Nina L. Khrushcheva explains why "once-great" political parties in democratic countries have fallen into oblivion and how some revisit a revival. While she says the demise of the Communist Party in the Soviet Union was "logical" given its collapse, the decline of major parties in France, India and elsewhere has much polticians' complacency, aloofness, arrogance etc. to thank for.

The recent elections in France has swept old guard politicians aside, while a new generation under Emmanuel Macron is seeking to make a difference. Mainstream parties have collapsed or struggled to reinvent themselves, scrambling to form alliances to maintain their power. But

Macron's victory has also triggered a defection of politicians from mainstream parties to join his movement, which he characterises as neither of the left nor of the right. But what propelled Macron to power is France's system of tactical voting that allows voters to look beyond their party affiliation and cast ballots for him, instead of Marine Le Pen.

In Britain many Labour supporters have for years lost faith in the neoliberal policies embraced by Tony Blair and Gordon Brown. When the left-wing firebrand Jeremy Corbyn became leader, some feared he would lead the party to self-destruction. But Theresa May's snap election miscalculation backfired. And her campaign was catastrophic, allowing Corbyn to strip her of a landslide with his

manifesto that went down well with the socially vulnerable and young people. Tactical voting was also behind the strategy of those who reject May's hard Brexit. Although Corbyn has breathed new life into the party's grassroots but he lacks the support of many of his MPs. Whether he "will actually be able to unite and reinvigorate his party remains far from certain."

Since the 2014 landslide win of Narendra Modi's Hindu nationalist party, the BJP, many asked whether India's 130-year-old National Congress party were in terminal decline. The party's biggest handicap is its excessive dependence on the Nehru-Gandhi dynasty which critics say is "past its sell-by-date." Its dominance impedes decision-making, perpetuates a feudal political culture, stifles dissent and smothers talent from outside the party. The young heir, Rahul Gandhi is said to be arrogant and out of touch with political reality.

African National Congress lost its moral compass since Nelse Mandela stepped down in 1999. Its downfall had been accelerated under Jacob Zuma, whose rule is marred by greed, crises and a stalling economy. But the ANC is still protecting him, despite corruption scandals. Critis demand his resignation and he is due to be replaced at a party conference in December. If the ANC wins the 2019 election, the presidency will then be handed to his successor.

History has seen the comeback of parties that have lost their relevance for decades and only awakened from hibernation when a candidate or an issue suddenly captures people's attention and imagination. Social-political, economic and demographic changes have also an impact on citizens' voting preferences, ushering in new parties that are seeking political power.

The raison d'être of a political party in a democracy nowadays is no longer dictated by partisan ideology, but aims to cater to voters' demands, as if it were seeking "to keep up with consumer tastes." Populists sometimes instil fear and instigate violence to create a political reality on the ground to justify their rise and existence. As parties are seen by many voters as "brands" which can be "replaced" if they fail to deliver, partisan loyalty has become fluid.

Nowadays a political party is seen as a vehicle of power steered by rising leaders, who decide a party's guideline, based on the political and economic climate. There are still diehard supporters of mainstream parties, who adhere to partisan ideology. But they often take the short end of the stick in elections, because they fail to acknowledge the political reality.

The author says the "feckless" Brexit vote last year has created a dilemma in Britain that reminds her of the playwright Bertolt Brecht, who "once quipped ironically, the only alternative is to 'dissolve the people and elect another'.” Indeed, the Founding Fathers of America were also distrustful of popular emotions and passions, knowing that people were fickle.

