C++ has a very powerful type system. More often than not, however, this type system goes underutilized, leading to error-prone code and preventable bugs. Of late, I’ve been working through Peter Shirley’s book, Raytracing in One Weekend, and as I was following along, I ran into subtle issues that I felt could have been caught at compile time, had I used C++'s type system more effectively. Today, we will try to design types that make our code safer by preventing a number of such errors - at no runtime cost.

The basic idea

The most fundamental data structure of a raytracer is the humble 3D vector. The book defines it as follows:

class vec3 { public : vec3() {} vec3( float e0, float e1, float e2) { e[ 0 ] = e0; e[ 1 ] = e1; e[ 2 ] = e2; } inline float x () const { return e[ 0 ]; } inline float y () const { return e[ 1 ]; } inline float z () const { return e[ 2 ]; } inline float r () const { return e[ 0 ]; } inline float g () const { return e[ 1 ]; } inline float b () const { return e[ 2 ]; } inline const vec3 & operator + () const { return * this ; } inline vec3 operator - () const { return vec3 ( - e[ 0 ], - e[ 1 ], - e[ 2 ]); } inline float operator []( int i) const { return e[i]; } inline float & operator []( int i) { return e[i]; } inline vec3 & operator += ( const vec3 & v2); inline vec3 & operator -= ( const vec3 & v2); inline vec3 & operator *= ( const vec3 & v2); inline vec3 & operator /= ( const vec3 & v2); inline vec3 & operator *= ( const float t); inline vec3 & operator /= ( const float t); inline float length () const { return sqrt(e[ 0 ] * e[ 0 ] + e[ 1 ] * e[ 1 ] + e[ 2 ] * e[ 2 ]); } inline float squared_length () const { return e[ 0 ] * e[ 0 ] + e[ 1 ] * e[ 1 ] + e[ 2 ] * e[ 2 ]; } inline void make_unit_vector (); float e[ 3 ]; };

This allows us to reuse the vec3 type for all vectors and colors, and defines every operator one might need. For a book on raytracing, this is convenient, since it keeps the code compact and simple. However, it also leads to code that is more error-prone, especially for larger projects.

A bit of theory

Let’s analyze the case of a Euclidean vector. Wikipedia tells us that a Euclidean vector is a geometric object that has magnitude. It has 2 types:

A bound vector has a fixed starting and ending point. They represent a fixed point in space, relative to some frame of reference. If we fix the starting point at the origin, this bound vector can represent the Cartesian coordinate of a point relative to the origin.

has a fixed starting and ending point. They represent a fixed point in space, relative to some frame of reference. If we fix the starting point at the origin, this bound vector can represent the Cartesian coordinate of a point relative to the origin. A free vector has no initial point - it only has direction and magnitude.

Often, however, we need a way to represent only direction. A unit vector does exactly this - it is a free vector with its magnitude normalized to 1.0 .

Given the following data types, we can define some arithmetic operators on them:

BoundVec3 + FreeVec3 = BoundVec3 BoundVec3 - FreeVec3 = BoundVec3 BoundVec3 - BoundVec3 = FreeVec3 FreeVec3 + FreeVec3 = FreeVec3 FreeVec3 - FreeVec3 = FreeVec3 FreeVec3 * scalar = FreeVec3 FreeVec3 / scalar = FreeVec3 dot(FreeVec3, FreeVec3) = scalar cross(FreeVec3, FreeVec3) = FreeVec3 UnitVec3 * scalar = FreeVec3 UnitVec3 / scalar = FreeVec3

The code

For our data structures, we will make use of double rather than float . However, we want to be able to switch between them easily if needed, so we create a type alias:

using value_type = double ;

Let’s define a Euclidean vector and its two subtypes. As per the definition, it has just one property - its length() .

struct Vec3 { private : value_type _x; value_type _y; value_type _z; public : constexpr Vec3( const value_type x, const value_type y, const value_type z) : _x{x}, _y{y}, _z{z} {} constexpr value_type x () const { return this -> _x; } constexpr value_type y () const { return this -> _y; } constexpr value_type z () const { return this -> _z; } constexpr value_type & x() { return this -> _x; } constexpr value_type & y() { return this -> _y; } constexpr value_type & z() { return this -> _z; } value_type length () const { return std :: hypot( this -> x(), this -> y(), this -> z()); } };

Here, we use const-overloading to create inspector and mutator methods for x , y , and z . We will see why later.

The first subtype is a bound vector:

struct BoundVec3 : Vec3 { using Vec3 :: Vec3; constexpr explicit BoundVec3 ( const Vec3 & vec3) : Vec3 :: Vec3{vec3} {} constexpr BoundVec3 & operator += ( const FreeVec3 & other) { this -> x() += other.x(); this -> y() += other.y(); this -> z() += other.z(); return * this ; } constexpr BoundVec3 & operator -= ( const FreeVec3 & other) { return * this += ( - other); } }; constexpr FreeVec3 operator - ( const BoundVec3 & v1, const BoundVec3 & v2) { return FreeVec3{v1.x() - v2.x(), v1.y() - v2.y(), v1.z() - v2.z()}; } constexpr BoundVec3 operator + (BoundVec3 v1, const FreeVec3 & v2) { return v1 += v2; } constexpr BoundVec3 operator - (BoundVec3 v1, const FreeVec3 & v2) { return v1 -= v2; }

The second subtype is a free vector:

struct FreeVec3 : Vec3 { using Vec3 :: Vec3; constexpr explicit FreeVec3 ( const Vec3 & vec3) : Vec3 :: Vec3{vec3} {} constexpr value_type dot ( const FreeVec3 & other) const { return this -> x() * other.x() + this -> y() * other.y() + this -> z() * other.z(); } constexpr FreeVec3 cross ( const FreeVec3 & other) const { return FreeVec3{ this -> y() * other.z() - this -> z() * other.y(), this -> z() * other.x() - this -> x() * other.z(), this -> x() * other.y() - this -> y() * other.x()}; } constexpr FreeVec3 & operator += ( const FreeVec3 & other) { this -> x() += other.x(); this -> y() += other.y(); this -> z() += other.z(); return * this ; } constexpr FreeVec3 & operator -= ( const FreeVec3 & other) { return * this += ( - other); } constexpr FreeVec3 & operator *= ( const value_type scalar) { this -> x() *= scalar; this -> y() *= scalar; this -> z() *= scalar; return * this ; } constexpr FreeVec3 & operator /= ( const value_type scalar) { this -> x() /= scalar; this -> y() /= scalar; this -> z() /= scalar; return * this ; } }; constexpr FreeVec3 operator + ( const FreeVec3 & v) { return v; } constexpr FreeVec3 operator - ( const FreeVec3 & v) { return FreeVec3{ - v.x(), - v.y(), - v.z()}; } constexpr FreeVec3 operator + (FreeVec3 v1, const FreeVec3 & v2) { return v1 += v2; } constexpr FreeVec3 operator - (FreeVec3 v1, const FreeVec3 & v2) { return v1 -= v2; } constexpr FreeVec3 operator * (FreeVec3 v, const value_type scalar) { return v *= scalar; } constexpr FreeVec3 operator / (FreeVec3 v, const value_type scalar) { return v /= scalar; }

Now, onto unit vectors. These are a little different, in the sense that they’re not truly Euclidean vectors. Rather, they are an abstraction over free vectors that guarantee a length of 1.0 . Hence, there is no need of a length() function, and we want to prevent the user from mutating any fields in order to preserve its guarantees. In such a case, it may be more idiomatic to use composition rather than inheritance:

struct UnitVec3 { UnitVec3(value_type x, value_type y, value_type z) : UnitVec3{FreeVec3{x, y, z}} {} explicit UnitVec3 ( const Vec3 & vec3) : UnitVec3{FreeVec3{vec3}} {} explicit UnitVec3 ( const FreeVec3 & vec3) : inner{vec3 / vec3.length()} {} constexpr value_type x () const { return this -> to_free().x(); } constexpr value_type y () const { return this -> to_free().y(); } constexpr value_type z () const { return this -> to_free().z(); } constexpr const FreeVec3 & to_free() const { return inner; } private : FreeVec3 inner; }; constexpr FreeVec3 operator * ( const UnitVec3 & v, const value_type scalar) { return v.to_free() * scalar; } constexpr FreeVec3 operator / ( const UnitVec3 & v, const value_type scalar) { return v.to_free() / scalar; }

As a bonus, composition also provides us cheap interconversion between the UnitVec3 and FreeVec3 types. While we have defined an explicit to_free() function here, we might instead allow implicit conversions via a typecast operator.

Also notice how UnitVec3 only defines inspector methods for x() , y() , and z() . This ensures that the fields cannot be mutated, preserving our guarantees while keeping the API consistent.

Designing a Color3 struct while keeping in mind the required guarantees should be fairly straightforward now, and is left as an exercise to the reader.

Conclusion

Besides improving safety, better types enforce certain contracts, resulting in much clearer code. For example, a Ray implementation would go from this:

struct Ray { Vec3 origin; Vec3 direction; constexpr Vec3 at ( const value_type t) const { return this -> origin + ( this -> direction * t); } };

to this:

struct Ray { BoundVec3 origin; UnitVec3 direction; constexpr BoundVec3 at ( const value_type t) const { return this -> origin + ( this -> direction * t); // ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ this becomes a FreeVec3 } };

Notice how our richer types not only model the problem more accurately, but also serve as a form of documentation.

Raytracers in production are heavily performance-oriented, and their design tends to lend itself to that requirement. While this article certainly does not intend to lay a foundation for any production-grade raytracer, I hope it provides some insight into how to design types and APIs in C++ that allow for code that is error-free, safer, and more robust.

If you have suggestions, questions, or complaints, feel free to drop me a mail!