SUMERO-AKKADIAN ARMAMENTS AND WARFARE

I’m gonna fight ‘em off, a seven nation army couldn’t hold me back

This is an excerpt from: THE AKKADIANS AND THE SUMERIAN RENAISSANCE, BRONZE AGE TITANS OF MESOPOTAMIA.

Great military innovators, they are often said to be the first to discover or invent helmets, armor, socket-axes, sickle-swords, compound bows, the wheel, battle-carts, organized warfare, dense phalanx-like formations, professional soldiers, standing armies, siege warfare, the sailboat and naval warfare. Sumerian and Akkadian military innovations like the following usually arose from the need to counter perceived hurdles. Like Dingiswayo and Shaka’s Mthethwa and Zulu reforms and Gaius Marius’ reforms, the Sumerians and Akkadians quickly adapted to fit their military needs; innovations in weaponry would advance the need for protective armor and vice-versa.

Maces are believed to have evolved from the club and were important to the Mesopotamians as many of their gods are shown wielding them. The mace is believed to have spurred the creation and need for helmets. Most soldiers wore the common helmet used in Mesopotamia at this time; a pointed copper or bronze cap with a leather cap or quilted fabric within. Royalty wore helmets fashioned with the hairstyle of royalty, a knot in the back of the head like the one depicted below.

^ Gold Helmet of King Meskalamdu, discovered in the Great Cemetery of Ur.

The tanged-axe was fragile and unstable as it was attached to a handle by leather straps. The Sumerians would then develop the socketed-axe which, as the name implies, would slip into place via a socket which would be pinned in place with rivets; this innovation made it tougher and stable enough for the wielder to make more powerful strikes without fear of damaging the weapon.

^ Socketed-axe depicted in the Standard of Ur.

While the earlier tanged-axe had a larger crescent, semicircular or epsilon (ϵ) striking surface, the socketed-axes’ narrowed the blade into a pick-like edge (c.2500 BCE) made it capable of concentrating the point of impact and therefore enabling it to penetrate leather, copper and early bronze armors; interestingly this evolution followed the development of armors. Although the invention of the socket-axe is attributed to the Sumerians, older socket-axe prototypes have been found in the Judean Desert of Israel dating to c.3100 BCE. The armor worn was simple, a long cloak of leather arrayed with circular plates of copper or bronze.

^ Sumerian infantry by RobbieMcSweeney.

The sickle sword possibly evolved from the farmer’s scythe with inspiration from the axe, it could be used to either slash or chop. Used by most of the great ancient peoples throughout the Bronze Age like the Hittite Empire of Anatolia (modern-day Turkey), the Egyptians, the Canaanites of the Levant; they are often mentioned in the biblical old testament with phrases like “to smite with the edge of the sword”.

^ Sumerian Sickle Sword.

^ In the Vulture Stele Eannatum the Great of Lagash is depicted with a sickle-sword in his right hand.

The bow seems to not have met its full potential as a military weapon until the time of Sargon’s grandson Naram-Sin under whom it became more prevalent as here is when the composite recurve bow is believed to have first been historically depicted.

^ Rear: Akkadian archer wielding a composite bow, from the time of Naram-Sin. Front: Babylonian foot-soldier from the time of Hammurabi. Ancient Warfare Magazine 2.5 by Karwansaray Publishing [PDF] [Print]. Artwork by Johnny Shumate.

Reaching twice the distance of the simple bow and could not only penetrate leather but also early forms of bronze armor. Composite bows have a significantly longer range and more powerful penetrating power with the main drawback being requiring the archer to use more physical effort. Under the reign of Shulgi of Ur, he battles against the nomadic hillmen known as the Gutians. The hymn describes that the battle begins with an exchange of slingstones and arrow-fire.

“I will raise my spear against [the enemy]. I will set up my banner against the border of the foreign land. I will fill my quiver, my bow will distend, ready to shoot, like a raging serpent. The barbed arrows will flash before me like lightening. The barbar-arrows, like swiftly flying bats will fly into the “mouth of its battle”.

“Slingstones will pour down on its people; heavy clay lumps, like the “hand stones”, will be striking on their back. The crushed people of the rebellious land, I will cut down with my bow and sling like locusts.”

^ Naram-Sin can be seen holding a bow on a victory stele erected after his success against the mountain people known as the Lullubi, this bow is believed by some to be a composite bow. The Akkadian warrior to the left of the tree is also wielding a bow. Others can be seen holding axes, spears, sickle swords and standards.

Conscription

They may have used a form of conscription as men are noted as being forced into corvee labor (unpaid or to work off debt) like the construction and maintenance of irrigation canals, dikes, temples and roads. According to the ‘Gudea Cylinder A’, Gudea of Lagash drafted gurush (able-bodied men) from around his domain chosen to help construct the Ningirsu temple.

“In those days the ruler (Gudea) imposed a levy on his land. […] On his built-up cities, his rural settlements, on the edge of the desert of Nanše, he imposed a levy.”

These erin (Akkadian, sabum) were also made to perform military services like garrisoning forts, policing and going on military campaigns. Under the reign of Shulgi of Akkad, the Amorites were a dangerous threat to the empire’s northwestern borders so to secure said border, known as “the year the citizens of Ur were conscripted as spearmen“. Also stating that the “conscription with the bow and arrow; nobody evaded it – the levy being one man per family“.

Professional Soldiers

Professionals known as aga’us on the other hand were volunteers who would also be rewarded for joining and after they’re released from service they would be given land and rations (compared to barons). The aga’us were given far larger amounts of rations and greater quality armaments than the erin. Statistically for every one aga’ush there were four erin, and there’s one inscription that implies that the aga’ush may have even trained them. From inscriptions we can see that Utuhegal of Uruk could march his men an average of 8-9 miles a day.

“Courage, strength, vigor, heroism – [they] have always found you (in battle) since times past. Valor is fitting for you. Take heed of our well-being whereof, I spoke! … [damaged text] … Stand Tall! Proclaim! Be proud! … [damaged text] … Now, the champion speaks: “Restore to your body your jewelry, your festive garb! Certainly, you are endowed with temu your attacker is the enemy of … Let your mouth command your mind, and let your mind command your legs! Here, then, is the clashing of heroes. Tomorrow, Akkad will commence battle. A festival of men at arms will be celebrated.””

In Standard of Ur soldiers are shown in a dense phalanx-like formation eight men wide holding rectangular shields of wood with leather overlay and peppered with copper or bronze discs (like the above mentioned cloaks) and six to seven columns deep with long spears held with both hands thrust forward. In these images they appear reminiscent of the famed and far more efficient Greek and Macedonian phalanx formations.

^ Stele of the Vultures.

The ‘Tablets of Shurrupak’ (2600 BCE) state that city-states of the time could hold a standing army of about 600-700 men, these are most likely bodyguards to kings. These men received monthly rations of barley, flour, fish, clothing, wool, sheep-skin and oil as wages from the governors, commanders, and the king. The position that interests me most was their role as a sort of royal guard like the more well-known Norse Varangian Guard, Ottoman Janissaries and Byzantine Praetorian Guard. The name aga’us is often defined as meaning “follower, escort, bodyguard, guardsmen”, with titles implying their roles as palace-gate keepers (aga’us ka egalka), main-door guards (aga’us idu) and king’s guards (aga’us lugal).

^ Osprey Publishing – ‘Men-At-Arms’ series, issue 109 - Ancient Armies of the Middle East. Art by Angus McBride. Art by Angus McBride. Back: Sumerian Heavy Infantryman, c.2500 B.C.

There is also note of an innovation under Sargon the Great of Akkad, a military group called the niskum (“choice, selection”) who by favor of the king were given land, rations and allowances (ex. fish and salt). The niskum may have been in some way related to or equivalent to the older aga’ush lugal (“royal soldiers” or “soldiers [of the] king”). Sargon is believed to have created the world’s first standing army, the text reads that “5400 men daily eat in the presence of Sargon”. The text in question though may instead refer to people of his court such as scribes, priests, servants, musicians and his Royal Guard (who themselves might have been a standing army).

^ Karwansaray Publishing – Ancient Warfare Magazine 2.5 by [PDF] [Print]. Artwork by Johnny Shumate.

There is also note of a term used by Sargon, ‘My Warrior’, which may not only refer to Sargon’s personal guard, men adorned with fine robes with gold, but also to the possibility that the men depicted in Sargon’s Alabaster Victory stela may have actually represented real life individuals that had proven their bravery in battle.

“When you are singled out for praise tomorrow in the palace, let the vizier take instruction (from you). But (you) face the weapon of the enemies, his lance! I have paid careful attention to you so that the king as ‘my warrior’ (a-li-li) might acclaim you, that he might erect your statue in front of his own statue.”

His army was made up of levied Sumerian and Akkadians from the settlements he had dominion over as well as Gutian hillmen and Amorites nomads. As a religious people it is no surprise that like many other cultures sacrifices, prayers and divinations were made both before and after battle, and celebratory victory feasts would be had.

“Now, the champion speaks: “Restore to your body your jewelry, your festive garb! Certainly, you are endowed with temu (the divine sparked that gave life to human) your attacker is the enemy of … Let your mouth command your mind, and let your mind command your legs! Here, then, is the clashing of heroes. Tomorrow, Akkad will commence battle. A festival of men at arms will be celebrated.”

Siege Warfare

Just winning a battle isn’t always enough, most cities continued to resist until the major city itself was taken. Lugalzagesi of Umma and King of Uruk had to assault the cities of Lagash and Girsu several times before finding success. While sieges are mentioned frequently in Early Dynastic texts, how exactly they overcame settlement fortifications were taken down are rarely mentioned but usually involved undermining the walls.

^ Sargon pulled down the walls of cities that opposed him. Artwork by Neville Dear.

Sargon would have the walls of captured cities either destroyed or left with massive enough breaches to scare the inhabitants from rebelling in the future being that they could now more easily be conquered (he would also remove gates). Instead of having the recently conquered local rulers govern their own cities he would instead place loyal Akkadians supporters of his rule in these stations, further lessening the chances of them rebelling. He would also assign family members to high religious positions including his daughter Enheduanna which he made entu-priestess of Nanna (moon god of Ur).

“from the Lower Sea to the Upper Sea citizens of Akkad held the governorship [of conquered cities]”

Battle-carts, predecessors of the war-chariot

To the northwest the pre-Akkadian Semitic trading kingdom of Nagar traded mostly with and held the strongest links to the two powerful empires of Mari and Ebla who flanked them. Their commercial reach extended as far as Egypt to the far south-west, the Hittites to the west and the Mycenaeans (Bronze Age Greece) across the Aegean Sea. Trading in glass, wool and obsidian; the latter [obsidian] of which they used to manufacture chalices, pottery, and tools. They were also known for their acrobats and their manufacturing of furniture which were made of wood, ivory and bronze.

^ Brown - Nagar kingdom.

The reason I mention them is due to the fact that they were also involved in another enterprise, the breeding and trade of an infertile hybrid of ass called a Kunga; mixed between a male donkey and a female onager (asiatic wild ass). Onagers themselves can run as fast as 43 mph when unhindered, at about the same speed as a racehorse. At an early stage asses were used by the Sumerians to pull two-wheeled and four-wheeled carts (four asses per cart), when attached to one of these heavy carts, which carried two men, four equids would’ve been able to gallop at a speed of less than 12 mph. One major drawback that these four-wheeled carts suffered from was the wide radius that was required for it to turn since the front wheels couldn’t move independently from the cart.

These heavy vehicles were made of wood or woven reeds and wicker, covered in animal skins and had two to four solid wheels, each consisting of two half-circles which were pinned together. The royal burials of the Great Cemetery of Ur contain many carts while more than thirty equids were found in modern Umm el-Marra where they were given sacrificial burials alongside nobility. On the Standard of Ur equids are depicted as pulling carts during a victory parade, we also know of their use in funeral processions in which over fifty would be used.

^ Sumerian battle-carts; two-wheeler on the left, four-wheeler on the right.

Texts from the city of Ebla state that a kunga would cost over (about 4 ½ lbs. of silver) forty times the amount of a normal ass and were often given as gifts, most importantly to allies and the nobility. Being that both the animals and the carts were both very expensive only the nobility could afford to purchase and maintain them. Given the expense, the necessary training, and its religious connotations these vehicles were seen as signs of status, nobility and power.

These vehicles are depicted in the Standard of Ur as four-wheeled carts, one possibly with a seat; they were equipped with a large quiver on its side, carrying a charioteer and an armed soldier (javelin, axe, sickle-sword). They are said to have been brought to the field, Enmetena of Lagash warred with Urluma of Umma who retreated and left behind 60 chariot teams behind (4 asses per cart, equaling 240 asses), a large sum.

“(Enmetena) defeated him. Urluma fled into the middle of Umma and was killed. His donkeys, sixty teams, on the bank of the Lummagirnunta (canal) were left behind, and their personnel’s bones were all left out on the plain.” – Enmetena Foundation Cone.

^ Rein Post. The reins would run through the rings of the rein post (which guided the reins to the charioteer and ensured that they wouldn’t tangle) to the headcollar, they are also shown with nose rings, both of which were used to control, maneuver and direct equids.

SO IF THEY WERE USED IN COMBAT, which is a hotly debated topic, what would their use and purpose be? Since their earliest uses were as transport vehicles, were these vehicles and equids used to carry, transport and redeploy soldiers across the battlefield? Although these vehicles were sturdy enough to do so, the counter argument is that they were so heavy and bulky that they would’ve been about the same speed as a man on foot.

^ Osprey Publishing – Men-At-Arms series, issue 109 – Ancient Armies of the Middle East. Art by Angus McBride.

They could’ve been used to disrupt and break enemy lines by charging through them, as an example I’ll mention the Battle of Kadesh (1274 BCE) between Pharaoh Ramses the Great (of New Kingdom Egypt) and King Muwatalli II (of New Kingdom Hatti). In this battle the Hittite chariots rushed across the Orontes river and took the marching Egyptian Ra division by surprise, striking them at their center eastern flank.

”They attacked the army of Re in its center while it was marching unsuspecting and not ready for battle”

This caused many of the survivors to flee to the nearby Amun division camp to the north, where the Pharaoh himself was. The Hittite chariots then rushed towards the Amun camp and charged through the enemy lines guarding it, some chariots broke down, showing how this weapon of war could be a risky gambit. Ramses was without protection as “… No officer was with me, no charioteer, no soldier of the army, no shield-bearer …”

The counter argument here however is that biologically horses are compelled to not rush headfirst into a dense wall of shields or spears, choosing instead to hesitate, pull themselves back and or fall into a panic. Some reply by saying that although the equids may not have charged through dense formations, the panic and fear inducing image of such a massive force hurdling towards them may have caused a panic among the enemy infantry. A raucous that would cause some to give up their formations in an attempt to avoid being trampled over while others may have simply fled; these breaks in the enemy’s front lines would’ve provided the opportunity for the chariots to ride through and for its rider to pick off soldiers from.

^ Sumerian battle-cart.

Another possibility is that they may have been used to skirmish with the enemy, moving fast enough to be able to take some targets down and then fall back. The restless speed granted to them by the great stamina of the onagers, and the vehicles near constant movement would also make being shot more difficult. A hint towards its possible use as a skirmishing weapon is the fact that these battle-carts were equipped with a large quiver that held many javelins, why would this be needed unless one anticipated on using and needing to replace said weapon?

As an example of how this skirmishing tactic could’ve been used I will again bring up the Battle of Kadesh. Ramses was able to pierce through and disperse the Hittite chariots attacking and surrounding his camp with his own and then began pursuit of the slower Hittite chariots with the more rapid and maneuverable Egyptian chariots which took them down with their composite bows and khopesh (sickle swords) with ease. The Hittites then sent in a reserve force of chariots who were later surrounded and swarmed by Ramses’ chariots and an allied Amorite Ne'arin division which forced the Hittites to retreat, some fleeing on foot to cross the river in which many drowned.

^ Two-wheeled Sumerian battle-cart.

As I briefly mentioned above, they may have been used to chase down routing and fleeing enemies as the Egyptian Battle of Kadesh and Standard of Ur depict, the latter shows the Sumerians trampling over the bodies of the enemy. Some however suggest that the trampling of enemies with carts was part of some sort of victory parade in which they could’ve literally or symbolically trampled over their adversaries. Eventually their use fell into decline as they are only really mentioned under the use of messengers and couriers who traveled along “chariot roads” within the empire.

^ Standard of Ur, depicting a Sumerian battle-cart with equids trampling over the enemy and a soldier standing at the back of it with a javelin in hand.



If there are any errors please privately inbox me so I can update it. As always, if you’d like to read or learn about any specific historical subjects just let me know what they are and I will take note of them.

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