"Impostor Syndrome" redirects here. For the music album, see Outline in Color

Psychological pattern of doubting one's accomplishments and fearing being exposed as a "fraud"

Not to be confused with Capgras delusion , in which a person believes that a loved one has been replaced by an impostor.

Impostor syndrome (also known as impostor phenomenon, impostorism, fraud syndrome or the impostor experience) is a psychological pattern in which an individual doubts their accomplishments or talents and has a persistent internalized fear of being exposed as a "fraud".[1] Despite external evidence of their competence, those experiencing this phenomenon remain convinced that they are frauds, and do not deserve all they have achieved. Individuals with impostorism incorrectly attribute their success to luck, or interpret it as a result of deceiving others into thinking they are more intelligent than they perceive themselves to be.[2] While early research focused on the prevalence among high-achieving women, impostor syndrome has been recognized to affect both men and women equally.[1][3]

Impostor syndrome also occurs in the context of mental illness and its treatment. Certain individuals may see themselves as less ill (less depressed, less anxious) than their peers or other mentally ill people, citing their lack of severe symptoms as the indication of no or a minor underlying issue. People with this form don't seek help for their issues, seeing their problems as not worthy of psychiatric attention.[4][5]

History [ edit ]

The term impostor phenomenon was introduced in 1978 in the article "The Impostor Phenomenon in High Achieving Women: Dynamics and Therapeutic Intervention" by Dr. Pauline R. Clance and Dr. Suzanne A. Imes.[6] Clance and Imes defined impostor phenomenon as an individual experience of self-perceived intellectual phoniness (fraud). The researchers investigated the prevalence of this internal experience by interviewing a sample of 150 high-achieving women. All of the participants had been formally recognized for their professional excellence by colleagues, and had displayed academic achievement through degrees earned and standardized testing scores. Despite the consistent evidence of external validation, these women lacked the internal acknowledgement of their accomplishments. The participants explained how their success was a result of luck, and others simply overestimating their intelligence and abilities. Clance and Imes believed that this mental framework for impostor phenomenon developed from factors such as: gender stereotypes, early family dynamics, culture, and attribution style. The researchers determined that the women who experienced impostor phenomenon showcased symptoms related to depression, generalized anxiety, and low self-confidence.

Clance and Imes stated in their 1978 article that, based on their clinical experience, impostor phenomenon was less prevalent in men. They noted that further research was necessary to determine the effects impostor phenomenon has on men.[6] Following the publication in 1978, more research has determined that this experience occurs in demographics outside of just high-achieving, successful women.[1]

Prevalence [ edit ]

In more current research, impostor phenomenon is studied as a reaction to particular stimuli and events. It is a phenomenon (an experience) that occurs in an individual, not a mental disorder.

Impostor phenomenon is not recognized in the DSM or ICD, although both of these classification systems recognize low self-esteem and sense of failure as associated symptoms of depression.[7]

Symptoms [ edit ]

Impostor experience may be accompanied by anxiety, stress, rumination, or depression.[6]

Measuring impostor phenomenon [ edit ]

The first scale designated to measure characteristics of impostor phenomenon was designed by Clance in 1985, called the Clance impostor phenomenon scale (CIP). The scale can be used to determine if characteristics of fear are present, and to what extent. The aspects of fear include: fear of evaluation, fear of not continuing success and fear of not being as capable as others.[8]

In her 1985 paper, Clance explained that impostor phenomenon can be distinguished by the following six dimensions:[2]

The impostor cycle

The need to be special or the best

Characteristics of superman/superwoman

Fear of failure

Denial of ability and discounting praise

Feeling fear and guilt about success

Clance noted that the characteristics of these six dimensions may vary. By this model, for an individual to be considered to experience impostorism, at least two of these aspects have to be present. Clance theorised that the most important aspect to understand the manifestation of this experience can be seen through the impostor cycle she created.[6]

Five types [ edit ]

Building upon decades of research, Valerie Young further looked into fraudulent feelings among high achievers. From her book The Secret Thoughts of Successful Women: Why Capable People Suffer From the Impostor Syndrome and How to Thrive in Spite of It, she was able to identify five subgroups this syndrome often falls into.

The perfectionist

The superwoman/man

The natural genius

The soloist

The expert

Studies suggest that more than 70% of people experience the impostor syndrome at some point in their career. By identifying the above competency point, steps can be taken towards addressing it.[9][10]

The impostor cycle [ edit ]

The impostor cycle, as defined by Clance, begins with an achievement-related task. An example of an achievement-related task could be an exercise that was assigned through work or school. Once one has received an assignment, feelings of anxiety, self-doubt, and worry immediately follow. The cycle accounts for two possible reactions that stem from these feelings. One will respond either by over-preparation or by procrastination.

If one responds with procrastination, this initial response will turn into a frantic effort to complete the job. Once the task has been completed, there will be a brief period of accomplishment and feeling of relief. If positive feedback is given once the work has been completed and turned in, one will discount the positive feedback.

If one responded to the task with over-preparation, the successful outcome will be seen as a result of hard work. If one responds by procrastination, one will view the outcome as a matter of luck. In the impostor cycle, gaining success through hard work or luck is not interpreted as a matter of true, personal ability. This means that it does not matter which mechanism one used to complete the task. Even if the outcome results in a positive response, the feedback given has no effect on one's perception of personal success. This leads one to discount positive feedback.

This sequence of events serves as a reinforcement, causing the cycle to remain in motion. With every cycle, feelings of perceived fraudulence, increased self-doubt, depression, and anxiety accumulate. As the cycle continues, increased success leads to the intensification of feeling like a fraud. This experience causes one to remain haunted by one's lack of perceived personal ability. Believing that at any point one can be 'exposed' for who one thinks one really is keeps the cycle in motion.[6]

Gender studies [ edit ]

Studies on impostor phenomenon have received mixed reviews regarding the presence of impostor phenomenon in men and women.[2] Clance and Imes investigated this experience in high achieving women in their 1978 study.[6] Following the publication of this study, researchers have investigated impostor phenomenon in both men and women. Clance and Imes suggested that this experience manifests in women more than in men.[6]

A study in 2006 looked at gender differences when exploring a possible relationship between the feeling of being an impostor and the achievement of goals. The researchers concluded that the women who participated in this study experienced impostor phenomenon more so than the men who participated.[11] Other research has shown that women commonly face impostor phenomenon in regard to performance. The perception of ability and power is evidenced in out-performing others. For men, impostor phenomenon is often driven by the fear of being unsuccessful, or not good enough.[12] Despite these differences, there is a significant amount of literature on impostor phenomenon and gender differences stating that it is spread equally among men and women.[12]

Among ethnic minority women in academia [ edit ]

Research findings suggest that impostor syndrome/phenomenon affects women who are members of an ethnic minority mentally and academically. A pattern in the research literature shows that women report experiencing impostor phenomenon more frequently than men. Ethnic minority women are also often afflicted with impostor syndrome in elite universities.[13] Some researchers have reported that though certain men do sometimes experience doubt and a feeling of lack of belonging in academia, being a woman and member of an ethnic minority in the United States actually entails being susceptible to encountering "hideous forms of racism and sexism".[14] Such experiences of racism and sexism, if objectively demonstrable, increase the chance that ethnic minority women may experience impostor phenomenon.

The intersection of race and gender for ethnic minority women in academia is important because both identities can heavily impact ethnic minority women and their academic experience, especially if their identities are visible. For example, a black woman in higher education might fear she will be stereotyped as aggressive or angry if she expresses a controversial opinion in class. According to Miller and Kastberg, both crude and subtle forms of racism and sexism make it much more difficult for ethnic minority women to break through the barriers of higher education.[13] Another example: explicit racist policies[which?] that exclude Asian American women[dubious – discuss] suggest that they do not experience academic barriers. Therefore, these women may not feel as though they are allowed to ask for help.[citation needed]

Studies on impostor phenomenon have shown that the intersecting identities of ethnic women in academia affect identity development and goal achievement. For example, Ostrove (2003) found that ethnic women from lower- and middle-class backgrounds reported feeling more alienated from their peers during their time spent at an elite college.[15] Similarly, Walton and Cohen's (2007) work on the effects of racial underrepresentation at elite private universities shows that ethnic women who experience social alienation in academia could easily experience impostor syndrome.[14]

Common causes of impostor phenomenon include feelings such as stigma, stereotype threat, or an overall sense of "intellectual phoniness". For example, a woman attending a predominately white institution is likely to worry unjustifiably that her accomplishments are not good enough relative to her peers' accomplishments, not least if, e.g., she is black and most of her colleagues are male. These thoughts could derive from feeling that she was accepted into that university because of affirmative action or by "accident".[16]

Occurrence [ edit ]

The feeling of being a fraud that surfaces in impostor phenomenon is not uncommon. It has been estimated that nearly 70% of individuals will experience signs and symptoms of impostor phenomenon at least once in their life.[17] This can be a result of a new academic or professional setting. Research shows that impostor phenomenon is not uncommon for students who enter a new academic environment. Feelings of insecurity can come as a result of an unknown, new environment. This can lead to lower self-confidence and belief in their own abilities.[8]

Settings [ edit ]

Impostor phenomenon can occur in other various settings. Some examples include:

A new environment [2]

Academic settings [6]

In the workplace [6]

Social interactions [8]

Relationships (platonic or romantic)[8]

In relationships, people with impostorism often feel they do not live up to the expectations of their friends or loved ones. It is common for the individual with impostorism to think that they must have somehow tricked others into liking them and wanting to spend time with them. They experience feelings of being unworthy, or of not deserving the beneficial relationships they possess.[8]

There is empirical evidence that demonstrates the harmful effects of impostor phenomenon in students. Studies have shown that when a student's academic self-concept increases, the symptoms of impostor phenomenon decrease, and vice versa.[12] The worry and emotions the students held, had a direct impact of their performance in the program.

Common facets of impostor phenomenon in the class-room include:[8]

Students compared themselves to their class-mates [2]

Students did not feel prepared academically when they compared themselves to their class-mates [2]

Students often questioned the grounds on which they were accepted into the program [8]

Students perceived that positive recognition, awards, and good grades stemmed from external factors, not from personal ability or intelligence.[8]

Cokley et al. investigated the impact impostor phenomenon has on students, specifically ethnic minority students. They found that the feelings the students had of being fraudulent resulted in psychological distress. Ethnic minority students often questioned the grounds on which they were accepted into the program. They held the false assumption that they only received their acceptance due to affirmative action—rather than an extraordinary application and qualities they had to offer.[18]

Connections [ edit ]

Research has shown that there is a relationship between impostor phenomenon and the following factors:

Family expectations [8]

Overprotective parent(s) or legal guardian(s) [17]

Graduate-level coursework [8]

Racial identities [8]

Attribution style [12]

Anxiety [12]

Depression [12]

Low trait self-esteem [12]

Perfectionism [6]

Excessive self-monitoring, with an emphasis on self-worth[2]

The aspects listed are not mutually exclusive. These components are often found to correlate among individuals with impostor phenomenon. It is incorrect to infer that the correlational relationship between these aspects cause the impostor experience.[8]

In individuals with impostor phenomenon, feelings of guilt often result in a fear of success. The following are examples of common notions that lead to feelings of guilt and reinforce the phenomenon.[11]

The good education they were able to receive

Being acknowledged by others for success

Belief that it is not right or fair to be in a better situation than a friend or loved one

Being referred to as: [8] "The smart one" "The talented one" "The responsible one" "The sensitive one" "The good one" "Our favorite"



Management [ edit ]

In their 1978 paper, Clance and Imes proposed a therapeutic approach they used for their participants or clients with impostor phenomenon. This technique includes a group setting where various individuals meet others who are also living with this experience. The researchers explained that group meetings made a significant impact on their participants. They proposed that it was the realization that they were not the only ones who experienced these feelings. The participants were required to complete various homework assignments as well. In one assignment, participants recalled all of the people they believed they had fooled or tricked in the past. In another take-home task, individuals wrote down the positive feedback they had received. Later, they would have to recall why they received this feedback and what about it made them perceive it in a negative light. In the group sessions, the researchers also had the participants re-frame common thoughts and ideas about performance. An example would be to change: "I might fail this exam" to "I will do well on this exam".[6]

The researchers concluded that simply extracting the self-doubt before an event occurs helps eliminate feelings of impostorism.[6] It was recommended that the individuals struggling with this experience seek support from friends and family. Although impostor phenomenon is not a pathological condition, it is a distorted system of belief about oneself that can have a powerful negative impact on an individual's valuation of their own worth.[17]

Other research on therapeutic approaches for impostorism emphasizes the importance of self-worth. Individuals who live with impostor phenomenon commonly relate self-esteem and self-worth to others. A major aspect of other therapeutic approaches for impostor phenomenon focus on separating the two into completely separate entities.[12]

In a study in 2013, researcher Queena Hoang proposed that intrinsic motivation can decrease the feelings of being a fraud that are common in impostor phenomenon.[8] This includes a series of re-framing current ideas. The following are examples listed in Hoang's 2013 paper:

"I want to receive that degree. I won't give up and have too much pride to walk away."

"If I can do this, I will be able to help others in the future and work with people as motivated as I am."

"I can be the voice of other People of Color who do not have the opportunities like I do."

"I know I can do this."

Learning how to "be your own person."

Learning how to accept and believe compliments.

Hoang also suggested that implementing a mentor program for new or entering students will minimize students' feelings of self-doubt. Having a mentor who has been in the program will help the new students feel supported. This allows for a much smoother and less overwhelming transition.

Impostor experience can be addressed with many kinds of psychotherapy.[19][20][21] Group psychotherapy is an especially common and effective way of alleviating the impostor experience.[22][23]. By those who have an interest in providing such behaviourist psychotherapy, the appropriateness of any kind of psychotherapeutic intervention for a non-pathological, alleged cognitive aberration is never questioned. It should, however, be questioned by those to whom it is offered, since the origins of the misperception by an individual of their own qualities, condition or situation may be social or philosophical rather than purely cognitive.

Society and culture [ edit ]

[24] Maya Angelou: "I have written 11 books, but each time I think, 'Uh oh, they're going to find out now. I've run a game on everybody, and they're going to find me out.'"

Various individuals who are often in the spotlight have shared that they have experienced feeling like a fraud. Journalist Diana Crow stated, "I spent a lot of time not applying to awards for a couple of years."[17] When she did receive some of those awards, it reinforced the feelings of impostorism. She stated, "There's a little bit of wondering whether what won an award is actually award-worthy."[17]

The following list includes other well known individuals who have reportedly experienced this phenomenon:

See also [ edit ]