Ismāʿīl I, also spelled Esmāʿīl I, (born July 17, 1487, Ardabīl?, Azerbaijan—died May 23, 1524, Ardabīl, Safavid Iran), shah of Iran (1501–24) and religious leader who founded the Safavid dynasty (the first Persian dynasty to rule Iran in 800 years) and converted Iran from the Sunni to the Twelver Shiʿi sect of Islam.

Britannica Quiz European History Who was known as the Iron Chancellor?

According to Safavid tradition, Ismāʿīl was descended from ʿAlī. His grandfather Junayd, leader of a Sufi order (tariqah) that had adopted a militant form of Shiʿism, initiated the family’s quest for political power, backed by military support from disaffected Turkmen who were later known collectively as the Kizilbash (“Red Heads”). Ḥaydar, Junayd’s son and successor, continued this quest but died in battle against the Ak Koyunlu when Ismāʿīl was only a year old. Fearful that their enemies would wipe out the entire family, supporters of the tariqah kept members of the family hidden for a number of years.

Ismāʿīl emerged at the age of 14 to take his father’s position as head of the order. He quickly established a base of power in northwestern Iran, and in 1501 he took the city of Tabrīz and proclaimed himself shah. In a succession of swift conquests he brought all of modern Iran and portions of present-day Iraq and Turkey under his rule.

In 1510 Ismāʿīl moved against the Sunni Uzbek tribes in what is now Uzbekistan. By skillful use of ambush, Ismāʿīl was able to defeat a 28,000-man Uzbek force with only 17,000 Iranians in a battle near the city of Merv (near modern-day Mary). Muḥammad Shaybānī, leader of the Uzbeks, was killed trying to escape after the battle, and Ismāʿīl had his skull made into a jewelled drinking goblet.

Get exclusive access to content from our 1768 First Edition with your subscription. Subscribe today

The Shiʿi sect of Islam was proclaimed by Ismāʿīl to be the established religion. Conversion of the population was swift, owing in part to the Safavids’ appeal to popular elements of folk Islam as well as to Ismāʿīl’s strict enforcement of Shiʿi creeds and prayers in the awqāf (singular waqf, property endowed for religious purposes) under his dominion. The spread of Shiʿism provoked the Ottoman Turks, a Sunni power now threatened with an ideological battle. Friction grew after the Ottoman Sultan Selim I executed large numbers of his subjects who were sympathetic to the Safavids. He then wrote Ismāʿīl a series of belligerent letters. Ismāʿīl replied that he had no wish for war and accused Selim of writing them under the influence of opium. He also sent Selim’s royal secretary a box of the drug.

In 1514 the Ottomans, with highly trained professional troops armed with muskets and artillery, invaded northwest Iran. Ismāʿīl rushed from his campaigns in Central Asia to oppose the threat to his capital at Tabrīz. In a hard-fought battle at Chāldirān, Safavid forces were defeated by the Ottomans, whose forces greatly outnumbered them. Ismāʿīl was wounded and nearly captured as he tried to rally troops. The Ottomans then took Tabrīz without opposition. A mutiny among his troops, however, forced Selim to withdraw, allowing Ismāʿīl to return to his capital.

The warfare continued as a series of border skirmishes for a number of years. Ismāʿīl remained strong enough to prevent further inroads by the Ottomans, but he no longer pursued any offensives against the empire. In 1517 Ismāʿīl moved northwest into what is now Georgia. The basic conflict between the Shiʿi Safavid empire Ismāʿīl had founded and the Sunni Ottomans in the west and the Sunni Uzbek tribes in the east continued for more than a century. Ismāʿīl died at the age of 36, but the Safavid dynasty ruled Iran for two centuries, until 1722.