1. Chauvel, C., Lewin, E., Carpentier, M., Arndt, N. T. & Marini, J.-C. Role of recycled oceanic basalt and sediment in generating the Hf–Nd mantle array. Nat. Geosci. 1, 64–67 (2008).

2. Hofmann, A. Mantle geochemistry: the message from oceanic volcanism. Nature 385, 219–229 (1997).

3. Zindler, A. & Hart, S. Chemical geodynamics. Annu. Rev. Earth Planet. Sci. 14, 493–571 (1986).

4. Rizo, H. et al. Preservation of Earth-forming events in the tungsten isotopic composition of modern flood basalts. Science 352, 809–812 (2016).

5. Anderson, D. L. & King, S. D. Driving the Earth machine? Science 346, 1184–1185 (2014).

6. Pearson, D. G. et al. Hydrous mantle transition zone indicated by ringwoodite included within diamond. Nature 507, 221–224 (2014).

7. Tschauner, O. et al. Ice-VII inclusions in diamonds: evidence for aqueous fluid in Earth’s deep mantle. Science 359, 1136–1139 (2018).

8. Schmandt, B., Jacobsen, S. D., Becker, T. W., Liu, Z. & Dueker, K. G. Dehydration melting at the top of the lower mantle. Science 344, 1265–1268 (2014).

9. Grassi, D., Schmidt, M. W. & Günther, D. Element partitioning during carbonated pelite melting at 8, 13 and 22 GPa and the sediment signature in the EM mantle components. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 327–328, 84–96 (2012).

10. Wang, X. J. et al. Mantle transition zone-derived EM1 component beneath NE China: Geochemical evidence from Cenozoic potassic basalts. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 465, 16–28 (2017).

11. Ballmer, M. D., Schmerr, N. C., Nakagawa, T. & Ritsema, J. Compositional mantle layering revealed by slab stagnation at ~1000-km depth. Sci. Adv. 1, e1500815 (2015).

12. Vogt, P. R. & Jung, W.-Y. in Plates, Plumes and Planetary Processes Vol. 430 (eds Foulger, G. R. & Jurdy, D. M.) 553–591 (Geological Society of America, 2007).

13. Morgan, W. J. Hotspot tracks and the early rifting of the Atlantic. Tectonophysics 94, 123–139 (1983).

14. Benoit, M. H., Long, M. D. & King, S. D. Anomalously thin transition zone and apparently isotropic upper mantle beneath Bermuda: Evidence for upwelling. Geochem. Geophys. Geosyst. 14, 4282–4291 (2013).

15. King, S. D. & Anderson, D. L. Edge-driven convection. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 160, 289–296 (1998).

16. Simmons, N. A., Forte, A. M. & Grand, S. P. Thermochemical structure and dynamics of the African super-plume. Geophys. Res. Lett. 34, L02301 (2007).

17. Reynolds, P. & Aumento, F. Deep Drill 1972. Potassium–argon dating of the Bermuda drill core. Can. J. Earth Sci. 11, 1269–1273 (1974).

18. Janney, P. E. & Castillo, P. R. Geochemistry of the oldest Atlantic oceanic crust suggests mantle plume involvement in the early history of the central Atlantic Ocean. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 192, 291–302 (2001).

19. Sobolev, A. V. et al. The amount of recycled crust in sources of mantle-derived melts. Science 316, 412–417 (2007).

20. Weiss, Y., Class, C., Goldstein, S. L. & Hanyu, T. Key new pieces of the HIMU puzzle from olivines and diamond inclusions. Nature 537, 666–670 (2016).

21. Coogan, L., Saunders, A. & Wilson, R. Aluminum-in-olivine thermometry of primitive basalts: evidence of an anomalously hot mantle source for large igneous provinces. Chem. Geol. 368, 1–10 (2014).

22. Dasgupta, R., Hirschmann, M. M. & Smith, N. D. Partial melting experiments of peridotite + CO 2 at 3 GPa and genesis of alkalic ocean island basalts. J. Petrol. 48, 2093–2124 (2007).

23. Dasgupta, R. et al. Carbon-dioxide-rich silicate melt in the Earth’s upper mantle. Nature 493, 211–215 (2013).

24. Kogiso, T. & Hirschmann, M. M. Partial melting experiments of bimineralic eclogite and the role of recycled mafic oceanic crust in the genesis of ocean island basalts. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 249, 188–199 (2006).

25. Dasgupta, R., Hirschmann, M. M. & Stalker, K. Immiscible transition from carbonate-rich to silicate-rich melts in the 3 GPa melting interval of eclogite + CO 2 and genesis of silica-undersaturated ocean island lavas. J. Petrol. 47, 647–671 (2006).

26. Saal, A. E., Hart, S. R., Shimizu, N., Hauri, E. H. & Layne, G. D. Pb isotopic variability in melt inclusions from oceanic island basalts, polynesia. Science 282, 1481–1484 (1998).

27. Novella, D. et al. The distribution of H 2 O between silicate melt and nominally anhydrous peridotite and the onset of hydrous melting in the deep upper mantle. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 400, 1–13 (2014).

28. O’Leary, J. A., Gaetani, G. A. & Hauri, E. H. The effect of tetrahedral Al3+ on the partitioning of water between clinopyroxene and silicate melt. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 297, 111–120 (2010).

29. Hauri, E. SIMS analysis of volatiles in silicate glasses, 2: isotopes and abundances in Hawaiian melt inclusions. Chem. Geol. 183, 115–141 (2002).

30. Dixon, J. E., Leist, L., Langmuir, C. & Schilling, J.-G. Recycled dehydrated lithosphere observed in plume-influenced mid-ocean-ridge basalt. Nature 420, 385–389 (2002).

31. Castillo, P. R. A proposed new approach and unified solution to old Pb paradoxes. Lithos 252–253, 32–40 (2016).

32. Chauvel, C., Hofmann, A. W. & Vidal, P. HIMU-EM: The French Polynesian connection. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 110, 99–119 (1992).

33. Whalen, L. et al. Supercontinental inheritance and its influence on supercontinental breakup: the Central Atlantic Magmatic Province and the breakup of Pangea. Geochem. Geophys. Geosyst. 16, 3532–3554 (2015).

34. Sheng, J., Liao, J. & Gerya, T. Numerical modeling of deep oceanic slab dehydration: implications for the possible origin of far field intra-contental volcanoes in northeastern China. J. Asian Earth Sci. 117, 328–336 (2016).

35. Ryan, W. B. F. et al. Global Multi-resolution Topography synthesis. Geochem. Geophys. Geosyst. 10, Q03014 (2009).

36. Rowe, M. P. An Explanation of the Geology of Bermuda (Bermuda Government, Ministry of the Environment, 1998).

37. Rice, P. D., Hall, J. M. & Opdyke, N. D. Deep Drill 1972: a paleomagnetic study of the Bermuda Seamount. Can. J. Earth Sci. 17, 232–243 (1980).

38. Mazza, S. E. et al. Volcanoes of the passive margin: the youngest magmatic event in eastern North America. Geology 42, 483–486 (2014).

39. Kelley, K. A., Plank, T., Ludden, J. & Staudigel, H. Composition of altered oceanic crust at ODP Sites 801 and 1149. Geochem. Geophys. Geosyst. 4, 8910 (2003).

40. Gazel, E. et al. Lithosphere versus asthenosphere mantle sources at the Big Pine Volcanic Field, California. Geochem. Geophys. Geosyst. 13, Q0AK06 (2012).

41. He, Z. et al. A flux-free fusion technique for rapid determination of major and trace elements in silicate rocks by LA-ICP-MS. Geostand. Geoanal. Res. 40, 5–21 (2015).

42. Willbold, M. & Jochum, K. P. Multi-element isotope dilution sector field ICP-MS: a precise technique for the analysis of geological materials and its application to geological reference materials. Geostand. Geoanal. Res. 29, 63–82 (2005).

43. Pearce, J. & Peate, D. Tectonic implications of the composition of volcanic arc magmas. Annu. Rev. Earth Planet. Sci. 23, 251–285 (1995).

44. Johnson, K. T. Experimental determination of partition coefficients for rare earth and high-field-strength elements between clinopyroxene, garnet, and basaltic melt at high pressures. Contrib. Mineral. Petrol. 133, 60–68 (1998).

45. Batanova, V. G., Sobolev, A. V. & Kuzmin, D. V. Trace element analysis of olivine: high precision analytical method for JEOL JXA-8230 electron probe microanalyser. Chem. Geol. 419, 149–157 (2015).

46. Prytulak, J. & Elliott, T. TiO 2 enrichment in ocean island basalts. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 263, 388–403 (2007).

47. Dasgupta, R. & Hirschmann, M. M. Melting in the Earth’s deep upper mantle caused by carbon dioxide. Nature 440, 659–662 (2006).

48. Dasgupta, R., Hirschmann, M. M. & Withers, A. C. Deep global cycling of carbon constrained by the solidus of anhydrous, carbonated eclogite under upper mantle conditions. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 227, 73–85 (2004).

49. Dasgupta, R., Hirschmann, M. M. & Stalker, K. Immiscible transition from carbonate- rich to silicate-rich melts in the 3 GPa melting interval of eclogite + CO 2 and genesis of silica-undersaturated ocean island lavas. J. Petrol. 47, 647–671 (2006).

50. Pilet, S., Baker, M. B. & Stolper, E. M. Metasomatized lithosphere and the origin of alkaline lavas. Science 320, 916–919 (2008).

51. Kawabata, H. et al. The petrology and geochemistry of St. Helena alkali basalts: evaluation of the oceanic crust-recycling model for HIMU OIB. J. Petrol. 52, 791–838 (2011).

52. Mirnejad, H. & Bell, K. Origin and source evolution of the Leucite Hills lamproites: evidence from Sr–Nd–Pb–O isotopic compositions. J. Petrol. 47, 2463–2489 (2006).

53. Hofmann, A.W. in Treatisese on Geochemistry 2nd edn, Vol. 3 (eds Holland, H. D. & Turekian, K. K.) 67–101 (Elsevier, Oxford, 2014)

54. Johnson, E. A. & Rossman, G. R. A survey of hydrous species and concentrations in igneous feldspars. Am. Min. 89, 586–600 (2004).

55. Rossman, G. R., Bell, D. R. & Ihinger, P. D. Quantitative analysis of trace OH in garnet and pyroxenes. Am. Min. 80, 465–474 (1995).

56. Plank, T., Kelley, K. A., Zimmer, M. M., Hauri, E. H. & Wallace, P. J. Why do mafic arc magmas contain ∼4wt% water on average? Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 364, 168–179 (2013).

57. Bizimis, M., Salters, V. J., Garcia, M. O. & Norman, M. D. The composition and distribution of the rejuvenated component across the Hawaiian plume: Hf, Nd, Sr, Pb isotope systematics of Kaula lavas and pyroxenite xenoliths. Geochem. Geophys. Geosyst. 14, 4458–4478 (2013).

58. Khanna, T. C., Bizimis, M., Yogodzinski, G. M. & Mallick, S. Hafnium–neodymium isotope systematics of the 2.7 Ga Gadwal greenstone terrane, Eastern Dharwar craton, India: implications for the evolution of the Archean depleted mantle. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 127, 10–24 (2014).

59. Münker, C., Weyer, S., Scherer, E. & Mezger, K. Separation of high field strength elements (Nb, Ta, Zr, Hf) and Lu from rock samples for MC-ICPMS measurements. Geochem. Geophys. Geosyst. 2, 1064 (2001).

60. White, W. M., Albarède, F. & Télouk, P. High-precision analysis of Pb isotope ratios by multi-collector ICP-MS. Chem. Geol. 167, 257–270 (2000).

61. Todd, E., Stracke, A. & Scherer, E. E. Effects of simple acid leaching of crushed and powdered geological materials on high-precision Pb isotope analyses. Geochem. Geophys. Geosyst. 16, 2276–2302 (2015).

62. Galer, S. J. G. & Abouchami, W. Practical application of lead triple spiking for correction of instrumental mass discrimination. Mineral. Mag. 62A, 491–492 (1998).

63. Weis, D. et al. High-precision isotopic characterization of USGS reference materials by TIMS and MC-ICP-MS. Geochem. Geophys. Geosyst. 7, Q08006 (2006).

64. Patchett, P. J. & Tatsumoto, M. A routine high-precision method for Lu-Hf isotope geochemistry and chronology. Contrib. Mineral. Petrol. 75, 263–267 (1981).

65. Stracke, A. Earth’s heterogeneous mantle: A product of convection-driven interaction between crust and mantle. Chem. Geol. 330–331, 274–299 (2012).

66. Elliott, T., Zindler, A. & Bourdon, B. Exploring the kappa conundrum: the role of recycling in the lead isotope evolution of the mantle. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 169, 129–145 (1999).

67. Kuiper, K. F. et al. Synchronizing rock clocks of Earth history. Science 320, 500–504 (2008).

68. Snee, L. W. Argon Thermochronology of Mineral Deposits: A Review of Analytical Methods, Formulations, and Selected Applications. Bulletin 2194 (US Geological Survey, 2002).

69. Staudacher, T., Jessberger, E., Dorflinger, D. & Kiko, J. A refined ultrahigh-vacuum furnace for rare gas analysis. J. Phys. E 11, 781 (1978).

70. McAleer, R. et al. Reaction softening by dissolution–precipitation creep in a retrograde greenschist facies ductile shear zone, New Hampshire, USA. J. Metamorph. Geol. 35, 95–119 (2017).

71. Haugerud, R. A. & Kunk, M. J. ArAr∗: A Computer Program for Reduction of 40Ar–39Ar Data. Report No. 88-261 (US Geological Survey, 1988).

72. Deino, A. L. User’s Manual for Mass Spec v. 7.961. Berkeley Geochronology Center Special Publication No. 3 (Berkeley Geochronological Center, Berkeley, 2014).

73. Ludwig, K.R. User’s Manual for Isoplot 3.75. Berkeley Geochronology Center Special Publication No. 5 (Berkeley Geochronological Center, Berkeley, 2012).

74. Min, K., Mundil, R., Renne, P. R. & Ludwig, K. R. A test for systematic errors in 40Ar/39Ar geochronology through comparison with U/Pb analysis of a 1.1-Ga rhyolite. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 64, 73–98 (2000).

75. Lee, J.-Y. et al. A redetermination of the isotopic abundances of atmospheric Ar. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 70, 4507–4512 (2006).

76. Moucha, R. & Forte, A. M. Changes in African topography driven by mantle convection. Nat. Geosci. 4, 707–712 (2011).

77. Owaga, M. Chemical stratification in a two-dimensional convecting mantle with magmatism and moving plates. J. Geophys. Res. Solid Earth 108, 2561 (2003).

78. Duncan, R. A. Age progressive volcanism in the New England seamounts and the opening of the central Atlantic Ocean. J. Geophys. Res. Solid Earth 89, 9980–9990 (1984).

79. Willbold, M. & Stracke, A. Trace element composition of mantle end-members: implications for recycling of oceanic and upper and lower continental crust. Geochem. Geophys. Geosyst. 7, Q04004 (2006).

80. Mallik, A. & Dasgupta, R. Reactive infiltration of MORB-eclogite-derived carbonated silicate melt into fertile peridotite at 3 GPa and genesis of alkalic magmas. J. Petrol. 54, 2267–2300 (2013).

81. Béguelin, P., Bizimis, M., Beier, C. & Turner, S. Rift–plume interaction reveals multiple generations of recycled oceanic crust in Azores lavas. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 218, 132–152 (2017).