Disclaimer

In this short - let’s call it “semi-informative rant” - I’m going to be looking at mutexes and fork() in shared libraries with threaded users. I’m going to leave out other locking primitives including semaphores and file locks which would deserve posts of their own.

The Stuff You Came Here For

A mutex is simply put one of the many synchronization primitives to protect a range of code usually referred to as “critical section” from concurrent operations. Reasons for using them are many. Examples include:

avoiding data corruption through multiple writers changing the same data structure at the same time

preventing readers from retrieving inconsistent data because a writer is changing the data structure at the same time

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In its essence it is actually a pretty easy concept once you think about it. You want ownership of a resource, you want that ownership to be exclusive, you want that ownership to be limited from t_1 to t_n where you yield it. In the language of C and the pthread implementation this can be expressed in code e.g. as:

static pthread_mutex_t thread_mutex = PTHREAD_MUTEX_INITIALIZER ; static int some_function ( /* parameters of relevance*/ ) { int ret ; ret = pthread_mutex_lock ( & thread_mutex ); if ( ret != 0 ) { /* handle error */ _exit ( EXIT_FAILURE ); } /* critical section */ ret = pthread_mutex_unlock ( & thread_mutex ); if ( ret != 0 ) { /* handle error */ _exit ( EXIT_FAILURE ); } }

Using concepts like mutexes in a shared library is always a tricky thing. What I mean by that is that if you can avoid them avoid them. For a start, mutexes usually come with a performance impact. The size of the impact varies with a couple of different parameters e.g. how long the critical section is. Depending on what you are doing these performance impacts might or might not matter to you or not even register as significant. So the performance impact argument is a difficult one to make. Usually programmers with a decent understanding of locking can find ways to minimize the impact of mutexes by toying with the layout and structure of critical sections ranging from choosing the right data structures to simply moving code out of critical sections.

There are better arguments to be made against casually using mutexes though. One is closely coupled to what type of program you’re writing. If you’re like me coming from the background of a low-level C shared library like LXC you will at some point find yourself thinking about the question whether there’s any possibility that you might be used in threaded contexts. If you can confidently answer this question with “no” you can likely stop caring and move on. If you can’t then you should think really really hard in order to avoid mutexes. The problem is a classical one and I’m not going to do a deep dive as this has been done before all over the web. What I’m alluding to is of course the mess that is fork() ing in threads. Most shared libraries that do anything interesting will likely want to fork() of helper tasks in API functions. In threaded contexts this quickly becomes a source of undefined behavior. The way fork() ing in threads works is that only the thread that called fork() gets duplicated in the child, the others are terminated. Given that fork() duplicates memory state, locking etc. all of which is shared amongst threads you quickly run into deadlocks whereby mutexes that were held in other threads are never unlocked. But it can also cause nasty undefined behavior whereby file pointers via e.g. fopen() although set up so as to be unique to each thread get corrupted due to inconsistent locking caused by e.g. dynamically allocating memory via malloc() or friends in the child process because behind the scenes in a lot of libcs mutexes are used when allocating memory.

The possibilities for bugs are endless. Another good example is the use of the exit() function to terminate child processes. The exit() function is not thread-safe since it runs standard and user-registered exit handlers from a shared resource. This is a common source of process corruption. The lesson here is of course to always use _exit() instead of exit() . The former is thread-safe and doesn’t run exit handlers. But that presupposes that you don’t care about exit handlers.

A lot of these bugs are hard to understand, debug, and - to be honest - even to explain given that they are a mixture of undefined behavior and legal thread and fork() semantics.

Running Handlers At fork()

Of course, these problems were realized early on and one way to address those is to register handlers that would be called at each fork() . In the pthread slang the name of the function to register such handlers is appropriately “ pthread_atfork() ”. In the case of mutexes this means you would register three handlers that would be called at different times at fork() . One right before the fork() - prepare handler - to e.g. unlock any implicitly held mutexes. One to be called after fork() processing has finished in the child - child handler - and one called after fork() processing in the parent finishes - parent handler. In the pthread implementation and for a shared library this would likely look something like this:

void process_lock ( void ) { int ret ; ret = pthread_mutex_lock ( & thread_mutex ); if ( ret != 0 ) _exit ( EXIT_FAILURE ); } void process_unlock ( void ) { int ret ; ret = pthread_mutex_unlock ( & thread_mutex ); if ( ret != 0 ) _exit ( EXIT_FAILURE ); } #ifdef HAVE_PTHREAD_ATFORK __attribute__ (( constructor )) static void __register_atfork_handlers ( void ) { /* Acquire lock right before fork() processing to avoid undefined * behavior by unlocking an unlocked mutex. Then release mutex in child * and parent. */ pthread_atfork ( process_lock , process_unlock , process_unlock ); } #endif

While this sounds like a reasonable approach it has various and serious drawbacks:

These atfork handlers come with a cost that - again depending on your program - you maybe would like to avoid. They don’t allow you to explicitly hold a lock when fork() ing in the same task depending on what handlers you are registering. This is straightforward. Let’s reason about the following code sequence for a minute ignoring whether holding the mutex would make sense that way: int ret , status ; pid_t pid ; process_lock (); pid = fork (); if ( pid < 0 ) return - 1 ; if ( pid == 0 ) { /* critical section */ process_unlock (); _exit ( EXIT_SUCCESS ); } process_unlock (); again : ret = waitpid ( pid , & status , 0 ); if ( ret < 0 ) { if ( errno == EINTR ) goto again ; return - 1 ; } if ( ret != pid ) goto again ; if ( ! WIFEXITED ( status ) || WEXITSTATUS ( status ) != 0 ) return - 1 ; return 0 ; No let’s add the logic caused by pthread_atfork() in there (The mutex annotation is slightly misleading but should make things a little easier to follow): int ret , status ; pid_t pid ; process_lock (); /* <mutex 1> (explicitly acquired) */ process_lock (); /* <mutex 2> (implicitly acquired by prepare atfork handler) */ pid = fork (); if ( pid < 0 ) return - 1 ; if ( pid == 0 ) { /* <mutex 1> held (transparently held) */ /* <mutex 2> held (opaquely held) */ /* critical section */ process_unlock (); /* <mutex 1> (explicitly released) */ process_unlock (); /* <mutex 2> (implicitly released by child atfork handler) */ _exit ( EXIT_SUCCESS ); } process_unlock (); /* mutex_2 (implicitly released by parent atfork handler) */ process_unlock (); /* mutex_1 (explicitly released) */ again : ret = waitpid ( pid , & status , 0 ); if ( ret < 0 ) { if ( errno == EINTR ) goto again ; return - 1 ; } if ( ret != pid ) goto again ; if ( ! WIFEXITED ( status ) || WEXITSTATUS ( status ) != 0 ) return - 1 ; return 0 ; That doesn’t look crazy at a first glance. But let’s explicitly look at the problem: int ret , status ; pid_t pid ; process_lock (); /* <mutex 1> (explicitly acquired) */ process_lock (); /* **DEADLOCK** <mutex 2> (implicitly acquired by prepare atfork handler) */ pid = fork (); if ( pid < 0 ) return - 1 ; They aren’t run when you use clone() (which obviously is a big deal for a container API like LXC ). So scenarios like the following are worrying: /* premise: some other thread holds a mutex */ pid_t pid ; void * stack = alloca ( /* standard page size */ ); /* Here atfork prepare handler needs to be run but won't. */ pid = clone ( foo , stack + /* standard page size */ , SIGCHLD , NULL ); if ( pid < 0 ) return - 1 ; The point about clone() is interestingly annoying. Since clone() is Linux specific there’s no POSIX standard that gives you a guarantee that atfork handlers are run or that they are not run. That’s up to the implementation (read “libc in question”). Currently glibc doesn’t run atfork handlers but if my fellow maintainers and I where to build consensus that it would be a great idea to change it in the next release then we would be free to do so (Don’t worry, we won’t.). So to make sure that no atfork handlers are run you need to go directly through the syscall() helper that all libcs should provide. This should give you a strong enough guarantee. That is of course an excellent solution if you don’t care about atfork handlers. However, when you do care about them you better not use clone() . Running a subset of already registered atfork handlers is a royal pain. This relates back to the earlier point about e.g. wanting to explicitly hold a lock in a task while fork() ing. In this case you might want to exclude the handler right before the fork() that locks the mutex. If you need to do this then you’re going to have to venture into the dark dark land of function interposition. Something which is really ugly. It’s like asking how to make Horcruxes or - excuse the pun - fork() cruxes. Sure, you’ll eventually trick some low-level person into explaining it to you because it’s just such a weird and exotic thing to know or care about but that explanation will ultimately end with phrases such as “That’s all theoretical, right?” or “You’re not going to do this, right?” or - the most helpful one (honestly) - “The probability that something’s wrong with your programm’s design is higher than the probability that you really need interposition wrappers.”. In this specific case interposing pthread_atfork() would probably involve using pthread_once() calling dlsym(RTLD_NEXT, "pthread_atfork") and recording the function pointer in a global variable. Additionally, you likely want to start maintaining a jump table (essentially an array of function pointers) and register a callback wrapper around the jump table entries. You can then go on to call the callback in pthread_atfork() with different indices into the jump table. If you’re super ambitious (read “insane”) you could then have a different set of callbacks for each fork() in your program. Also, I just told you how to make a fork() crux. Let me tell you while I did this for “fun” once there’s a limit to how dirty you can feel without hating yourself. Also, this is all theoretical, right?

The list could go on and be even more detailed but the gist is: if there’s a chance that your shared library is called in threaded contexts try to come up with a design that lets you avoid mutexes and atfork handlers. On the road to LXC 3.0 we’ve recently managed to kick out all mutexes and atfork handlers of which there were very few already. This has greatly improved our confidence in threaded use cases. This is especially important since we have API consumers that call LXC from inherently threaded contexts such as the Go runtime. LXD obviously is the prime example but also the general go-lxc bindings are threaded API consumers. To be fair, we’ve never had issues before as mutexes were extremely rare in the first place but one should always remember that no locking is the best locking. :)

Addendum

2018-03-06

Coming back once more to the point about running atfork handlers. Atfork handlers are of course an implementation detail in the pthread and POSIX world. They are by no means a conceptual necessity when it comes to mutexes. But some standard is better than no standard when it comes to system’s design. Any decent libc implementation supporting pthread will very likely also support atfork handlers (even Bionic has gained atfork support along the way). But this immediately raises another problem as it requires programming languages on POSIX systems to go through the system’s libc when doing a fork() . If they don’t then atfork handlers won’t be run even if you call fork() . One prime example is Go . The syscall and sys/unix packages will not go through the system’s libc. They will directly do the corresponding syscall. So atfork handlers are not available when fork() ing in Go . Now, Go is a little special as it doesn’t support fork() properly in the first place because of all the reasons (and more) I outlined above.

and world. They are by no means a conceptual necessity when it comes to mutexes. But some standard is better than no standard when it comes to system’s design. Any decent libc implementation supporting will very likely also support atfork handlers (even has gained atfork support along the way). But this immediately raises another problem as it requires programming languages on systems to go through the system’s libc when doing a . If they don’t then atfork handlers won’t be run even if you call . One prime example is . The and packages will go through the system’s libc. They will directly do the corresponding syscall. So atfork handlers are not available when ing in . Now, is a little special as it doesn’t support properly in the first place because of all the reasons (and more) I outlined above. Solaris : Let’s talk about Solaris for a minute. Before I said The way fork() ing in threads works is that only the thread that called fork() gets duplicated in the child, the others are terminated. That is an implementation detail of the pthread world. There are other implementations that don’t terminate all other threads but the calling thread. One example are Solaris Threads (or as I like to call it sthread ). Actually, - hold on to your seats - sthread s support both semantics. Specifically, the sthread implementation used to have fork1() and fork() where fork1() would only duplicate the fork1() ing thread and fork() would duplicate all threads. The fork() behavior was obviously dependent on whether you linked with -lpthread or -lthread on Solaris which of course was a massive source of confusion. (Changing the behavior of functions depening on linker flags seeems like a good way into anarchy.) So Solaris started enforcing pthread semantics for fork() for both -lthread and -lpthread and added forkall() to support duplicating all threads.

Christian