStruct remains where it is on the heap. }

Note the lack of unsafe; creating raw pointers is totally safe. As written, this is a memory leak risk, but nothing more, and leaking memory is safe. Calling the function is safe too; its only when something wants to dereference the pointer that unsafe is needed. As an added benefit, it will deallocate the memory automatically.

fn main () { let my_pointer = manual_heap_reference( 1337 ); let my_boxed_struct = unsafe { Box::from_raw(my_pointer) }; // Prints "Value: 1337". println!( "Value: {}" , my_boxed_struct.value); // my_boxed_struct goes out of scope. It now owns the memory on the heap, so it // deallocates the MyStruct. }

With optimizations, that code is exactly equivalent to just returning the Box in the first place. Box is a safe abstraction over the use of pointers, because it prevents spreading that raw pointer all over the place. For instance, the following version of main will result in a double-free.

fn main () { let my_pointer = manual_heap_reference( 1337 ); let my_boxed_struct_1 = unsafe { Box::from_raw(my_pointer) }; // DOUBLE FREE BUG! let my_boxed_struct_2 = unsafe { Box::from_raw(my_pointer) }; // Prints "Value: 1337", twice. println!( "Value: {}" , my_boxed_struct_1.value); println!( "Value: {}" , my_boxed_struct_2.value); // my_boxed_struct_2 goes out of scope. It owns the memory on the heap, so it // deallocates the MyStruct. // my_boxed_struct_1 then goes out of scope. It also owns the memory on the heap, // so it also deallocates the MyStruct. This is a double-free bug. }

Just What is a Safe Abstraction?

A safe abstraction is one that uses the type system to provide an API that cannot be used to violate the safety guarantees I mentioned above. Box is safer than *mut T because it cannot be used to produce the double-free just illustrated.

Another great example of this is Rust’s Rc type. It’s a reference counted pointer - a read-only reference to some data stored on the heap. Because it allows multiple simultaneous access to a single memory location, it must prevent mutation to be considered safe.

In addition, it’s marked as not thread-safe; if you want thread-safety, you have to use the Arc (Atomic Reference Counting) type, which takes a performance hit from using atomic values for its reference count to prevent the possibility of data races in multi- threaded environments.

The compiler will stop you from using Rc where you should use Arc , because the people who implemented Rc did not mark it as thread safe. If they had, that would be “unsound”: a false promise of safety.

When is Unsafe Rust Necessary?

Unsafe Rust is needed whenever performing an operation that might cause one of those two rules mentioned above to be violated. For example, in a doubly-linked list, not having two mutable references to the same data (from the node before and after a given node) defeats the whole purpose. With unsafe , the implementor of a doubly-linked list can write that code using *mut Node<T> pointers and then encapsulate it in a safe abstraction.

Another example is when working in the embedded space. Often, microcontrollers use a set of registers whose values are determined by the actual physical state of that device. The world won’t just pause for you when you take an &mut u8 of that register, so the device support crates need unsafe in order to work with them - but they generally strive to encapsulate that state in transparent safe wrappers that copy data when possible, or use other techniques to uphold the guarantees of the compiler.

It’s sometimes unavoidable to do an operation that might lead to simultaneous reading and writing, or memory unsafety, and that’s when unsafe is needed. But, so long as there is a way to ensure that the Rust safety invariants are checked before the user of safe (that is, non- unsafe -marked) code touches anything, that’s completely fine.

On Whose Shoulders Does It Fall?

So, we come back to the point I made above - yes, the Rust language’s utility is built on a foundation of unsafe code. Though it’s done in a slightly different way than the unsafe implementations of core data structures in Python, it’s just as true that the implemenation of Vec , HashMap , et cetera must use raw pointer manipulations at some level.

We say that safe Rust is safe with the fundamental assumption that unsafe code we use through dependencies, whether on the standard library or other library code, has been correctly written and encapsulated. The fundamental advance of Rust is that the code is corralled into unsafe blocks, which are supposed to be verified by their authors.

In Python, the burden of ensuring that raw memory manipulation is safe falls only on the interpreter maintainers and the users of the foreign function interface. In C, that burden is on every single programmer.

In Rust, the burden falls on the user of the unsafe keyword. It’s clear, within the code, where variants need to be manually upheld, and it is common to strive for zero unsafe code anywhere in a library or application’s codebase. The unsafety is identified, segregated, and clearly marked, so if your Rust code segfaults, you have discovered either a bug in the compiler or a bug in your few lines of unsafe code.

It’s not a perfect system, but if what you need is the trifecta of speed, safety, and concurrency, it’s the only option out there.