Almost everyone struggles to act in their individual and collective best interests, particularly when doing so requires forgoing a more immediately enjoyable alternative. Other than exhorting decision makers to “do the right thing,” what can policymakers do to reduce overeating, undersaving, procrastination, and other self-defeating behaviors that feel good now but generate larger delayed costs? In this review, we synthesize contemporary research on approaches to reducing failures of self-control. We distinguish between self-deployed and other-deployed strategies and, in addition, between situational and cognitive intervention targets. Collectively, the evidence from both psychological science and economics recommends psychologically informed policies for reducing failures of self-control.

References

Abadie, A., Gay, S. ( 2006 ). The impact of presumed consent legislation on cadaveric organ donation: A cross-country study . Journal of Health Economics, 25, 599 – 620 . doi:10.1016/j.jhealeco.2006.01.003

Google Scholar Medline | ISI

Adams, P., Guttman-Kenney, B., Hayes, L., Hunt, S., Laibson, D., Stewart, N. ( 2018 ). The semblance of success in nudging consumers to pay down credit card debt (Occasional Paper 45). London, England : Financial Conduct Authority . Retrieved from https://www.fca.org.uk/publication/occasional-papers/occasional-paper-45.pdf

Google Scholar

Adriaanse, M. A., Oettingen, G., Gollwitzer, P. M., Hennes, E. P., de Ridder, D. T. D., de Wit, J. B. F. ( 2010 ). When planning is not enough: Fighting unhealthy snacking habits by mental contrasting with implementation intentions (MCII) . European Journal of Social Psychology, 40, 1277 – 1293 . doi:10.1002/ejsp.730

Google Scholar ISI

Ainslie, G. ( 2012 ). Pure hyperbolic discount curves predict “eyes open” self-control . Theory and Decision, 73, 3 – 34 . doi:10.1007/s11238-011-9272-5

Google Scholar ISI

Ainslie, G., Haslam, N. ( 1992 ). Self-control . In Loewenstein, G., Elster, J. (Eds.), Choice over time (pp. 177 – 209 ). New York, NY : Russell Sage Foundation .

Google Scholar

Akerlof, G. A. ( 1991 ). Procrastination and obedience . The American Economic Review, 81(2), 1 – 19 . Retrieved from https://www.jstor.org/stable/2006817

Google Scholar

Akerlof, G. A., Kranton, R. E. ( 2000 ). Economics and identity . The Quarterly Journal of Economics, 115, 715 – 753 . doi:10.1162/003355300554881

Google Scholar ISI

Akst, D. ( 2011 ). We have met the enemy: Self-control in an age of excess. New York, NY : Penguin Press .

Google Scholar

Allcott, H. ( 2011 ). Social norms and energy conservation . Journal of Public Economics, 95, 1082 – 1095 . doi:10.1016/j.jpubeco.2011.03.003

Google Scholar ISI

Allcott, H., Rogers, T. ( 2014 ). The short-run and long-run effects of behavioral interventions: Experimental evidence from energy conservation . The American Economic Review, 104, 3003 – 3037 . doi:10.1257/aer.104.10.3003

Google Scholar ISI

Amabile, T. M., Kramer, S. J. ( 2011 , May ). The power of small wins . Harvard Business Review, 89(5), 70 – 80 .

Google Scholar ISI

Analayo, B. ( 2003 ). Satipat.t.ha¯na: The direct path to realization. Cambridge, England : Windhorse Publications .

Google Scholar

Arbour, K. P., Martin Ginis, K. A. ( 2009 ). A randomised controlled trial of the effects of implementation intentions on women’s walking behaviour . Psychology & Health, 24, 49 – 65 . doi:10.1080/08870440801930312

Google Scholar Medline | ISI

Arimura, T. H., Li, S., Newell, R. G., Palmer, K. ( 2012 ). Cost-effectiveness of electricity energy efficiency programs . Energy Journal, 33, 63 – 99 .

Google Scholar ISI

Aristotle . ( 2009 ). The Nicomachean ethics. D, Ross (Trans.) Brown, L. (Ed.). Oxford, England : Oxford University Press .

Google Scholar

Armitage, C. J. ( 2004 ). Evidence that implementation intentions reduce dietary fat intake: A randomized trial . Health Psychology, 23, 319 – 323 . doi:10.1037/0278-6133.23.3.319

Google Scholar Medline | ISI

Asch, S. E. ( 1956 ). Studies of independence and conformity: I. A minority of one against a unanimous majority . Psychological Monographs: General and Applied, 70(9), 1 – 70 . doi:10.1037/h0093718

Google Scholar

Ashraf, N., Karlan, D., Yin, W. ( 2006 ). Tying Odysseus to the mast: Evidence from a commitment savings product in the Philippines . The Quarterly Journal of Economics, 121, 635 – 672 . doi:10.1162/qjec.2006.121.2.635

Google Scholar ISI

Augenblick, N., Rabin, M. ( 2018 ). Belief movement, uncertainty reduction, and rational updating. Retrieved from http://faculty.haas.berkeley.edu/ned/AugenblickRabin_MovementUncertainty.pdf

Google Scholar

Babb, S. ( 2017 ). Quitting smoking among adults—United States, 2000–2015 . Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 65, 1457 – 1464 . doi:10.15585/mmwr.mm6552a1

Google Scholar Medline

Baker, R. C., Kirschenbaum, D. S. ( 1993 ). Self-monitoring may be necessary for successful weight control . Behavior Therapy, 24, 377 – 394 . doi:10.1016/s0005-7894(05)80212-6

Google Scholar ISI

Bandura, A., Schunk, D. H. ( 1981 ). Cultivating competence, self-efficacy, and intrinsic interest through proximal self-motivation . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 41, 586 – 598 . doi:10.1037/0022-3514.41.3.586

Google Scholar ISI

Bandura, A., Simon, K. M. ( 1977 ). The role of proximal intentions in self-regulation of refractory behavior . Cognitive Therapy and Research, 1, 177 – 193 . doi:10.1007/BF01186792

Google Scholar

Bartels, D. M., Rips, L. J. ( 2010 ). Psychological connectedness and intertemporal choice . Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 139, 49 – 69 . doi:10.1037/a0018062

Google Scholar Medline | ISI

Bartels, D. M., Urminsky, O. ( 2011 ). On intertemporal selfishness: How the perceived instability of identity underlies impatient consumption . Journal of Consumer Research, 38, 182 – 198 . doi:10.1086/658339

Google Scholar ISI

Baumeister, R. F., Heatherton, T. F., Tice, D. M. ( 1994 ). Losing control: How and why people fail at self-regulation. San Diego, CA : Academic Press .

Google Scholar

Bazerman, M. H., Tenbrunsel, A. E., Wade-Benzoni, K. ( 1998 ). Negotiating with yourself and losing: Making decisions with competing internal preferences . Academy of Management Review, 23, 225 – 241 . doi:10.5465/amr.1998.533224

Google Scholar ISI

Beck, A. T. ( 1970 ). Cognitive therapy: Nature and relation to behavior therapy . Behavior Therapy, 1, 184 – 200 . doi:10.1016/s0005-7894(70)80030-2

Google Scholar ISI

Beck, A. T., Dozois, D. J. A. ( 2011 ). Cognitive therapy: Current status and future directions . Annual Review of Medicine, 62, 397 – 409 . doi:10.1146/annurev-med-052209-100032

Google Scholar Medline | ISI

Beck, A. T., Rush, A. J., Shaw, B. F., Emery, G. ( 1979 ). Cognitive therapy of depression. New York, NY : Guilford Press .

Google Scholar

Beland, L.-P., Murphy, R. ( 2016 ). Ill communication: Technology, distraction & student performance . Labour Economics, 41, 61 – 76 . doi:10.1016/j.labeco.2016.04.004

Google Scholar

Benartzi, S., Beshears, J., Milkman, K. L., Sunstein, C. R., Thaler, R. H., Shankar, M., . . . Galing, S. ( 2017 ). Should governments invest more in nudging? Psychological Science, 28, 1041 – 1055 . doi:10.1177/0956797617702501

Google Scholar SAGE Journals | ISI

Benartzi, S., Thaler, R. H. ( 2013 ). Behavioral economics and the retirement savings crisis . Science, 339, 1152 – 1153 . doi:10.1126/science.1231320

Google Scholar Medline | ISI

Berger, J., Rand, L. ( 2008 ). Shifting signals to help health: Using identity signaling to reduce risky heath behaviors . Journal of Consumer Research, 35, 509 – 518 . doi:10.1086/587632

Google Scholar ISI

Berkman, E. T., Hutcherson, C. A., Livingston, J. L., Kahn, L. E., Inzlicht, M. ( 2017 ). Self-control as value-based choice . Current Directions in Psychological Science, 26, 422 – 428 . doi:10.1177/0963721417704394

Google Scholar SAGE Journals | ISI

Bertrand, M., Chugh, D., Mullainathan, S. ( 2005 ). Implicit discrimination . The American Economic Review, 95, 94 – 98 .

Google Scholar ISI

Beshears, J., Choi, J. J., Laibson, D., Madrian, B. C. ( 2008 ). The importance of default options for retirement saving outcomes: Evidence from the United States . In Kay, S. J., Sinha, T. (Eds.), Lessons from pension reform in the Americas (pp. 59 – 87 ). Oxford, England : Oxford University Press .

Google Scholar

Beshears, J., Choi, J. J., Laibson, D., Madrian, B. C., Milkman, K. L. ( 2015 ). The effect of providing peer information on retirement savings decisions . The Journal of Finance, 70, 1161 – 1201 . doi:10.1111/jofi.12258

Google Scholar Medline

Beshears, J., Dai, H., Milkman, K. L., Benartzi, S. ( 2016 ). Framing the future in the field: Pre-commitment nudges and fresh start messaging (Working paper). Retrieved from http://bit.ly/2ExHk3J

Google Scholar

Bishop, S. R., Lau, M., Shapiro, S., Carlson, L., Anderson, N. D., Carmody, J., . . . Devins, G. ( 2004 ). Mindfulness: A proposed operational definition . Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice, 11, 230 – 241 . doi:10.1093/clipsy.bph077

Google Scholar ISI

Blair, C., Raver, C. C. ( 2015 ). School readiness and self-regulation: A developmental psychobiological approach . Annual Review of Psychology, 66, 711 – 731 . doi:10.1146/annurev-psych-010814-015221

Google Scholar Medline | ISI

Bohnet, I., van Geen, A., Bazerman, M. ( 2016 ). When performance trumps gender bias: Joint vs. separate evaluation . Management Science, 62, 1225 – 1234 . doi:10.1287/mnsc.2015.2186

Google Scholar

Bosco, F. A., Aguinis, H., Singh, K., Field, J. G., Pierce, C. A. ( 2015 ). Correlational effect size benchmarks . Journal of Applied Psychology, 100, 431 – 449 . doi:10.1037/a0038047

Google Scholar Medline | ISI

Bowen, S., Witkiewitz, K., Clifasefi, S. L., Grow, J., Chawla, N., Hsu, S. H., . . . Larimer, M. E. ( 2014 ). Relative efficacy of mindfulness-based relapse prevention, standard relapse prevention, and treatment as usual for substance use disorders: A randomized clinical trial . JAMA Psychiatry, 71, 547 – 556 . doi:10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2013.4546

Google Scholar Medline | ISI

Brandon, A., Ferraro, P. J., List, J. A., Metcalfe, R. D., Price, M. K., Rundhammer, F. ( 2017 ). Do the effects of social nudges persist? Theory and evidence from 38 natural field experiments (National Bureau of Economic Research Working Paper No. W23277). Retrieved from https://www.nber.org/papers/w23277

Google Scholar

Breman, A. ( 2011 ). Give more tomorrow: Two field experiments on altruism and intertemporal choice . Journal of Public Economics, 95, 1349 – 1357 . doi:10.1016/j.jpubeco.2011.05.004

Google Scholar

Brewer, J. A., Elwafi, H. M., Davis, J. H. ( 2013 ). Craving to quit: Psychological models and neurobiological mechanisms of mindfulness training as treatment for addictions . Psychology of Addictive Behaviors: Journal of the Society of Psychologists in Addictive Behaviors, 27, 366 – 379 . doi:10.1037/a0028490

Google Scholar Medline

Brocas, I., Carrillo, J. D., Dewatripont, M. ( 2004 ). Commitment devices under self-control problems: An overview . The Psychology of Economic Decisions, 2, 49 – 67 .

Google Scholar

Bryan, G., Karlan, D., Nelson, S. ( 2010 ). Commitment devices . Annual Review of Economics, 2, 671 – 698 . doi:10.1146/annurev.economics.102308.124324

Google Scholar ISI

Bubb, R., Pildes, R. H. ( 2014 ). How behavioral economics trims its sails and why . Harvard Law Review, 127, 1593 – 1678 .

Google Scholar

Burke, L. E., Wang, J., Sevick, M. A. ( 2011 ). Self-monitoring in weight loss: A systematic review of the literature . Journal of the American Dietetic Association, 111, 92 – 102 . doi:10.1016/j.jada.2010.10.008

Google Scholar Medline

Carden, L., Wood, W. ( 2018 ). Habit formation and change . Current Opinion in Behavioral Sciences, 20, 117 – 122 . doi:10.1016/j.cobeha.2017.12.009

Google Scholar

Carrera, M., Royer, H., Stehr, M. F., Sydnor, J. R., Taubinsky, D. ( 2018 ). The limits of simple implementation intentions: Evidence from a field experiment on making plans to exercise (Working Paper No. 24959). National Bureau of Economic Research . Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.3386/w24959

Google Scholar

Carroll, G. D., Choi, J. J., Laibson, D., Madrian, B. C., Metrick, A. ( 2009 ). Optimal defaults and active decisions . The Quarterly Journal of Economics, 124, 1639 – 1674 . doi:10.1162/qjec.2009.124.4.1639

Google Scholar Medline | ISI

Carroll, K. M., Onken, L. S. ( 2005 ). Behavioral therapies for drug abuse . The American Journal of Psychiatry, 162, 1452 – 1460 . doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.162.8.1452

Google Scholar Medline | ISI

Carter, A., Hall, W. ( 2007 ). The ethical use of psychosocially assisted pharmacological treatments for opioid dependence. Geneva, Switzerland : World Health Organization .

Google Scholar

Carver, C. S., Scheier, M. ( 1990 ). Principles of self-regulation: Action and emotion . In Higgins, E. T., Sorrentino, R. M. (Eds.), Handbook of motivation and cognition: Foundations of social behavior (Vol. 2, pp. 3 – 52 ). New York, NY : Guilford Press .

Google Scholar

Cheema, A., Soman, D. ( 2008 ). The effect of partitions on controlling consumption . Journal of Marketing Research, 45, 665 – 675 . doi:10.1509/jmkr.45.6.665

Google Scholar SAGE Journals | ISI

Christiansen, S., Oettingen, G., Dahme, B., Klinger, R. ( 2010 ). A short goal-pursuit intervention to improve physical capacity: A randomized clinical trial in chronic back pain patients . Pain, 149, 444 – 452 . doi:10.1016/j.pain.2009.12.015

Google Scholar Medline | ISI

Cioffi, D., Garner, R. ( 1996 ). On doing the decision: Effects of active versus passive choice on commitment and self-perception . Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 22, 133 – 147 . doi:10.1177/0146167296222003

Google Scholar SAGE Journals | ISI

Cohen, J. ( 1992 ). A power primer . Psychological Bulletin, 112, 155 – 159 . doi:10.1037/0033-2909.112.1.155

Google Scholar Medline | ISI

Cohen, J. D. ( 2005 ). The vulcanization of the human brain: A neural perspective on interactions between cognition and emotion . The Journal of Economic Perspectives, 19(4), 3 – 24 . doi:10.1257/089533005775196750

Google Scholar ISI

Cohen, J. D., Ericson, K. M., Laibson, D., White, J. M. ( 2016 ). Measuring time preferences (Working Paper No. W22455). National Bureau of Economic Research . Retrieved from https://www.nber.org/papers/w22455

Google Scholar

Cornelissen, G., Dewitte, S., Warlop, L., Yzerbyt, V. ( 2007 ). Whatever people say I am, that’s what I am: Social labeling as a social marketing tool . International Journal of Research in Marketing, 24, 278 – 288 . doi:10.1016/j.ijresmar.2007.05.001

Google Scholar ISI

Cottraux, J., Note, I., Yao, S. N., Lafont, S., Note, B., Mollard, E., . . . Dartigues, J.-F. ( 2001 ). A randomized controlled trial of cognitive therapy versus intensive behavior therapy in obsessive compulsive disorder . Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics, 70, 288 – 297 . doi:10.1159/000056269

Google Scholar Medline

Creswell, J. D. ( 2017 ). Mindfulness interventions . Annual Review of Psychology, 68, 491 – 516 . doi:10.1146/annurev-psych-042716-051139

Google Scholar Medline

Dai, H., Mao, D., Riis, J., Volpp, K., Relish, M. J., Lawnicki, V. F., Milkman, K. L. ( 2017 ). Effectiveness of medication adherence reminders tied to “fresh start” dates: A randomized clinical trial . JAMA Cardiology, 2, 453 – 455 .

Google Scholar Medline

Dai, H., Milkman, K. L., Hofmann, D. A., Staats, B. R. ( 2015 ). The impact of time at work and time off from work on rule compliance: The case of hand hygiene in health care . Journal of Applied Psychology, 100, 846 – 862 . doi:10.1037/e573552014-092

Google Scholar Medline

Dai, H., Milkman, K. L., Riis, J. ( 2014 ). The fresh start effect: Temporal landmarks motivate aspirational behavior . Management Science, 60, 2563 – 2582 . doi:10.1287/mnsc.2014.1901

Google Scholar ISI

Dai, H., Milkman, K. L., Riis, J. ( 2015 ). Put your imperfections behind you . Psychological Science, 26, 1927 – 1936 . doi:10.1177/0956797615605818

Google Scholar SAGE Journals | ISI

Danziger, S., Levav, J., Avnaim-Pesso, L. ( 2011 ). Extraneous factors in judicial decisions . Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, USA, 108, 6889 – 6892 . doi:10.1073/pnas.1018033108

Google Scholar Medline | ISI

De Luca, C. R., Wood, S. J., Anderson, V., Buchanan, J.-A., Proffitt, T. M., Mahony, K., Pantelis, C. ( 2003 ). Normative data from the Cantab. I: Development of executive function over the lifespan . Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 25, 242 – 254 .

Google Scholar Medline | ISI

De Witt Huberts, J. C., Evers, C., De Ridder, D. T. ( 2012 ). License to sin: Self-licensing as a mechanism underlying hedonic consumption . European Journal of Social Psychology, 42, 490 – 496 .

Google Scholar ISI

De Witt Huberts, J. C., Evers, C., De Ridder, D. T. ( 2014 ). “Because I am worth it”: A theoretical framework and empirical review of a justification-based account of self-regulation failure . Personality and Social Psychology Review, 18, 119 – 138 .

Google Scholar SAGE Journals | ISI

Diamond, A. ( 2013 ). Executive functions . Annual Review of Psychology, 64, 135 – 168 . doi:10.1146/annurev-psych-113011-143750

Google Scholar Medline | ISI

Diestel, S., Rivkin, W., Schmidt, K.-H. ( 2014 ). Sleep quality and self-control capacity as protective resources in the daily emotional labor process: Results from two diary studies . Journal of Applied Psychology, 100, 809 – 827 . doi:10.1037/a0038373

Google Scholar Medline

Duckworth, A. L., Gendler, T. S., Gross, J. J. ( 2016 ). Situational strategies for self-control . Perspectives on Psychological Science, 11, 35 – 55 . doi:10.1177/1745691615623247

Google Scholar SAGE Journals | ISI

Duckworth, A. L., Kim, B., Tsukayama, E. ( 2012 ). Life stress impairs self-control in early adolescence . Frontiers in Psychology, 3, Article 608. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2012.00608

Google Scholar ISI

Duckworth, A. L., Kirby, T. A., Gollwitzer, A., Oettingen, G. ( 2013 ). From fantasy to action: Mental contrasting with implementation intentions (MCII) improves academic performance in children . Social Psychological & Personality Science, 4, 745 – 753 . doi:10.1177/1948550613476307

Google Scholar SAGE Journals | ISI

Duckworth, A. L., Taxer, J., Eskreis-Winkler, L., Galla, B. M., Gross, J. J. (in press). Self-control and academic achievement . Annual Review of Psychology.

Google Scholar

Duckworth, A. L., Tsukayama, E., Kirby, T. A. ( 2013 ). Is it really self-control? Examining the predictive power of the delay of gratification task . Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 39, 843 – 855 .

Google Scholar SAGE Journals | ISI

Duckworth, A. L., White, R. E., Matteucci, A. J., Shearer, A., Gross, J. J. ( 2016 ). A stitch in time: Strategic self-control in high school and college students . Journal of Educational Psychology, 108, 329 – 341 . doi:10.1037/edu0000062

Google Scholar Medline

Eisenberg, N., Smith, C. L., Spinrad, T. L. ( 2011 ). Effortful control: Relations with emotion regulation, adjustment, and socialization in childhood . In Vohs, K. D., Baumeister, R. F. (Eds.), Handbook of self-regulation: Research, theory, and applications (pp. 263 – 283 ). New York, NY : Guilford Press .

Google Scholar

Ekers, D., Richards, D., Gilbody, S. ( 2008 ). A meta-analysis of randomized trials of behavioural treatment of depression . Psychological Medicine, 38, 611 – 623 . doi:10.1017/S0033291707001614

Google Scholar Medline | ISI

Ellis, A. ( 1962 ). Reason and emotion in psychotherapy. New York, NY : Citadel Press .

Google Scholar

Epton, T., Currie, S., Armitage, C. J. ( 2017 ). Unique effects of setting goals on behavior change: Systematic review and meta-analysis . Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 85, 1182 – 1198 . doi:10.1037/ccp0000260

Google Scholar Medline

Ericson, K. M. ( 2017 ). On the interaction of memory and procrastination: Implications for reminders, deadlines, and empirical estimation . Journal of the European Economic Association, 15, 692 – 719 .

Google Scholar

Ericson, K. M., Laibson, D. ( 2019 ). Intertemporal choice . In Bernheim, B. D., DellaVigna, S., Laibson, D. (Eds.), Handbook of behavioral economics: Foundations and Applications 2. Amsterdam, The Netherlands : North-Holland .

Google Scholar Crossref

Fedyk, A. ( 2017 ). Asymmetric naïveté: Beliefs about self-control (Working paper). Retrieved from https://scholar.harvard.edu/files/fedyk/files/afedyk_asymmetricnaivete.pdf

Google Scholar

Feldstein, M. ( 1985 ). The optimal level of social security benefits . The Quarterly Journal of Economics, 100, 303 – 320 .

Google Scholar

Figner, B., Knoch, D., Johnson, E. J., Krosch, A. R., Lisanby, S. H., Fehr, E., Weber, E. U. ( 2010 ). Lateral prefrontal cortex and self-control in intertemporal choice . Nature Neuroscience, 13, 538 – 539 .

Google Scholar Medline | ISI

Finkel, E. J., Slotter, E. B., Luchies, L. B., Walton, G. M., Gross, J. J. ( 2013 ). A brief intervention to promote conflict reappraisal preserves marital quality over time . Psychological Science, 24, 1595 – 1601 . doi:10.1177/0956797612474938

Google Scholar SAGE Journals | ISI

Fishbach, A., Dhar, R., Zhang, Y. ( 2006 ). Subgoals as substitutes or complements: The role of goal accessibility . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 91, 232 – 242 . doi:10.1037/0022-3514.91.2.232

Google Scholar Medline | ISI

Fishbach, A., Koo, M., Finkelstein, S. R. ( 2014 ). Motivation resulting from completed and missing actions . In Olson, J. M., Zanna, M. P. (Eds.), Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 50, pp. 257 – 307 ). San Diego, CA : Academic Press . doi:10.1016/B978-0-12-800284-1.00005-9

Google Scholar

Freud, S. ( 1977 ). Introductory lectures on psycho-analysis (part III). In Strachey, J. (Ed. & Trans.), The standard edition of the complete psychological works of Sigmund Freud (Vol. 16). New York, NY : W.W. Norton . (Original work published in 1917)

Google Scholar

Fudenberg, D., Levine, D. K. ( 2006 ). A dual-self model of impulse control . The American Economic Review, 96, 1449 – 1476 . doi:10.1257/aer.96.5.1449

Google Scholar Medline | ISI

Fujita, K., Carnevale, J. J. ( 2012 ). Transcending temptation through abstraction . Current Directions in Psychological Science, 21, 248 – 252 . doi:10.1177/0963721412449169

Google Scholar SAGE Journals | ISI

Galla, B. M., Baelen, R. N., Duckworth, A. L., Baime, M. J. ( 2016 ). Mindfulness, meet self regulation: Boosting out-of-class meditation practice with brief action plans . Motivation Science, 2, 220 – 237 . doi:10.1037/mot0000045

Google Scholar

Galla, B. M., Duckworth, A. L. ( 2015 ). More than resisting temptation: Beneficial habits mediate the relationship between self-control and positive life outcomes . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 109, 508 – 525 . doi:10.1037/pspp0000026

Google Scholar Medline | ISI

Galla, B. M., Kaiser-Greenland, S., Black, D. S. ( 2016 ). Mindfulness training to promote self regulation in youth: Effects of the Inner Kids program . In Schonert-Reichl, A. K., Roeser, W. R. (Eds.), Handbook of mindfulness in education: Integrating theory and research into practice (pp. 295 – 311 ). New York, NY : Springer .

Google Scholar

Gimbel, R. W., Strosberg, M. A., Lehrman, S. E., Gefenas, E., Taft, F. ( 2003 ). Presumed consent and other predictors of cadaveric organ donation in Europe . Progress in Transplantation, 13, 17 – 23 . doi:10.1177/152692480301300104

Google Scholar SAGE Journals

Giné, X., Karlan, D., Zinman, J. ( 2010 ). Put your money where your butt is: A commitment contract for smoking cessation . American Economic Journal: Applied Economics, 2, 213 – 235 . doi:10.1257/app.2.4.213

Google Scholar ISI

Glöckner, A. ( 2016 ). The irrational hungry judge effect revisited: Simulations reveal that the magnitude of the effect is overestimated . Judgment and Decision Making, 11, 601 – 610 .

Google Scholar

Goldstein, N. J., Cialdini, R. B., Griskevicius, V. ( 2008 ). A room with a viewpoint: Using social norms to motivate environmental conservation in hotels . Journal of Consumer Research, 35, 472 – 482 . doi:10.1086/586910

Google Scholar ISI

Gollwitzer, P. M. ( 1999 ). Implementation intentions: Strong effects of simple plans . American Psychologist, 54, 493 – 503 . doi:10.1037/0003-066X.54.7.493

Google Scholar ISI

Gollwitzer, P. M., Brandstätter, V. ( 1997 ). Implementation intentions and effective goal pursuit . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 73, 186 – 199 . doi:10.1037/0022-3514.73.1.186

Google Scholar ISI

Gollwitzer, P. M., Sheeran, P. ( 2006 ). Implementation intentions and goal achievement: A meta-analysis of effects and processes . In Zanna, M. P. (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 38, pp. 69 – 119 ). San Diego, CA : Academic Press . doi:10.1016/s0065-2601(06)38002-1

Google Scholar

Gooding, P., Tarrier, N. ( 2009 ). A systematic review and meta-analysis of cognitive-behavioural interventions to reduce problem gambling: Hedging our bets? Behaviour Research and Therapy, 47, 592 – 607 . doi:10.1016/j.brat.2009.04.002

Google Scholar Medline | ISI

Goyal, M., Singh, S., Sibinga, E. M. S., Gould, N. F., Rowland-Seymour, A., Sharma, R., . . . Haythornthwaite, J. A. ( 2014 ). Meditation programs for psychological stress and well-being: A systematic review and meta-analysis . JAMA Internal Medicine, 174, 357 – 368 . doi:10.1001/jamainternmed.2013.13018

Google Scholar Medline | ISI

Greenwald, A. G., McGhee, D. E., Schwartz, J. L. ( 1998 ). Measuring individual differences in implicit cognition: The implicit association test . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74, 1464 – 1480 .

Google Scholar Medline | ISI

Gruber, J., Köszegi, B. ( 2001 ). Is addiction “rational”? Theory and evidence . The Quarterly Journal of Economics, 116, 1261 – 1303 . doi:10.1162/003355301753265570

Google Scholar ISI

Gruber, J., Mullainathan, S. ( 2006 ). Do cigarette taxes make smokers happier? In Ng, Y.-K., Ho, L. S. (Eds.), Happiness and public policy: Theory, case studies and implications (pp. 109 – 146 ). London, England : Palgrave Macmillan . doi:10.1057/9780230288027_6

Google Scholar

Hagger, M. S., Luszczynska, A. ( 2014 ). Implementation intention and action planning interventions in health contexts: State of the research and proposals for the way forward . Applied Psychology: Health and Well-Being, 6, 1 – 47 . doi:10.1111/aphw.12017

Google Scholar Medline | ISI

Hagger, M. S., Wood, C., Stiff, C., Chatzisarantis, N. L. D. ( 2010 ). Ego depletion and the strength model of self-control: A meta-analysis . Psychological Bulletin, 136, 495 – 525 . doi:10.1037/a0019486

Google Scholar Medline | ISI

Hamilton, A. ( 1802 , April ). [Letter to James A. Bayard]. Retrieved from https://founders.archives.gov/documents/Hamilton/01-25-02-032

Google Scholar

Harkin, B., Webb, T. L., Chang, B. P. I., Prestwich, A., Conner, M., Kellar, I., . . . Sheeran, P. ( 2016 ). Does monitoring goal progress promote goal attainment? A meta-analysis of the experimental evidence . Psychological Bulletin, 142, 198 – 229 . doi:10.1037/bul0000025

Google Scholar Medline

Hausman, D. M., Welch, B. ( 2010 ). Debate: To nudge or not to nudge . Journal of Political Philosophy, 18, 123 – 136 . doi:10.1111/j.1467-9760.2009.00351.x

Google Scholar ISI

Heath, C., Larrick, R. P., Wu, G. ( 1999 ). Goals as reference points . Cognitive Psychology, 38, 79 – 109 . doi:10.1006/cogp.1998.0708

Google Scholar Medline | ISI

Hershfield, H. E., Goldstein, D. G., Sharpe, W. F., Fox, J., Yeykelis, L., Carstensen, L. L., Bailenson, J. N. ( 2011 ). Increasing saving behavior through age-progressed renderings of the future self . Journal of Marketing Research, 48, S23 – S37 . doi:10.1509/jmkr.48.spl.s23

Google Scholar SAGE Journals | ISI

Hertwig, R., Grüne-Yanoff, T. ( 2017 ). Nudging and boosting: Steering or empowering good decisions . Perspectives on Psychological Science, 12, 973 – 986 . doi:10.1177/1745691617702496

Google Scholar SAGE Journals | ISI

Hester, R. K., Delaney, H. D. ( 1997 ). Behavioral self-control program for Windows: Results of a controlled clinical trial . Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 65, 686 – 693 . doi:10.1037/0022-006X.65.4.686

Google Scholar Medline | ISI

Hill, C. J., Bloom, H. S., Black, A. R., Lipsey, M. W. ( 2008 ). Empirical benchmarks for interpreting effect sizes in research . Child Development Perspectives, 2, 172 – 177 . doi:10.1111/j.1750-8606.2008.00061.x

Google Scholar ISI

Hillman, C. H., Erickson, K. I., Kramer, A. F. ( 2008 ). Be smart, exercise your heart: Exercise effects on brain and cognition . Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 9, 58 – 65 . doi:10.1038/nrn2298

Google Scholar Medline | ISI

Hofmann, S. G., Asnaani, A., Vonk, I. J., Sawyer, A. T., Fang, A. ( 2012 ). The efficacy of cognitive behavioral therapy: A review of meta-analyses . Cognitive Therapy and Research, 36, 427 – 440 . doi:10.1007/s10608-012-9476-1

Google Scholar Medline | ISI

Holden, S. S., Zlatevska, N., Dubelaar, C. ( 2016 ). Whether smaller plates reduce consumption depends on who’s serving and who’s looking: A meta-analysis . Journal of the Association for Consumer Research, 1, 134 – 146 .

Google Scholar

Hollands, G. J., Shemilt, I., Marteau, T. M., Jebb, S. A., Kelly, M. P., Nakamura, R., . . . Ogilvie, D. ( 2013 ). Altering micro-environments to change population health behaviour: Towards an evidence base for choice architecture interventions . BMC Public Health, 13(1), Article 1218.

Google Scholar Medline

Hsee, C. K., Zhang, J., Wang, L., Zhang, S. ( 2013 ). Magnitude, time and risk differ similarly between joint and single evaluations . Journal of Consumer Research, 40, 172 – 184 .

Google Scholar

Inzlicht, M., Bartholow, B. D., Hirsh, J. B. ( 2015 ). Emotional foundations of cognitive control . Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 19, 126 – 132 . doi:10.1016/j.tics.2015.01.004

Google Scholar Medline | ISI

Inzlicht, M., Schmeichel, B. J., Macrae, C. N. ( 2014 ). Why self-control seems (but may not be) limited . Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 18, 127 – 133 . doi:10.1016/j.tics.2013.12.009

Google Scholar Medline | ISI

Ito, K. ( 2015 ). Asymmetric incentives in subsidies: Evidence from a large-scale electricity rebate program . American Economic Journal: Economic Policy, 7, 209 – 237 . doi:10.1257/pol.20130397

Google Scholar ISI

James, W. ( 1899 ). Talks to teachers on psychology and to students on some of life’s ideals. New York, NY : Holt .

Google Scholar

Johannessen, K., Oettingen, G., Mayer, D. ( 2012 ). Mental contrasting of a dieting wish improves self-reported health behaviour . Psychology & Health, 27, 43 – 58 . doi:10.1080/08870446.2011.626038

Google Scholar Medline | ISI

Johnson, B. T., Scott-Sheldon, L. A. J., Carey, M. P. ( 2010 ). Meta-synthesis of health behavior change meta-analyses . American Journal of Public Health, 100, 2193 – 2198 . doi:10.2105/AJPH.2008.155200

Google Scholar Medline | ISI

Johnson, E. J., Goldstein, D. ( 2003 ). Do defaults save lives? Science, 302, 1338 – 1339 . doi:10.1126/science.1091721

Google Scholar Medline | ISI

Jones, A. P., Sauerzapf, V., Haynes, R. ( 2008 ). The effects of mobile speed camera introduction on road traffic crashes and casualties in a rural county of England . Journal of Safety Research, 39, 101 – 110 . doi:10.1016/j.jsr.2007.10.011

Google Scholar Medline

Kabat-Zinn, J. ( 1982 ). An outpatient program in behavioral medicine for chronic pain patients based on the practice of mindfulness meditation: Theoretical considerations and preliminary results . General Hospital Psychiatry, 4, 33 – 47 .

Google Scholar Medline | ISI

Kabat-Zinn, J. ( 1990 ). Full catastrophe living: Using the wisdom of your body and mind to face stress, pain and illness. New York, NY : Delacourt .

Google Scholar

Kable, J. W., Glimcher, P. W. ( 2007 ). The neural correlates of subjective value during intertemporal choice . Nature Neuroscience, 10, 1625 – 1633 . doi:10.1038/nn2007

Google Scholar Medline | ISI

Kazdin, A. E. ( 2012 ). Behavior modification in applied settings. Long Grove, IL : Waveland Press .

Google Scholar

Keller, P. A., Harlam, B., Loewenstein, G., Volpp, K. G. ( 2011 ). Enhanced active choice: A new method to motivate behavior change . Journal of Consumer Psychology, 21, 376 – 383 . doi:10.1016/j.jcps.2011.06.003

Google Scholar ISI

Khan, U., Dhar, R. ( 2006 ). Licensing effect in consumer choice . Journal of Marketing Research, 43, 259 – 266 . doi:10.1509/jmkr.43.2.259

Google Scholar SAGE Journals | ISI

Khan, U., Dhar, R. ( 2007 ). Where there is a way, is there a will? The effect of future choices on self-control . Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 136, 277 – 288 . doi:10.1037/0096-3445.136.2.277

Google Scholar Medline | ISI

Kirk, D., Oettingen, G., Gollwitzer, P. M. ( 2013 ). Promoting integrative bargaining: Mental contrasting with implementation intentions . International Journal of Conflict Management, 24, 148 – 165 . doi:10.1108/10444061311316771

Google Scholar

Kirschenbaum, D. S. ( 1985 ). Proximity and specificity of planning: A position paper . Cognitive Therapy and Research, 9, 489 – 506 . doi:10.1007/BF01173004

Google Scholar ISI

Kraft, M. A. ( 2018 ). Interpreting effect sizes in of education research interventions (Brown University Working Paper). Retrieved from https://scholar.harvard.edu/files/mkraft/files/kraft_2018_interpreting_effect_sizes.pdf

Google Scholar

Kross, E., Ayduk, O. ( 2017 ). Self-distancing: Theory, research, and current directions. In J. M. Olson , Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 55, pp. 81 – 136 ). San Diego, CA : Academic Press . doi:10.1016/bs.aesp.2016.10.002

Google Scholar

Kross, E., Bruehlman-Senecal, E., Park, J., Burson, A., Dougherty, A., Shablack, H., . . . Ayduk, O. ( 2014 ). Self-talk as a regulatory mechanism: How you do it matters . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 106, 304 – 324 . doi:10.1037/a0035173

Google Scholar Medline | ISI

Kross, E., Vickers, B. D., Orvell, A., Gainsburg, I., Moran, T. P., Boyer, M., . . . Ayduk, O. ( 2017 ). Third-person self-talk reduces Ebola worry and risk perception by enhancing rational thinking . Applied Psychology: Health and Well-Being, 9, 387 – 409 . doi:10.1111/aphw.12103

Google Scholar Medline

Kurzban, R., Duckworth, A., Kable, J., Myers, J. ( 2013 ). An opportunity cost model of subjective effort and task performance . Behavioral & Brain Sciences, 36, 661 – 679 . doi:10.1017/S0140525X12003196

Google Scholar Medline | ISI

Laibson, D. ( 1997 ). Golden eggs and hyperbolic discounting . The Quarterly Journal of Economics, 112, 443 – 478 . doi:10.1162/003355397555253

Google Scholar ISI

Laibson, D. ( 2015 ). Why don’t present-biased agents make commitments? The American Economic Review, 105, 267 – 272 . doi:10.1257/aer.p20151084

Google Scholar Medline

Leventhal, H., Singer, R., Jones, S. ( 1965 ). Effects of fear and specificity of recommendation upon attitudes and behavior . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 2, 20 – 29 . doi:10.1037/h0022089

Google Scholar Medline | ISI

Locke, E. A., Latham, G. P. ( 2002 ). Building a practically useful theory of goal setting and task motivation: A 35-year odyssey . American Psychologist, 57, 705 – 717 . doi:10.1037/0003-066x.57.9.705

Google Scholar Medline | ISI

Loewenstein, G., O’Donoghue, T. ( 2004 ). Animal spirits: Affective and deliberative processes in economic behavior. SSRN. doi:10.2139/ssrn.539843

Google Scholar

Loewenstein, G., Prelec, D. ( 1992 ). Anomalies in intertemporal choice: Evidence and an interpretation . The Quarterly Journal of Economics, 107, 573 – 597 .

Google Scholar ISI

Lorenzo-Luaces, L., German, R. E., DeRubeis, R. J. ( 2015 ). It’s complicated: The relation between cognitive change procedures, cognitive change, and symptom change in cognitive therapy for depression . Clinical Psychology Review, 41, 3 – 15 .

Google Scholar Medline | ISI

Madrian, B. C., Shea, D. F. ( 2001 ). The power of suggestion: Inertia in 401(k) participation and savings behavior . The Quarterly Journal of Economics, 116, 1149 – 1187 . doi:10.1162/003355301753265543

Google Scholar ISI

Magidson, J. F., Roberts, B. W., Collado-Rodriguez, A., Lejuez, C. W. ( 2014 ). Theory-driven intervention for changing personality: Expectancy value theory, behavioral activation, and conscientiousness . Developmental Psychology, 50, 1442 – 1450 . doi:10.1037/a0030583

Google Scholar Medline | ISI

Magidson, J. F., Young, K. C., Lejuez, C. W. ( 2014 ). A how-to guide for conducting a functional analysis: Behavioral principles and clinical application . The Behavior Therapist, 37, 4 – 12 .

Google Scholar

Mahoney, M. J., Thoresen, C. E. ( 1972 ). Behavioral self-control: Power to the person . Educational Researcher, 1(10), 5 – 7 .

Google Scholar SAGE Journals

March, J. G. ( 1994 ). Primer on decision making: How decisions happen. New York, NY : Simon & Schuster .

Google Scholar

Marlatt, G. A., Gordon, J. R. (Eds.). ( 1985 ). Relapse prevention: A self-control strategy for the maintenance of behavior change. New York, NY : Guilford Press .

Google Scholar

Marteau, T. M., Hollands, G. J., Kelly, M. P. ( 2015 ). Changing population behavior and reducing health disparities: Exploring the potential of “choice architecture” interventions . In Kaplan, R. M., Spittel, M. L., David, D. H. (Eds.), Population health: Behavioral and social science insights (pp. 105 – 126 ). Rockville, MD : Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality and Office of Behavioral and Social Sciences Research, National Institutes of Health .

Google Scholar

Mason, A. E., Epel, E. S., Kristeller, J., Moran, P. J., Dallman, M., Lustig, R. H., . . . Daubenmier, J. ( 2016 ). Effects of a mindfulness-based intervention on mindful eating, sweets consumption, and fasting glucose levels in obese adults: Data from the SHINE randomized controlled trial . Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 39, 201 – 213 . doi:10.1007/s10865-015-9692-8

Google Scholar Medline

McClure, S. M., Ericson, K. M., Laibson, D. I., Loewenstein, G., Cohen, J. D. ( 2007 ). Time discounting for primary rewards . Journal of Neuroscience, 27, 5796 – 5804 .

Google Scholar Medline | ISI

McClure, S. M., Laibson, D. I., Loewenstein, G., Cohen, J. D. ( 2004 ). Separate neural systems value immediate and delayed monetary rewards . Science, 306, 503 – 507 . doi:10.1126/science.1100907

Google Scholar Medline | ISI

McKenzie, C. R. M., Liersch, M. J., Finkelstein, S. R. ( 2006 ). Recommendations implicit in policy defaults . Psychological Science, 17, 414 – 420 . doi:10.1111/j.1467-9280.2006.01721.x

Google Scholar SAGE Journals | ISI

Meichenbaum, D. ( 1977 ). Cognitive-behavior modification: An integrative approach. New York, NY : Plenum Press .

Google Scholar

Milkman, K. L., Beshears, J., Choi, J. J., Laibson, D., Madrian, B. C. ( 2011 ). Using implementation intentions prompts to enhance influenza vaccination rates . Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, USA, 108, 10415 – 10420 . doi:10.1073/pnas.1103170108

Google Scholar Medline | ISI

Milkman, K. L., Beshears, J., Choi, J. J., Laibson, D., Madrian, B. C. ( 2013 ). Planning prompts as a means of increasing preventive screening rates . Preventive Medicine, 56, 92 – 93 . doi:10.1016/j.ypmed.2012.10.021

Google Scholar Medline | ISI

Milkman, K. L., Minson, J. A., Volpp, K. G. ( 2014 ). Holding the hunger games hostage at the gym: An evaluation of temptation bundling . Management Science, 60, 283 – 299 . doi:10.1287/mnsc.2013.1784

Google Scholar Medline | ISI

Milkman, K. L., Rogers, T., Bazerman, M. H. ( 2008 ). Harnessing our inner angels and demons: What we have learned about want/should conflicts and how that knowledge can help us reduce short-sighted decision making . Perspectives on Psychological Science, 3, 324 – 338 . doi:10.1111/j.1745-6924.2008.00083.x

Google Scholar SAGE Journals | ISI

Milkman, K. L., Rogers, T., Bazerman, M. H. ( 2009 ). Highbrow films gather dust: Time-inconsistent preferences and online DVD rentals . Management Science, 55, 1047 – 1059 . doi:10.1287/mnsc.1080.0994

Google Scholar

Milkman, K. L., Rogers, T., Bazerman, M. H. ( 2010 ). I’ll have the ice cream soon and the vegetables later: A study of online grocery purchases and order lead time . Marketing Letters, 21(1), 17 – 35 . doi:10.1007/s11002-009-9087-0

Google Scholar

Miller, R. L., Brickman, P., Bolen, D. ( 1975 ). Attribution versus persuasion as a means for modifying behavior . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 31, 430 – 441 . doi:10.1037/h0076539

Google Scholar Medline | ISI

Miller, W. R., Rollnick, S. ( 2002 ). Motivational interviewing: Preparing people for change ( 2nd ed. ). New York, NY : Guilford Press .

Google Scholar

Milne, S., Orbell, S., Sheeran, P. ( 2002 ). Combining motivational and volitional interventions to promote exercise participation: Protection motivation theory and implementation intentions . British Journal of Health Psychology, 7, 163 – 184 . doi:10.1348/135910702169420

Google Scholar Medline | ISI

Mischel, W. ( 2007 ). Walter Mischel . In Lindzey, G., Runyan, W. M. (Eds.), A history of psychology in autobiography (Vol. IX, pp. 229 – 267 ). Washington, DC : American Psychological Association .

Google Scholar

Mischel, W., Rodriguez, M. L. ( 1993 ). Psychological distance in self-imposed delay of gratification . In Cocking, R. R., Renninger, K. A. (Eds.), The development and meaning of psychological distance (pp. 109 – 121 ). Hillsdale, NJ : Erlbaum .

Google Scholar

Mischel, W., Shoda, Y., Rodriguez, M. L. ( 1989 ). Delay of gratification in children . Science, 244, 933 – 938 . doi:10.1126/science.2658056

Google Scholar Medline | ISI

Moffitt, T. E., Arseneault, L., Belsky, D., Dickson, N., Hancox, R. J., Harrington, H. L., . . . Caspi, A. ( 2011 ). A gradient of childhood self-control predicts health, wealth, and public safety . Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, USA, 108, 2693 – 2698 .

Google Scholar Medline | ISI

Mrazek, M. D., Franklin, M. S., Phillips, D. T., Baird, B., Schooler, J. W. ( 2013 ). Mindfulness training improves working memory capacity and GRE performance while reducing mind wandering . Psychological Science, 24, 776 – 781 . doi:10.1177/0956797612459659

Google Scholar SAGE Journals | ISI

Mullainathan, S., Shafir, E. ( 2013 ). Scarcity: Why having too little means so much. New York, NY : Times Books .

Google Scholar

Nørnberg, T. R., Houlby, L., Skov, L. R., Peréz-Cueto, F. J. A. ( 2016 ). Choice architecture interventions for increased vegetable intake and behaviour change in a school setting: A systematic review . Perspectives in Public Health, 136, 132 – 142 .

Google Scholar SAGE Journals | ISI

Nickerson, D. W., Rogers, T. ( 2010 ). Do you have a voting plan? Implementation intentions, voter turnout, and organic plan making . Psychological Science, 21, 194 – 199 . doi:10.1177/0956797609359326

Google Scholar SAGE Journals | ISI

Nook, E. C., Schleider, J. L., Somerville, L. H. ( 2017 ). A linguistic signature of psychological distancing in emotion regulation . Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 146, 337 – 346 . doi:10.1037/xge0000263

Google Scholar Medline

Norcross, J. C., Vangarelli, D. J. ( 1988 - 1989 ). The resolution solution: Longitudinal examination of New Year’s change attempts . Journal of Substance Abuse, 1, 127 – 134 . doi:10.1016/S0899-3289(88)80016-6

Google Scholar Medline

Nunes, J. C., Drèze, X. ( 2006 ). The endowed progress effect: How artificial advancement increases effort . Journal of Consumer Research, 32, 504 – 512 . doi:10.1086/500480

Google Scholar ISI

Nurra, C., Oyserman, D. ( 2018 ). From future self to current action: An identity-based motivation perspective . Self and Identity, 17, 343 – 364 . doi:10.1080/15298868.2017.1375003

Google Scholar

O’Donoghue, T., Rabin, M. ( 1999 ). Addiction and self-control . In Elster, J. (Ed.), Addiction: Entries and exits (pp. 169 – 206 ). New York, NY : Russell Sage Foundation .

Google Scholar

O’Donoghue, T., Rabin, M. ( 2006 ). Optimal sin taxes . Journal of Public Economics, 90, 1825 – 1849 .

Google Scholar Crossref

O’Donohue, W. T., Henderson, D. A., Hayes, S. C., Fisher, J. E., Hayes, L. J. (Eds.). ( 2001 ). A history of the behavioral therapies: Founders’ personal histories. Reno, NV : Context Press .

Google Scholar

Oettingen, G. ( 2012 ). Future thought and behaviour change . European Review of Social Psychology, 23, 1 – 63 . doi:10.1080/10463283.2011.643698

Google Scholar ISI

Oettingen, G., Gollwitzer, P. M. ( 2010 ). Strategies of setting and implementing goals: Mental contrasting and implementation intentions . In Maddux, J. E., Tangney, J. P. (Eds.), Social psychological foundations of clinical psychology (pp. 114 – 135 ). New York, NY : Guilford Press .

Google Scholar

Oettingen, G., Mayer, D., Timur Sevincer, A., Stephens, E. J., Pak, H., Hagenah, M. ( 2009 ). Mental contrasting and goal commitment: The mediating role of energization . Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 35, 608 – 622 . doi:10.1177/0146167208330856

Google Scholar SAGE Journals | ISI

Oettingen, G., Stephens, E. J. ( 2009 ). Fantasies and motivationally intelligent goal setting . In Moskowitz, G. B., Grant, H. (Eds.), The psychology of goals (pp. 153 – 178 ). New York, NY : Guilford Press .

Google Scholar

Overholser, J. C. ( 1995 ). Cognitive-behavioral treatment of depression, Part III: Reducing cognitive biases . Journal of Contemporary Psychotherapy, 25, 311 – 329 . doi:10.1007/BF02306567

Google Scholar

Oyserman, D. ( 2007 ). Social identity and self-regulation . In Kruglanski, A. W., Higgins, E. T. (Eds.), Social psychology: Handbook of basic principles (pp. 432 – 453 ). New York, NY : Guilford Press .

Google Scholar

Oyserman, D., Bybee, D., Terry, K. ( 2006 ). Possible selves and academic outcomes: How and when possible selves impel action . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 91, 188 – 204 . doi:10.1037/0022-3514.91.1.188

Google Scholar Medline | ISI

Papies, E. K., Barsalou, L. W., Custers, R. ( 2011 ). Mindful attention prevents mindless impulses . Social Psychological & Personality Science, 3, 291 – 299 . doi:10.1177/1948550611419031

Google Scholar SAGE Journals

Piquero, A. R., Jennings, W. G., Farrington, D. P., Diamond, B., Gonzalez, J. M. R. ( 2016 ). A meta-analysis update on the effectiveness of early self-control improvement programs to improve self-control and reduce delinquency . Journal of Experimental Criminology, 12, 249 – 264 . doi:10.1007/s11292-016-9257-z

Google Scholar ISI

Prelec, D. ( 2004 ). Decreasing impatience: A criterion for non-stationary time preference and “hyperbolic” discounting . Scandinavian Journal of Economics, 106, 511 – 532 . doi:10.1111/j.0347-0520.2004.00375.x

Google Scholar ISI

Prelec, D., Herrnstein, R. J. ( 1991 ). Preferences or principles: Alternative guidelines for choice . In Zeckhauser, R. J. (Ed.), Strategy and choice (pp. 319 – 340 ). Cambridge, MA : MIT Press .

Google Scholar

Prinsen, S., Evers, C., Wijngaards, L., van Vliet, R., de Ridder, D. ( 2018 ). Does self-licensing benefit self-regulation over time? An ecological momentary assessment study of food temptations . Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 44, 914 – 927 .

Google Scholar SAGE Journals | ISI

Prochaska, J. O., DiClemente, C. C., Norcross, J. C. ( 1992 ). In search of how people change: Applications to addictive behaviors . American Psychologist, 47, 1102 – 1114 . doi:10.1037/0003-066X.47.9.1102

Google Scholar Medline | ISI

Pronin, E., Lin, D. Y., Ross, L. ( 2002 ). The bias blind spot: Perceptions of bias in self versus others . Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 28, 369 – 381 . doi:10.1177/0146167202286008

Google Scholar SAGE Journals | ISI

Pronin, E., Olivola, C. Y., Kennedy, K. A. ( 2008 ). Doing unto future selves as you would do unto others: Psychological distance and decision making . Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 34, 224 – 236 . doi:10.1177/0146167207310023

Google Scholar SAGE Journals | ISI

Rachlin, H. ( 2004 ). The science of self-control. Cambridge, MA : Harvard University Press .

Google Scholar

Rachlin, H., Green, L., Vanderveldt, A., Fisher, E. B. ( 2018 ). Behavioral medicine’s roots in behaviorism: Concepts and applications . In Principles and concepts of behavioral medicine (pp. 241 – 275 ). New York, NY : Springer .

Google Scholar

Raine, A., Portnoy, J., Liu, J., Mahoomed, T., Hibbeln, J. R. ( 2015 ). Reduction in behavior problems with omega-3 supplementation in children aged 8–16 years: A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, stratiﬁed, parallel-group trial . Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 56, 509 – 520 . doi:10.1111/jcpp.12314

Google Scholar Medline | ISI

Ranney, R., Bruehlman-Senecal, E., Ayduk, O. ( 2016 ). Comparing the effects of three online cognitive reappraisal trainings on well-being . Journal of Happiness Studies, 18, 1319 – 1338 . doi:10.1007/s10902-016-9779-0

Google Scholar

Read, D., Loewenstein, G., Kalyanaraman, S. ( 1999 ). Mixing virtue and vice: Combining the immediacy effect and the diversification heuristic . Journal of Behavioral Decision Making, 12, 257 – 273 . doi:10.1002/(sici)1099-0771(199912)12:4<257::aid-bdm327>3.3.co;2-y

Google Scholar ISI

Read, D., van Leeuwen, B. ( 1998 ). Predicting hunger: The effects of appetite and delay on choice . Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 76, 189 – 205 . doi:10.1006/obhd.1998.2803

Google Scholar Medline | ISI

Reyna, V. F., Wilhelms, E. A. ( 2017 ). The gist of delay of gratification: Understanding and predicting problem behaviors . Journal of Behavioral Decision Making, 30, 610 – 625 . doi:10.1002/bdm.1977

Google Scholar Medline

Richardson, J. T. E. ( 2011 ). Eta squared and partial eta squared as measures of effect size in educational research . Educational Research Review, 6, 135 – 147 . doi:10.1016/j.edurev.2010.12.001

Google Scholar ISI

Rivis, A., Sheeran, P. ( 2003 ). Descriptive norms as an additional predictor in the theory of planned behaviour: A meta-analysis . Current Psychology, 22, 218 – 233 . doi:10.1007/s12144-003-1018-2

Google Scholar ISI

Robinson, C. D., Pons, G. A., Duckworth, A. L., Rogers, T. ( 2018 ). Some middle school students want behavior commitment devices (but take-up does not affect their behavior) . Frontiers in Psychology, 9, Article 206. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00206

Google Scholar

Roediger, H. L. . ( 2004 ). What happened to behaviorism . APS Observer, 17(3). Retrieved from https://www.psychologicalscience.org/observer/what-happened-to-behaviorism

Google Scholar

Rogers, T., Bazerman, M. H. ( 2008 ). Future lock-in: Future implementation increases selection of ‘should’ choices . Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 106, 1 – 20 . doi:10.1016/j.obhdp.2007.08.001

Google Scholar ISI

Rogers, T., Feller, A. ( 2016 ). Discouraged by peer excellence: Exposure to exemplary peer performance causes quitting . Psychological Science, 27, 365 – 374 . doi:10.1177/0956797615623770

Google Scholar SAGE Journals | ISI

Rogers, T., Milkman, K. L., John, L. K., Norton, M. I. ( 2015 ). Beyond good intentions: Prompting people to make plans improves follow through on important tasks . Behavioral Science & Policy, 1(2), 33 – 41 . Retrieved from https://muse.jhu.edu/article/615107

Google Scholar

Rogers, T., Milkman, K. L., Volpp, K. G. ( 2014 ). Commitment devices: Using initiatives to change behavior . Journal of the American Medical Association, 311, 2065 – 2066 . doi:10.1001/jama.2014.3485

Google Scholar Medline | ISI

Royer, H., Stehr, M., Sydnor, J. ( 2015 ). Incentives, commitments, and habit formation in exercise: Evidence from a field experiment with workers at a Fortune-500 company . American Economic Journal: Applied Economics, 7(3), 51 – 84 . doi:10.1257/app.20130327

Google Scholar

Ruffault, A., Czernichow, S., Hagger, M. S., Ferrand, M., Erichot, N., Carette, C., . . . Flahault, C. ( 2017 ). The effects of mindfulness training on weight-loss and health-related behaviours in adults with overweight and obesity: A systematic review and meta-analysis . Obesity Research & Clinical Practice, 11(5, Suppl. 1 ), 90 – 111 . doi:10.1016/j.orcp.2016.09.002

Google Scholar Medline

Samuelson, W., Zeckhauser, R. ( 1988 ). Status quo bias in decision making . Journal of Risk and Uncertainty, 1, 7 – 59 . doi:10.1007/bf00055564

Google Scholar

Schelling, T. ( 1992 ). Self-command: A new discipline . In Elster, J., Loewenstein, G. F. (Eds.), Choice over time (pp. 167 – 176 ). New York, NY : Russell Sage Foundation .

Google Scholar

Schilbach, F. (in press). Alcohol and self-control: A field experiment in India . The American Economic Review.

Google Scholar

Schilbach, F., Schofield, H., Mullainathan, S. ( 2016 ). The psychological lives of the poor . The American Economic Review, 106, 435 – 440 . doi:10.1257/aer.p20161101

Google Scholar Medline

Schmitz, B., Perels, F. ( 2011 ). Self-monitoring of self-regulation during math homework behaviour using standardized diaries . Metacognition and Learning, 6, 255 – 273 . doi:10.1007/s11409-011-9076-6

Google Scholar

Schonert-Reichl, K. A., Oberle, E., Lawlor, M. S., Abbott, D., Thomson, K., Oberlander, T. F., Diamond, A. ( 2015 ). Enhancing cognitive and social–emotional development through a simple-to-administer mindfulness-based school program for elementary school children: A randomized controlled trial . Developmental Psychology, 51, 52 – 66 . doi:10.1037/a0038454

Google Scholar Medline

Schultz, P. W., Nolan, J. M., Cialdini, R. B., Goldstein, N. J., Griskevicius, V. ( 2007 ). The constructive, destructive, and reconstructive power of social norms . Psychological Science, 18, 429 – 434 . doi:10.1111/j.1467-9280.2007.01917.x

Google Scholar SAGE Journals | ISI

Scott, M. L., Nowlis, S. M., Mandel, N., Morales, A. C. ( 2008 ). The effects of reduced food size and package size on the consumption behavior of restrained and unrestrained eaters . Journal of Consumer Research, 35, 391 – 405 . doi:10.1086/591103

Google Scholar ISI

Sheeran, P., Harris, P., Vaughan, J., Oettingen, G., Gollwitzer, P. M. ( 2013 ). Gone exercising: Mental contrasting promotes physical activity among overweight, middle-aged, low-SES fishermen . Health Psychology, 32, 802 – 809 . doi:10.1037/a0029293

Google Scholar Medline

Shenhav, A., Buckner, R. L. ( 2014 ). Neural correlates of dueling affective reactions to win–win choices . Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, USA, 111, 10978 – 10983 . doi:10.1073/pnas.1405725111

Google Scholar Medline

Shepherd, K. A., Coifman, K. G., Matt, L. M., Fresco, D. M. ( 2016 ). Development of a self-distancing task and initial validation of responses . Psychological Assessment, 28, 841 – 855 . doi:10.1037/pas0000297

Google Scholar Medline

Shrout, P. E., Rodgers, J. L. ( 2018 ). Psychology, science, and knowledge construction: Broadening perspectives from the replication crisis . Annual Review of Psychology, 69, 487 – 510 . doi:10.1146/annurev-psych-122216-011845

Google Scholar Medline

Skov, L. R., Lourenco, S., Hansen, G. L., Mikkelsen, B. E., Schofield, C. ( 2013 ). Choice architecture as a means to change eating behaviour in self-service settings: A systematic review . Obesity Reviews, 14, 187 – 196 . doi:10.1111/j.1467-789X.2012.01054.x

Google Scholar Medline | ISI

Smith, A. ( 1976 ). The theory of moral sentiments. London, England : Oxford University Press . (Original work published 1759)

Google Scholar

Snyder, M. ( 1974 ). Self-monitoring of expressive behavior . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 30, 526 – 537 . doi:10.1037/h0037039

Google Scholar ISI

Soman, D., Cheema, A. ( 2011 ). Earmarking and partitioning: Increasing saving by low-income households . Journal of Marketing Research, 48(SPL), S14 – S22 . doi:10.1509/jmkr.48.spl.s14

Google Scholar Abstract | ISI

Stadler, G., Oettingen, G., Gollwitzer, P. M. ( 2009 ). Physical activity in women . American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 36, 29 – 34 . doi:10.1016/j.amepre.2008.09.021

Google Scholar Medline | ISI

Stock, J., Cervone, D. ( 1990 ). Proximal goal-setting and self-regulatory processes . Cognitive Therapy and Research, 14, 483 – 498 . doi:10.1007/BF01172969

Google Scholar ISI

Streamer, L., Seery, M. D., Kondrak, C. L., Lamarche, V. M., Saltsman, T. L. ( 2016 ). Not I, but she: The beneficial effects of self-distancing on challenge/threat cardiovascular responses . Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 70, 235 – 241 . doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2016.11.008

Google Scholar

Strotz, R. H. ( 1955 ). Myopia and inconsistency in dynamic utility maximization . The Review of Economic Studies, 23, 165 – 180 .

Google Scholar ISI

Tang, C. K. ( 2017 , September 1 ). Do speed cameras save lives? (SERC Discussion Paper No. 0221). Spatial Economics Research Centre, London School of Economics and Political Science . Retrieved from http://eprints.lse.ac.uk/86567/1/sercdp0221.pdf

Google Scholar

Thaler, R., Benartzi, S. ( 2004 ). Save more tomorrow™: Using behavioral economics to increase employee saving . Journal of Political Economy, 112(S1): S164 – S187 . doi:10.1086/380085

Google Scholar ISI

Thaler, R. H., Shefrin, H. M. ( 1981 ). An economic theory of self-control . Journal of Political Economy, 89, 392 – 406 . doi:10.1086/260971

Google Scholar ISI

Thaler, R. H., Sunstein, C. R. ( 2003 ). Libertarian paternalism . The American Economic Review, 93, 175 – 179 . doi:10.1257/000282803321947001

Google Scholar ISI

Thaler, R. H., Sunstein, C. R. ( 2009 ). Nudge: Improving decisions about health, wealth, and happiness. New York, NY : Penguin Books .

Google Scholar

Thoma, N., Pilecki, B., McKay, D. ( 2015 ). Contemporary cognitive behavior therapy: A review of theory, history, and evidence . Psychodynamic Psychiatry, 43, 423 – 462 .

Google Scholar Medline

Thorndike, A. N., Bright, O. J. M., Dimond, M. A., Fishman, R., Levy, D. E. ( 2017 ). Choice architecture to promote fruit and vegetable purchases by families participating in the Special Supplemental Program for Women, Infants, and Children (WIC): Randomized corner store pilot study . Public Health Nutrition, 20, 1297 – 1305 .

Google Scholar Medline | ISI

Thorndike, A. N., Riis, J., Sonnenberg, L. M., Levy, D. E. ( 2014 ). Traffic-light labels and choice architecture: Promoting healthy food choices . American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 46, 143 – 149 .

Google Scholar Medline | ISI

Thorndike, A. N., Sonnenberg, L., Riis, J., Barraclough, S., Levy, D. E. ( 2012 ). A 2-phase labeling and choice architecture intervention to improve healthy food and beverage choices . American Journal of Public Health, 102, 527 – 533 .

Google Scholar Medline | ISI

Trope, Y., Liberman, N. ( 2010 ). Construal-level theory of psychological distance . Psychological Review, 117, 440 – 463 . doi:10.1037/a0018963

Google Scholar Medline | ISI

VanEpps, E. M., Downs, J. S., Loewenstein, G. ( 2016 a). Advance ordering for healthier eating? Field experiments on the relationship between the meal order–consumption time delay and meal content . Journal of Marketing Research, 53, 369 – 380 . doi:10.1509/jmr.14.0234

Google Scholar SAGE Journals | ISI

VanEpps, E. M., Downs, J. S., Loewenstein, G. ( 2016 b). Calorie label formats: Using numeric and traffic light calorie labels to reduce lunch calories . Journal of Public Policy & Marketing, 35, 26 – 36 . doi:10.1509/jppm.14.112

Google Scholar SAGE Journals | ISI

van Gelder, J. L., Hershfield, H. E., Nordgren, L. F. ( 2013 ). Vividness of the future self predicts delinquency . Psychological Science, 24, 974 – 980 . doi:10.1177/0956797612465197

Google Scholar SAGE Journals | ISI

van Gelder, J. L., Luciano, E. C., Kranenbarg, M. W., Hershfield, H. E. ( 2015 ). Friends with my future self: Longitudinal vividness intervention reduces delinquency . Criminology, 53, 158 – 179 . doi:10.1111/1745-9125.12064

Google Scholar

Vohs, K. D., Baumeister, R. F., Schmeichel, B. J., Twenge, J. M., Nelson, N. M., Tice, D. M. ( 2008 ). Making choices impairs subsequent self-control: A limited-resource account of decision making, self-regulation, and active initiative . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 94, 883 – 898 . doi:10.1037/0022-3514.94.5.883

Google Scholar Medline | ISI

Watson, J. B. ( 1913 ). Psychology as the behaviorist views it . Psychological Review, 20, 158 – 177 .

Google Scholar

Wechsler, H., Nelson, T., Lee, J. E., Seiberg, M., Lewis, C., Keeling, R. ( 2003 ). Perception and reality: A national evaluation of social norms marketing interventions to reduce college students’ heavy alcohol use . Quarterly Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 64, 484 – 494 . doi:10.15288/jsa.2003.64.484

Google Scholar

Werch, C. E., Owen, D. M. ( 2002 ). Iatrogenic effects of alcohol and drug prevention programs . Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 63, 581 – 590 .

Google Scholar Medline | ISI

West, S. L., O’Neal, K. K. ( 2004 ). Project DARE outcome effectiveness revisited . American Journal of Public Health, 94, 1027 – 1029 . doi:10.2105/ajph.94.6.1027

Google Scholar Medline | ISI

Westbrook, C., Creswell, J. D., Tabibnia, G., Julson, E., Kober, H., Tindle, H. A. ( 2012 ). Mindful attention reduces neural and self-reported cue-induced craving in smokers . Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience, 8, 73 – 84 . doi:10.1093/scan/nsr076

Google Scholar

White, R. E., Carlson, S. M. ( 2016 ). What would Batman do? Self-distancing improves executive function in young children . Developmental Science, 19, 419 – 426 .

Google Scholar Medline

White, R. E., Kross, E., Duckworth, A. L. ( 2015 ). Spontaneous self-distancing and adaptive self-reflection across adolescence . Child Development, 86, 1272 – 1281 . doi:10.1111/cdev.12370

Google Scholar Medline | ISI

Wiese, C. W., Tay, L., Duckworth, A. L., D’Mello, S., Kuykendall, L., Hofmann, W., . . . Vohs, K. D. ( 2018 ). Too much of a good thing? Exploring the inverted-U relationship between self-control and happiness . Journal of Personality, 86, 380 – 396 . doi:10.1111/jopy.12322

Google Scholar Medline

Wisdom, J., Downs, J. S., Loewenstein, G. ( 2010 ). Promoting healthy choices: Information versus convenience . American Economic Journal: Applied Economics, 2, 164 – 178 .

Google Scholar ISI

Witkiewitz, K., Bowen, S., Douglas, H., Hsu, S. H. ( 2013 ). Mindfulness-based relapse prevention for substance craving . Addictive Behaviors, 38, 1563 – 1571 . doi:10.1016/j.addbeh.2012.04.001

Google Scholar Medline | ISI

Zhang, Q., Wang, C., Zhao, Q., Yang, L., Buschkuehl, M., Jaeggi, S. M. ( 2018 ). The malleability of executive function in early childhood: Effects of schooling and targeted training . Developmental Science. Advance online publication. doi:10.1111/desc.12748

Google Scholar