281 BC and the last great clash of the Successors looms. At Corupedium in Lydia, two ageing, battle-hardened kings lead their armies into battle one final time.

Although once indispensable allies, inherent rivalry and the insatiable thirst for more power had gradually eroded their friendship. By 281 BC, only one avenue remained that would allow them to settle their differences: The spear!

Background: 285 BC

Almost 40 years have passed since Alexander the Great breathed his last that fateful day in 323 BC. In his lifetime this Macedonian had forged one of the largest empires the world had yet seen. By 285 BC, however, his empire looked very different.

Total war

Following years of vicious infighting between Alexander’s former generals, the Macedonian Empire gradually became divided. Vying for dominance, many of these former brothers-in-arms transformed into the most vicious of enemies.

From the plains of Iran to the mountains of Northern Greece, these aspiring ‘Successors’ would engage each other in great battles, risking everything for power in this post-Alexander era.

Yet gradually, after many famous leaders had perished in the struggle – men such as Antigonus, Eumenes and Polyperchon – the crisis seemed to be abating.

By 285 BC, the great climax to these wars appeared to be over. Having successfully weathered the storm, strong kingdoms had emerged from the struggle and established themselves over various parts of Alexander’s Empire.

To the East in Asia, the lion’s share of Alexander’s empire now lay in the hands of two powerful empires: the Ptolemaic and the Seleucid Kingdoms. And in the West too, following years of struggle, the clear winner had finally arisen as the dominant power.

Lysimachus

Having originally served in the army of Alexander the Great, Lysimachus had been one of the great survivors of the Diadochi Wars.

For almost 40 years, he had first governed, and then ruled, the vitally-important frontier region of Thrace, fighting multiple wars against numerous enemies. It was no easy task.

From leading ill-fated campaigns across the Danube River against the Getae to suppressing major Thracian uprisings from the hinterland, maintaining his authority on this peripheral land through military force proved a constant challenge for Lysimachus.

After years of fighting however, Lysimachus’ perseverance paid off. Thanks to his efforts, he successfully forged a strong, stable kingdom in the North. The rewards duly followed.

Free of the threat of barbarian incursions descending on their homes from the North, many in the Aegean now turned their energies away from war, embracing trade and the opportunity for wealth and prosperity that came with it.

All this was thanks to Lysimachus and the strong northern frontier he had created – no small achievement.

Lysimachus and the Diadochi

Preoccupied with this constant threat to his authority, for years Lysimachus played a relatively minor role in the great struggle that followed the death of the all-conquering Alexander. From his kingdom he watched on as many former colleagues perished – men such as Perdiccas, Eumenes and Craterus.

Only in 302 BC did he finally allow himself to become greatly involved, leading the Grand Coalition army to victory over Antigonus at Ipsus. From then on his territory only increased and by 285 BC no longer was this Successor simply king of Thrace; now he controlled an empire stretching from the banks of the Danube to the Cilician Gates in Asia Minor.

By 285 BC however, this period of stability was nearing an end; and it would come crashing down soon enough.

Downfall

Lysimachus’ rule would not last forever and by 285 BC, he was nearing 80 years old. Naturally, questions about who was to be his successor became common discussion at court. Yet the choice seemed obvious.

Lysimachus’ clear heir was his eldest son Agathocles, a renowned fighter and victor of many a battle. From leading forces fighting on the banks of the Danube to campaigning in the heartlands of Asia Minor, Agathocles appeared well-suited to succeed his father in this time of almost-constant war. Yet things would not prove quite that straightforward.

For reasons unknown, Lysimachus hesitated from officially naming Agathocles as his successor. Speculation continued to grow; and for Agathocles agitation no doubt followed.

He had been waiting a long time to become the ruler of his father’s kingdom and now, as he saw his elderly father seemingly hesitating, fear of being overlooked for the succession began to take root in his mind. He was not at fault for thinking this way. Agathocles was not the only person with eyes on the succession.

Arsinoe

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A common practice of the time, Lysimachus had taken multiple wives during his reign for political reasons. One such wife was Arsinoe, the daughter of Lysimachus’ fellow successor in Egypt, Ptolemy I. Despite being 45 years younger than Lysimachus, Arsinoe had sired three children for the elderly king and by 285 BC, the eldest was nearing adulthood.

Desiring her eldest son to become the next ruler, Arsinoe now tried to turn the elderly Lysimachus against Agathocles. Agathocles was not unaware. Realising the evident competition he faced for the succession, a tense rivalry between the factions of Agathocles and Arsinoe erupted at Lysimachus’ court – each vying for the favour of the elderly king. Yet within Arsinoe’s faction was one man who would have worried Agathocles more than most.

Ceraunus

His name was Ptolemy, nicknamed ‘Ceraunus’ (the thunderbolt) because of his impetuous nature. Being the half-brother of Arsinoe, Ceraunus was the eldest son of King Ptolemy I in Egypt and to many, his rightful successor. Yet in 285 BC, the elder Ptolemy had thought otherwise.

Perhaps believing his eldest son too unstable for the role of King, at the turn of 285 BC, Ptolemy I overlooked Ceraunus for the succession and instead proclaimed another of his sons – also called Ptolemy – to be co-ruler of his lands and heir-apparent. Ceraunus had been blatantly overlooked.

Publicly rejected by his father and fearing for his life, Ceraunus quickly boarded a ship on hearing the proclamation and fled Alexandria. From there he sailed across the Mediterranean to Lysimacheia, where he was welcomed by Arsinoe and soon became one of her closest confidantes.

Backed by Ceraunus and many other supporters, Arsinoe now attempted to secure her son’s succession to Lysimachus’ kingdom, with Agathocles doing likewise for himself. The scenes at court must have been tense; both knew that death at the hands of the other likely awaited the loser of this struggle.

The demise of Agathocles

Scholars debate what followed as the sources are unclear. Yet Agathocles, clouded by the fear of being overlooked for the succession, made a decision that would decide his fate.

Having founded his own city, which he called Agathopolis, Lysimachus’ eldest son introduced a new bronze coinage that possibly depicted himself wearing a diadem – the symbol of kingship. Of course, this is merely a theory – tentatively suggested by Helen Lund, who also rightly points out that the image on the coinage may not be Agathocles at all. But if the coin does portray a crowned Agathocles, it may have sparked cause for concern with his father.

Whatever Agathocles’ actions, they proved one step too far; charges of treason became widespread towards Agathocles at Lysimachus’ court.

Thanks to his previous indecisiveness, Lysimachus now found himself in a great dilemma. Would he concede joint-kingship with his formidable son and in doing so officially designate him his successor? Or would he throw his empire into an even greater succession crisis with his execution? His choice would decide the future of his empire.

In 282 BC, Lysimachus made the fateful decision. Believing himself compelled to judge his son guilty of treachery, he ordered Agathocles’ execution. It would prove Lysimachus’ greatest mistake.

Uproar

Upon hearing of Agathocles’ death, Lysimachus’ subjects were aghast. Many had loved the young prince and in rage they turned against their ruler. The army especially, having loved Agathocles for his military prowess and daring, soon descended into turmoil.

As for Agathocles’ family, afraid of the atrocities they knew they would suffer if they remained, the wife and children of the murdered prince fled Lysimacheia in all haste along with Agathocles’ brother Alexander.

From there they sailed to the one man they knew could still rival Lysimachus’ power in Alexander’s empire.

Seleucus

Arriving at Seleucus’ court in Antioch, Lysandra and Alexander informed him of the events in the West: Agathocles had been executed and Lysimachus’ great empire was now in turmoil. And more intriguing news quickly followed.

Great dissatisfaction towards Lysimachus boiled over in Asia Minor and many – most notably Philetaerus, the ruler of Pergamum – now actively encouraged Seleucus to invade, promising him their support. Seleucus was keen to accept.

Although events had led him to create a great Asian empire, Seleucus had always harboured ambitions for control in the West. Having his capital on the farthest west point of his great domain was no coincidence; neither the riches of India, nor the fertile plains of Egypt would attract him as much as the opportunity for conquest in Europe.

Now, with Lysimachus’ empire seemingly collapsing in on itself and its army in complete disarray, Seleucus knew that this was the time to strike.

The march to war

Gathering his forces, Seleucus headed west at the head of a formidable army to confront Lysimachus. Yet despite the reports Seleucus had heard, Lysimachus’ support was not as weakened as he had expected; rather than defecting many cities remained loyal to the King of Thrace and he crossed over from Europe with a similarly-mighty army to confront the invader in Asia Minor.

20 years before, it had been the combined arms of these two kings on the battlefield that had transformed their empires into the two most powerful kingdoms of the time.

Yet that old friendship had long-since evaporated. In 281 BC, at Corupedium, these former allies now once again met on the battlefield. Only now however they would not be allies, but enemies. Battle was imminent.

The Battle of Corupedium 281 BC

Almost nothing survives to tell how the battle itself played out; yet one major event ensured its result would prove decisive. As the fight raged on, the elderly Lysimachus met his end, transfixed on a spear thrown by a Heracleian called Malacon.

Lysimachus was dead, and the victorious Seleucus now controlled an empire almost as formidable as that of Alexander the Great. Bathing in his success, Seleucus would boast that,

“..this was not the work of man, but a favour from the gods.”

(Justin XVII.2)

Yet such boasting would quickly come back to haunt him.

Seleucus ‘the Victor’

Delighted, Seleucus now lead his army across the Hellespont into Europe, a continent he had not set foot in since leaving its shores to fight in the army of Alexander the Great over 50 years before. There, he quickly occupied Lysimacheia, the heartland of his enemy’s empire. And he had no intentions of stopping there.

Driven by a desire to live out the rest of his years in Macedonia – the land of his birth – Seleucus continued marching further West, leaving his son Antiochus in charge of his formidable Asian Empire. Sadly, for Seleucus however, the man’s ambitions to reach his homeland would be dashed from his hands. His own end was fast approaching.

The death of Seleucus

It is said that before reaching the Hellespont, Seleucus had been advised against crossing into Europe by the Oracle at Didyma. Seleucus however, determined to return to Macedonia, ignored the advice. Yet now, just as Seleucus was reaching the borders of his ancestral homeland, the oracle’s warning came to fruition.

As he neared the borders of Macedonia in 280 BC, Seleucus was unceremoniously murdered by an ambitious rival. The last of the Successors was dead.

His murderer had been no hired killer. Although he had originally served in Lysimachus’ army, this man had quickly joined Seleucus’ entourage, being treated with great respect due to his noble Ptolemaic heritage. Yet his uncontrollable desire for power soon caused Seleucus to regret this welcoming. Who was this murderer? None other than the unstable Ptolemy Ceraunus!

Ceraunus wasted no time after committing the treacherous deed. Having murdered the last of the Successors, he headed East towards Lysimacheia and, having gained the support of the army, had himself crowned King of Macedonia. Yet this new proclamation would not go unchallenged.

Opposition

The repercussions of Seleucus’ murder would be serious and far-reaching, and very quickly, Ceraunus faced overwhelming opposition. To the East the young Antiochus, determined to avenge his father’s murder, quickly ordered a large army to march against Ceraunus. Yet Antiochus was not the only concern.

In the West, news also now reached Ceraunus that Pyrrhus, King of Molossia and the leader of an Epirote empire, was also preparing to invade; and to the South, one further great threat was gathering his forces.

Antigonus Gonatas

His name was Antigonus, the son of the famed Demetrius ‘Poliorcetes.’ At that time, Antigonus was residing in Greece, having taken hold of many key city-states that had once been allied to his father before him – cities such as Corinth, Thebes and Athens.

Now however, upon hearing of Seleucus’ death and Ceraunus’ accession, Antigonus saw an opportunity. Assembling his army and navy, Antigonus headed to Macedonia. Yet he would not catch Ceraunus unawares.

Hearing of Antigonus’ intentions, the murderer of Seleucus gathered a large fleet and set sail to confront Demetrius’ son at sea. The result was a clear victory for Ceraunus and Antigonus was forced to retreat to Greece. Ceraunus had seen off one challenge; yet two great opponents remained.

Luckily for Ceraunus however, fortune now reared its ugly head. Distracted by opportunities elsewhere – Antiochus in Asia and Pyrrhus in Italy – Ceraunus was able to take full advantage. Peace treaties were agreed with both neighbouring powers. He had survived.

The treaty with Pyrrhus

Yet Ceraunus would not escape completely unscathed from his warmongering neighbours; Pyrrhus pushed for more than just a peace that benefited his rival. He wanted more. To encourage his departure, Ceraunus therefore offered one great incentive.

To seal the peace agreement, Ceraunus offered Pyrrhus formidable military aid for his campaign. Not only did he provide 5,000 of his veteran Macedonian phalangites and 4,000 cavalry, but he also loaned 50 of his war elephants to the Molossian for a two year period – such was the length he was willing to go to be rid of this second-coming Alexander.

Pyrrhus agreed, taking the force with him across to Southern Italy. The price Ceraunus had paid for peace seemed a high one – his army was now greatly depleted. Yet for him the price seemed worth it. He had peace.

The failings of Ptolemy ‘Ceraunus’

Free from external threat for the time being, Ceraunus now turned his mind to matters closer to home. His impulsiveness and criminality had not diminished however; he now desired to remove any other remaining threat to his rule. No-one was exempt, not even his own family.

At that time, Ceraunus’ half-sister and the widow of Lysimachus, Arsinoe, was residing in Cassandrea with two of her youngest children and a small army. Seeing her as a threat, Ceraunus had no intention of letting that remain.

Treachery

Having tricked Arsinoe into believing she was to be his Queen and her sons his successors, Ceraunus arrived at Cassandrea with his army. One of Arsinoe’s sons, Lysimachus, had warned his mother not to believe Ceraunus’ promises. Yet his mother, although suspicious at first, was successfully fooled and ordered them to open the gates to her half-brother.

As Ceraunus entered the city and was met by Arsinoe’s children, the unstable Macedonian King committed the treachery. In an instant, the heartless king gave the fateful order; seizing the city, he ordered the two bemused children to be slain. The boys, fleeing for their lives, ran to their mother – the assassins being in close pursuit.

No mercy

Running to Arsinoe, the children begged for mercy; yet the assassins had only one thought on their mind. In one moment, they were slain in the arms of their mother.

Aghast and horrified at Ceraunus’ treachery and the terrible crime she witnessed point-blank, Arsinoe begged the assassins to also take her life. Yet Ceraunus had no intention of giving his half-sister a similarly quick end to her suffering.

Having had her dragged out of the city, not even allowing her the bodies of her dead children, Ceraunus sent his sister into exile to live the rest of her life in misery. Little did he know however, that his own judgement day was fast approaching. A new great threat was at that very moment descending from the North: A Celtic invasion!

Artwork by © Johnny Shumate.

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Notes and further reading

Huge mystery enshrouds the causes of Agathocles’ execution. Our surviving sources documenting his demise all vary in how and why he perished. For this article, I have chosen the story that Agathocles perished because of the images he placed of himself on his coinage as argued by Lund (see below).

Huge thanks to Johnny Shumate and his fantastic illustrations!

Click here for Johnny’s website.

Information is from:

Justin Book XVII here.

Memnon’s History of Heraclea here .

Bennett, B., Roberts, M. 2008, The Wars of Alexander’s Successors: Commanders and Campaigns, Pen and Sword Military.

Carney, E. D. 2013, Arsinoe of Egypt and Macedon: a royal life. Oxford University Press.

Lund, H. S. 1992, Lysimachus: A study in early Hellenistic kingship, London.

Author: Tristan Hughes Twitter Facebook

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