How Music Molds Our Thinking

We’ve all heard the adage “you are what you eat”. We’ve known for some time that the foods and nutrients we eat have a profound impact on our bodies and physical health. But did you know that our minds, like our bodies, have also evolved to require a fuel source? That fuel is called music. And it has a profound effect on our emotions, minds, and health.

In this article I will describe how you can be a more informed consumer when deciding what kind of music to listen to.

Pentatonic vs Heptatonic Music

The two most commonly used music systems are:

pentatonic and heptatonic.

Don’t be put off by the technical jargon – they’re actually quite simple. “Pentatonic” simply means “made of 5 tones.” If you were to sit down at the piano and play only the black keys, you would be playing pentatonic music. This is the prevailing type of music in many Asian countries.

As an example, here’s a Chinese work called The Misty Rain of Jiangnan.

“Heptatonic”, as you might have figured out already, means “made of 7 tones.” This kind of music corresponds to the music made on the white keys of the piano. It is common for Western countries. A good example is Verdi’s Dies Irae.

Although pentatonic tunes can be found in some Western folk cultures, such as Scottish and Hungarian, they are usually performed with an extra 2 (or even more) notes in the accompaniment to the melody. Listen to the orchestra in the background of Julie Andrews’ singing Auld Lang Syne.

You might think, what’s the big deal about these 2 notes?

As it turns out, both, 5-tone and 7-tone systems, form completely different tonal orders – anytime an entire musical composition is made out of them.

The two notes that pentatonic music omits make a whole assortment of chords and intervals (the combinations of tones) that have no place in pentatonic music. As a result, pentatonic music excludes dissonant (harsh sounding) combinations. Pretty much any mix of pentatonic notes sounds pleasing to the ear.[1] Pentatonic music is essentially consonant (nice sounding). And this is to a much greater degree than heptatonic music.[2]

Constant consonance transpires into overall calmness.

Dissonance greatly contributes to the expression in heptatonic music. It is common for dissonant progressions of tones to build up in order to provide greater contrast whenever consonant tones return.[3] Heptatonic music allows for even more than 7 tones. In that case, the amount of possible dissonant combinations further increases, generating even more tension.

In music, heptatonic listeners look for alternation between tension and relaxation. Pentatonic listeners overall do not like tension and prefer continual harmonicity.[4]

Such preferences have pronounced effect on the culture and attitudes within a society to which the listeners belong.

How a Music System Drives Social Attitudes

Long-term consumption of pentatonic music could explain the prevalent mentality, widespread in the East, characterized by:

adaptive attitude (adjusting oneself to the environment),

compliance to the norm,

appreciation of stability, and

avoidance of confrontation.[5]

Confucian view on music, so popular in the Far East amongst the listeners of pentatonic music, holds musical harmony paramount for promotion of social harmony by means of ritual.

This is how pentatonic music becomes associated with adherence to tradition and authority of the past.

Heptatonic music, in contrary, is associated with:

constructive attitude (adjusting the environment to one’s needs),

competitiveness,

appreciation of change (diversity), and

innovation.

Since Ancient Greek times, Western musicians participated in musical contests where they competed in inventiveness of musical expression.[6] Starting from the Renaissance, musicians engaged in an ongoing direct competition. Their music, too, catered to consumers who themselves were traders in a competitive marketplace.[7] Inspiring a sense of action and power became a sought-after feature in music.

As a result, by the late 18th century, the profession of a musician in the West became highly demanding and technical.[8] So was the consumption of music. It required listeners to continually expand their comprehension skills in order to appreciate the originality of the musicians.

Western heptatonic music has developed a performance format that highlights supremacy and uniqueness. Performer is placed on stage, above the audience[9] that is supposed to judge his originality and proficiency.[10] Attending such an event is meant to elevate the listener, and inspire him to pursue excellence in his own endeavors.[11]

On the other hand, Eastern pentatonic music did not develop anything close to this in scale. The largest public opera performances in China occurred in teahouses.[12] Such music was appreciated primarily for its adherence to tradition rather than the originality of performance.[13]

There were attempts to explain the West/East cultural differences by the difference in reading and writing in alphabetic versus phonographic writing systems.[14] But music is a more likely the underlying cause. Introduction of pentatonic and heptatonic music (at least 7,000 BC)[15] long preceded the origin of literacy - even if to compare it with the oldest writing systems of Mesopotamia (3,200 BC) and China (1,200 BC).[16]

The choice of a music system must have determined the choice for the method of writing.

People accustomed to heptatonic music came up with signs that represented the smallest elements of speech: phoneme. Breaking continuous speech into such elements required constant analytic effort on the part of the listener, as well as the writer. They both had to decide, what phoneme to use, where one word ended, and another started, etc.. This made the processing of alphabetic language very dynamic - like heptatonic music – all bound by contrasts .

. People accustomed to pentatonic music found it more suitable to represent speech by signs that each signified a syllable, or a word – a more holistic approach that demanded no analytical skills, but good memory. If English speaking users have to remember only 26 signs, Chinese speaking users need to remember at least 3,000 logograms in order to be functionally literate.[17] Processing logograms does not require one to continually keep making syntactic decisions – in that sense, it is inherently simpler and more static than the alphabetic processing. And this corresponds to static nature of pentatonic music – bound by similarities.

Remarkably, dynamic/competitive and static/compliant cultural dispositions project into the course of political history. The overall dominance of the West should be seen as a consequence of the prevailing attitude of looking for better and more efficient solutions without regards to tradition:

innovation gives advantage in technology, and

technology brings political advantage.

Heptatonic music might very well have inspired and strengthened this prominent feature of Western culture.

Pentatonic music, in contrary, could have promoted submission to a politically imposed ruling. Revolutions have played noticeably smaller role in Asian history than in European history.[18]

In his seminal book, “The Archaeomusicology of the Ancient Near East,” Richard Dumbrill provides evidence that during 3rd-2nd millennia BC the Mesopotamian, and probably Egyptian, music systems switched from pentatonic to heptatonic organization. This change closely concurred with the rise of science, math and literacy.

Interestingly enough, the first document of heptatonic music – the Hurrian Hymn No.6 (14th century BC) – and the first documentation of the tuning which it used (19th century BC) concurred with the first Proto-Sinaitic alphabetic inscriptions and predated the oldest verified alphabet: Phoenician (c.12th century BC). The Hurrian hymns themselves parallel an alphabetic language - Ugaritic: the literary texts inscribed in this Semitic language were found in the same city where the clay tablets with Hurrian hymns were excavated.

On another pole, the occasional use of pure pentatonic music in Western tradition seems to have been waning after the industrial revolution, limited to few specific areas, such as religious music – what follows from the big overview “Pentatonicism from the Eighteenth Century to Debussy” by Jeremy Day-O’Connell. The vector of historic development for Western tradition appears to direct from socialism and irrationalism of thought, concurring with pentatonic beginnings, toward individualism and rationalism, concurring with the heptatonic end.

Chinese musical history presented the reverse picture – until the 1990s. Its early discovery of hemitonic music (the music that uses semitones, such as between B and C) in Jiahu 6,600 BC concurred with such high achievements as earliest domestication of rice and beginnings of proto-writing. Chinese music theorists knew about the heptatonic scale as the "seven beginnings" (qishi) from prehistoric times, but chose to focus on just the first five of them – adhering to their "five elements" dialectics.

It is noteworthy that as long as Chinese policies permitted practice of heptatonic music, China maintained its technological lead. But after the State authorities adopted the Confucianist rejection of heptatonic music as immoral, and put into law,[19] Chinese technology gradually went into recession[20], and China eventually lost its economic advantage.[21]

According to “Music and the Power of Sound: The Influence of Tuning and Interval on Consciousness“ by Alain Daniélou, the earliest documentation of the idea of tonal restraint in sake of greater concordance and peacefulness, seems to be the book 昭公,'Duke Zhao'. It describes the consultation of the Marquis of Jin by the physician He in 541 BC, when He explained his patient’s illness by immoderation - equating sexual indulgence with lack of regulation of music by means of the “five regular intervals”:

“Thus the superior man does not listen to music where the hands work on with licentious notes, pleasing the ears but injurious to the mind, where the rules of equable harmony are forgotten. So it is with all things. When they come to this, they should stop; if they do not do so, it produces disease.”

Basically all Chinese treatises on music written afterwards stick to the doctrine of pentatonic regulation.

Only after opening its doors to Western heptatonic music, did China regain its economic power[22], along with growth in creativity and giftedness amongst its younger population.[23] East Asian governments, even as conservative as China, started investing into programs of development of innovation in their youth.[24] And teaching Western heptatonic music plays a big part in such programs. Some of the most economically successful countries, such as Japan, feature exclusively Western system of general music education. The attraction to Western music in favor of traditional pentatonic culture seems to come from the students themselves, who see Western music as expression of progressivism as opposed to conservatism of their local traditions.[25]

Association of Western music with modernity versus affiliation of traditional Chinese music with orthodoxy became a cultural stereotype in China, especially towards the end of the XX century. And here pitch acted as the major cultural attractor: keyboard instruments have made the greatest impression on Chinese by their obvious greater complexity and advantage in the range of available pitches as compared to any of the Chinese traditional instruments.[26] Piano tops the list of musical instruments that Chinese youth wants to learn to play – second only to recorder[27] (which is obviously more portable and affordable).

Not only more pitches, provided by the heptatonic versus pentatonic system, but more available modes became an important issue. In simple terms, “musical mode” is a set of pitches reserved for a musical composition. Obviously, a set of 7 tones produces more combinations than a set of 5. Even more so, if to take into consideration the opportunity to alter one or more of the 7 tones, commonly done in heptatonic music.

Moreover, the pitch aspect of music is known to direct the emotional interpretation of melody: thus, distortion of melody in pitch has shown greater influence on listener’s emotional judgment on music than distortion of rhythm.[28] For Eastern listeners this importance is even greater, since their traditional music lacks sophisticated multi-part textures, so typical for Western music.[29] Subsequently, a single melodic line stands out much more in its expressive contribution to music. Experimental studies confirm that modifying a mode in otherwise the same tune (changing the set of tones, while keeping the direction of the melody and its rhythm) causes change in emotional impression from the music in Japanese listeners.[30] Similarly, they respond to the expression of Western heptatonic music. It seems that over time “Western tonality” has changed the “ears” of the Japanese and promoted different psychological states, peculiar to Western music, appealing to the listener on an individual level.[31]

The transition from traditional “conservative” and “socialistic” pentatony to “progressive” and “individualistic” heptatony has occurred very much along the lines defined by the theorists of Chinese music. Confucius himself was credited to authorize pentatonic music as simple yet integrative harmony that sets the model for a family and a state – establishing the tradition of holding “pitch control” as a fundamental activity of the state.[32] During the Jin dynasty (3-4th centuries AD) heptatonic scales apparently gained popularity, and became related to light music.[33] As Confucianism, supported by state from times of Han dynasty, was gaining increasingly more control over state policies, the heptatonic scales became associated with suyue - the vulgar entertainment - and foreign influences, incompatible with Confucian aesthetic principles.[34] No wonder that for the late XX century Chinese, heptatonic music turned into a symbol of individual freedom and creativity – although perhaps at some subconscious level, but certainly so. The “sameness“ of pentatonic melody that keeps moderately moving without tension, regulated by strict rules,[35] seems to have earned an unattractive appeal amongst younger population of modern day East Asia.

Of course, there are many other factors in play here. It is not that mere listening to heptatonic music that inspires a Chinese youngster to dash to the Tiananmen Square. However, the propensity of heptatonic music to accumulate tension and then resolve it - as opposed to the propensity of pentatonic music to dissipate tension - must be an important feature that contributes to social impact of music. Music is inherently social. Its power to convey emotions has been serving humanity to adjust the emotional state of an individual to that of the social group, mediating their optimal interaction. Tonal organization of music is a likely candidate to keep reinforcing one’s mind to think according to the cognitive model that is prevalent in society in which he lives.

The Rise of the Two Major Music Systems

Now that we see how influential these two music system are, let’s take a look at where they both came from.

They both grew out of music systems that preceded them. Some of these systems went into oblivion, while others still survive in certain cultures. Their timeline can be estimated by putting together the findings from ethnomusicology, sociology of music, archeology, and psychoacoustics – as outlined in my paper “Evolution of tonal organization in music mirrors symbolic representation of perceptual reality. Part-1: Prehistoric.”

The music of ethnicities that retained a lifestyle similar to that of prehistoric people, such as those living in isolation at the Extreme North, provide clues to how Stone Age music might have sounded.[36]

It seems that tonal organization (the tones used to make up a music system) has evolved in order to best direct and condition peoples’ thought processes within a social group - in a way that is optimal for that group’s survival.

For example, when navigational skill in a snowy tundra was imperative for survival, tundra hunters such as the Nganasans developed a peculiar method of topographic orientation that does not rely on definite landmarks.[37]

Nganasan musical system has a similar feature, with its tonal organization lacking definite pitch (akin to lacking “landmarks”) that instead relies on the ordering of indefinite pitch. Listen to this example of Nganasan music.

Life in a different environment brings about a different tonal organization. Thus, maintaining a large-scale agricultural farm depends on irrigation, technology, and observation of calendar – all involving distinction between a multitude of abstract concepts arranged in complex relations.

Respectively, music that is practiced in such an environment obtains definite pitch and turns towards sophisticated pentatonic or heptatonic order.

Tonal organization in music influences behavioral organization in its listeners notwithstanding the listener’s interpretation. This influence seems to occur semi-automatically, without a conscious comprehension of musical structures.[38]

Furthermore, the collective nature of musical experience promotes uniformity of mental and emotional responses to music between the members of the same social group.[39] As a result, the typology of tonal organization effectively converts into the typology of behavior.

In this light, it appears that repressive political regimes, such as Stalin’s and Hitler’s, indeed had reason to exercise musical censorship! No wonder - music plays a cardinal role in emotionally influencing people. We know it from marketing,[40] as well as music therapy that has proved to be effective in the treatment of numerous serious diseases.[41]

Listening to specific types of music has not only the power to alter and direct our behavior, but to establish new ones by rewiring the neurons in our brain.[42]

Pop Music: The Fusion of Music Systems

In our ever-growing globalized world, the lines between the once distinct musical systems have become more and more blurred. Western popular music has blended a number of different types of music. Starting from blues, it kept combining pentatonic melody with heptatonic chords.[43]

In such music melodic pentatonic structures serve to disperse the tension generated by intense rhythmic syncopation, dissonant chords, and unstable harmonic progressions in the accompaniment. As a result the music simultaneously stimulates and relaxes. The tension becomes obscured in the musical texture and does not allow to produce long-lasting climaxes, so typical for Western classical music. The pentatonic melody works like a ventilation system - releasing harmonic tension, and generating the “cool” feeling.

Let’s have a listen to Let the Good Times Roll. Note how the melody is pentatonic, and the orchestra (accompaniment) is heptatonic.

And what a surprise! As blues was laying the ground for the development of popular music, the popular mentality also began to go through important changes. After the mid 20th century the idea of integrating Western rationality with Eastern wisdom started to attract a large following.[44]

In fact, the unstoppable spread of Western popular music across the borders of even the most anti-Western states could very well be explained by the cognitive advantages of listening to hybrid tonal organization.

Of course, the term “Western popular music” is an umbrella term. In reality, there are styles that lean more towards pentatonic – like rock, especially hard rock,[45] and those that are more heptatonic – like jazz.[46] Some styles, like rap, lean towards neither. Instead, they stay closer to the earlier types of music systems, which primarily used indefinite pitch (as in talking). Certainly, this is not to consider the common practice of looping pre-recorded material in rap (that often uses heptatonic music).

Making Smart Musical Choices

So, we can see how powerful our musical preference can be in shaping our minds and emotions! Exercising an educated choice of music could make a difference in our lives, especially in the long run.

If you feel that you are too nervous or anxious, a purely pentatonic music might be the answer for you. If you are looking for motivation in taking challenges, then a purely heptatonic music seems to fit the bill. If you feel overall balanced, go ahead and listen to one or another kind of popular music whose share of pentatonic or heptatonic content best suits your interest of that moment.

It’s a given that tonal organization is not the only thing that makes an impact on the listener. A pentatonic piece of music can be vigorous, while a heptatonic piece can be dreamy. The kind of melody, rhythm, and harmony, used in a music piece, each contributes to music’s expression.

However, the tonal material underlies all. The choice of tones out of which the music is made directs the expression of the entire music piece towards this or that attitude towards life. This is like how the choice of food ingredients determines the taste of the dish that is to be cooked.

The influence of tonal organization goes beyond feelings such as “sad” or “happy.” It is more like signing up for a particular philosophy of life.

Just as the organic health food movement has encouraged us to be watchful stewards of our health, we should also be very careful with what we feed our minds.

Not only that “you are what you eat”, but in fact, “you are what you listen to”.

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Aleksey Nikolsky is an independent researcher and composer, who lives in Los Angeles and runs his own business in developing programs of early children cognitive and emotional education based on the use of music.

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[6] Christesen, Paul, and Donald G. Kyle. 2013. A Companion to Sport and Spectacle in Greek and Roman Antiquity. Vol. 8. John Wiley & Sons.

[7] Cowen, Tyler. 2009. In Praise of Commercial Culture. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

[8] Scherer, Frederic M. 2004. Quarter Notes and Bank Notes: The Economics of Music Composition in the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries. Princeton, NY: Princeton University Press.

[9] Spitzer, John, and Neal Zaslaw. 2004. The Birth of the Orchestra: History of an Institution, 1650-1815. Oxford, UK: OUP Oxford.

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[15] Zhang, Juzhong, Xinghua Xiao, and Yun Kuen Lee. 2004. “The Early Development of Music. Analysis of the Jiahu Bone Flutes.” Antiquity 302 (78, April): 769–78

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[19] Furniss, Ingrid. 2009. “Unearthing China’s Informal Musicians: An Archaeological and Textual Study of the Shang to Tang Periods.” Edited by Don Niles and Arnd Adje Both. Yearbook for Traditional Music 41. Ljubljana, Slovenia: International Council for Traditional Music: 23–41.

[20] Adshead, Samuel Adrian. 2004. T’ang China: The Rise of the East in World History. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.

[21] Persson, Karl Gunnar. 2010. An Economic History of Europe: Knowledge, Institutions and Growth, 600 to the Present. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, p.21-29

[22] Kraus, Richard Curt. 1989. Pianos and Politics in China: Middle-Class Ambitions and the Struggle over Western Music. Oxford; New York: Oxford University Press.

[23] Qian, Haifeng. 2008. “Talent, Creativity and Regional Economic Performance: The Case of China.” The Annals of Regional Science 45 (1): 133–56. doi:10.1007/s00168-008-0282-3.

[24] Xiang, Hardy Yong, and Patricia Ann Walker. 2014. China Cultural and Creative Industries Reports 2013. Berlin: Springer.

[25] Ho, Wai-chung. 2011. School Music Education and Social Change in Mainland China, Hong Kong and Taiwan. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, p. 95.

[26] Melvin, Sheila, and Jindong Cai. 2004. Rhapsody in Red: How Western Classical Music Became Chinese. New York: Algora Publishing. p.301.

[27] Ho, Wai-chung. 2011. School Music Education and Social Change in Mainland China, Hong Kong and Taiwan. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, p. 95,160, 170.

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[31] Tokita, a. 2012. “Bi-Musicality in Modern Japanese Culture.” International Journal of Bilingualism 18 (2): 159–74. doi:10.1177/1367006912458394.

[32] Yung, Bell, and Evelyn Sakakida Rawski. 1996. Harmony and Counterpoint: Ritual Music in Chinese Context. Stanford University Press, p. 162.

[33] Goodman, Howard, and Edmund Lien. 2009. “A Third Century AD Chinese System of Di-Flute Temperament: Matching Ancient Pitch-Standards and Confronting Modal Practice.” The Galpin Society Journal 62: 3–24.

[34] Furniss, Ingrid. 2009. “Unearthing China’s Informal Musicians: An Archaeological and Textual Study of the Shang to Tang Periods.” Edited by Don Niles and Arnd Adje Both. Yearbook for Traditional Music 41. Ljubljana, Slovenia: International Council for Traditional Music: 23–41.

[35] Thrasher, Alan R. 1981. “The Sociology of Chinese Music: An Introduction.” Asian Music 12 (2): 17–53. doi:10.2307/834055.

[36] Both, Arnd Adje. 2009. “Music Archaeology: Some Methodological and Theoretical Considerations.” Edited by Don Niles and Arnd Adje Both. Yearbook for Traditional Music 41. Ljubljana, Slovenia: International Council for Traditional Music: 1–11. www.jstor.org/stable/25735475.

[37] Goncharov, Oleg, and Yuri Tiapovkin. 2012. “Cultural and Environmental Factors in the Perception of Perspective Among Indigenous Tundra Inhabitants.” Journal of Russian and East European Psychology 50 (5): 65–86. doi:10.2753/RPO1061-0405500504.

[38] Bidelman, Gavin M., and Jeremy Grall. 2014. “Functional Organization for Musical Consonance and Tonal Pitch Hierarchy in Human Auditory Cortex.” NeuroImage 101 (November). Elsevier Inc.: 204–14. doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2014.07.005.

[39] Tarr, Bronwyn, Jacques Launay, and Robin Dunbar. 2014. “Music and Social Bonding: ‘Self-Other’ Merging and Neurohormonal Mechanisms.” Frontiers in Psychology 5 (January): 1096. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2014.01096.

[40] Hultén, Bertil; Broweus, Niklas & Marcus van Dijk (2009) – Sensory Marketing. Palgrave Macmillan, Hampshire UK, p. 4-5 & 68

[41] Music as Medicine: The History of Music Therapy Since Antiquity. 2000. Aldershot, Hampshire: Ashgate.

[42] Begley, Sharon. "The Brain: How The Brain Rewires Itself." Time Magazine(2007).

[43] Hatch, David, and Stephen Millward. 1987. From Blues to Rock: An Analytical History of Pop Music. Manchester, UK: Manchester University Press, p.190.

[44] Weick, Karl E., and Ted Putnam. 2006. “Organizing for Mindfulness: Eastern Wisdom and Western Knowledge.” Journal of Management Inquiry 15 (3): 275–87.

[45] Biamonte, Nicole. 2010. “Triadic Modal and Pentatonic Patterns in Rock Music.” Music Theory Spectrum 32 (2): 95–110.

[46] Broze, Yuri, and Daniel Shanahan. 2013. “Diachronic Changes in Jazz Harmony: A Cognitive Perspective.” Music Perception 31. doi:10.1525/MP.2013.31.1.32.