Introduction

The autonomous sensory meridian response (ASMR) is a sensory phenomenon typically characterised by electrostatic-like tingling across the scalp, following the line of the spine downwards, extending to the arms and further depending on the intensity of the response (Barratt & Davis, 2015). These tingling sensations can be elicited in response to a number of auditory and visual triggers. Often accompanied by a feeling of relaxation, many individuals who experience ASMR actively engage with the sensation in order to relieve negative mood, and to induce sleep (Barratt & Davis, 2015).

It has taken some time to recognise ASMR as a distinct and atypical experience, likely due to its conflation with ‘frisson’ (Colver & El-Alayli, 2016). However initial research into ASMR has been prompted, in recent years, by the establishment of a large online community. As ASMR can be induced in a number of ways, both in everyday life and through the consumption of specific media, this community currently resides mainly on the video sharing website Youtube. Many videos on this platform intended for use in ASMR induction boast millions of views (Barratt & Davis, 2015). Many of the most popular ASMR videos include interpersonal triggers such as whispering and personal attention (e.g. haircuts), alongside more abstract, non-person-centric triggers such as crisp sounds, and focused tasks (e.g. towel folding, painting nails; Barratt & Davis, 2015). It should, though, be noted here that this list is non-exhaustive, and the effectiveness of particular triggers varies widely between ASMR capable individuals.

To date no studies exist of the prevalence of ASMR-capability in the general population, although anecdotally many researchers have observed that people are aware of the sensation, but were not aware that it had a name or that other people necessarily also experienced it. However, among those who do report ASMR, there seems to be a concordance in reported personality factors, including elevated openness (Fredborg, Clark & Smith, 2017; McErlean & Banissy, 2017), suggesting a possible predisposition among some people to seek or experience ASMR.

ASMR shares some characteristics with the state of flow, defined as a deeply immersive sense of relaxation and engagement (Csikszentmihalyi, 1979). The flow state contains two components, related to active performance, such as the feeling of operating at peak performance, and passive experience, such as the feeling of time passing at an altered rate (Jackson & Marsh, 1996). This latter component is particularly reminiscent of ASMR, with both states involving a sense of deep relaxation and of well-being, although even the passive component of flow is task-directed whereas ASMR seem to require complete passivity from the person. Previous research has indicated a link between the states (Barratt & Davis, 2015), and a better understanding of the relationship may help in promoting those elements of the flow state that are thought to be helpful in domains such as sports or education (Lee, 2005; Swann et al., 2012).

In recent years, some authors have suggested that ASMR may be related to misophonia (Schröder, Vulink & Denys, 2013; Edelstein et al., 2013), a seemingly contrasting audio-sensory experience in which triggering sounds cause outbursts of anger and disgust. The production of these emotions, produced by sounds such as chewing and breathing, are automatic, and can be severe enough to warrant psychological intervention in efforts to reduce these automatic negative reactions (Bernstein, Angell & Dehle, 2013). This experience contrasts with reports of the ASMR experience, and indeed many who suffer from misophonia also report experiencing ASMR. A recent study by Rouw & Erfanian (2017) highlighted that 50% of those suffering from misophonia involved in the research also experienced ASMR. It has been theorised that perhaps ASMR and misophonia represent opposite ends of a spectrum (Barratt & Davis, 2015) of experience. The idiosyncrasy of misophonia and ASMR is highlighted in the case of ‘mouth sounds’: for some people the sound of chewing or lip-smacking is highly relaxing, while for others it is highly aversive, and mouth sounds are frequently mentioned in studies of the two phenomena. There does not appear to be a good reason why different people should respond so differently to the same stimulus, and further study is needed to understand the affective qualities associated with stimuli that evoke ASMR or misophonia in different people.

Research into the neural correlates and mechanisms of ASMR is still in its infancy. That said, studies suggesting the presence of structural and functional variation between typical and ASMR-capable populations are now starting to appear (Smith, Fredborg & Kornelsen, 2017). For instance, the latter authors investigated the default mode network in those capable of ASMR using resting state functional magnetic resonance imaging. Their analyses revealed evidence of decreased functional connectivity, yet increased connectivity between regions of the occipital, frontal, and temporal cortices in ASMR-capable participants (N = 11) when compared to non-ASMR-capable matched controls. The authors posited that this was evidence of a ‘blending’ of multiple resting state networks, which may give rise to the kind of sensory experiences that come about during ASMR. In support of the view that ASMR and misophonia represent opposing ends of a spectrum, it has been suggested that misophonia is also associated with abnormal resting state or functional connectivity (De Ridder et al., 2011; Kumar et al., 2017). Alteration in the functional connectivity of the brain suggests that people with chronic conditions such as pain syndromes may use ASMR to manage brain states, hinting at an impaired ability to switch between the brain’s resting state and a more active executive state (Barratt & Davis, 2015; Goulden et al., 2014).

Previous exploration of the kinds of stimuli that trigger ASMR has largely focused on interpersonal triggers, and the content of videos featuring hosts (referred to within the ASMR community as ‘ASMRtists’), or individuals carrying out roleplay situations. This largely reflects the nature of ASMR content on the internet, where the powerful triggers of whispering and crisp sounds are incorporated into a situation that implies close contact with the ASMRtist, such as a dental examination or a beauty therapy appointment. However, this approach risks mischaracterising ASMR as a purely interpersonal experience. As a result, the qualities of effective triggers not directly related to interpersonal actions made by a host, such as the properties of effective trigger objects, have largely been overlooked.

Therefore, the current study was designed to further explore the qualities of ASMR-triggering stimuli, both with and without a host or ASMRtist, in individuals who experience the sensation. In particular, it aims to better understand those factors that allow non-interpersonal stimuli to be effective triggers, and to understand how to better design ASMR stimuli for research purposes. Using an online questionnaire, we surveyed people who self-report experiencing ASMR, and asked about the content that most reliably triggers the sensation. In this exploratory study, we wanted to gather information about the features of the objects within ASMR content, and about the atmosphere and setting of media that people interact with. We therefore explored the following themes: timing (length of time a trigger is operative) and trigger load (number of effective triggers present); atmosphere and characteristics of ASMR content; ideal spatial distance from various types of stimuli; visual characteristics, context, and use of ASMR triggers; audio preferences. Information gathered here will be of interest to creators of ASMR content, and to researchers interested in the nature of ASMR-triggering stimuli.