When Professor Edward Cummings of Harvard resigned his post in the summer of 1900, Harvard turned to the government economist William Franklin Willoughby who had published numerous pieces on labor issues and social welfare policies (several papers in the Quarterly Journal of Economics ) to cover Cummings’ labor class for second semester of 1900-01. A second social policy course (Provident Institutions) was offered by Willoughby as well.

____________________________________

[Willoughby’s c.v.]

William Franklin Willoughby (1867-1960), A. B. Johns Hopkins University 1888. He…

“served as statistical expert for U. S. Department of Labor; member of International Jury of Awards, Paris Exposition of 1900; instructor of economics at Harvard, 1901; treasurer, secretary, and president of Executive Council of Puerto Rico, 1901-1909; assistant director of U. S. Census, 1910; member of U. S. Commission on Economy and Efficiency in Government; McCormick professor of Jurisprudence at Princeton, 1912[-17]; deputy legal advisor to president of China, 1914-1916; director of Institute for Government Research, 1916-1932; and consultant to the Library of Congress, 1940-1944.”

Source: Manuscripts and Rare Books Department, Swem Library, The College of William and Mary in Virginia. William F. Willoughby Papers, Finding Aid.

____________________________________

[Early “Brookings” connection]

“William F. Willoughby, a Johns Hopkins University graduate statistician and one of the early directors of the [Institute for Government Research in Washington, D.C., that later merged with the Institute of Economics and the Robert Brookings Graduate School of Economics and Government to form the Brookings Institution in 1927], helped the institute play an important role in the crafting of the 1921 legislation that led to the creation of the first U.S. Bureau of the Budget, the predecessor of the Office of Management and Budget.”

Source: “Brookings Institution”, Encyclopedia Britannica, and Donald E. Abelson, Capitol Ideas: Think Tanks and U.S. Foreign Policy (2006).

____________________________________

[Course Announcements]

ADDITIONAL ANNOUNCEMENTS ON COURSES IN ECONOMICS

Course 9 will be given in 1900-01 as a half-course only, by Mr. W. F. Willoughby, on Tu., Th., Sat., at 10 (second half-year).

There will also be given in 1900-01:—

9a. Provident Institutions—Workingmen’s Insurance, Friendly Societies, Savings Banks. Half course (second half-year). Mon., Wed., Fri. at 9. Mr. W. F. Willoughby.

In this course various institutions will be examined for providing aid to workingmen or their families in case of sickness, infirmity, old age, or death. Among the subjects covered will be the system of compulsory workingmen’s insurance in Germany, and the systems on the same principle in other countries of the Continent; the French and English legislation for compulsory insurance in case of accident; the voluntary Friendly Societies organized by workmen in various countries; Savings Banks, postal and ordinary; and People’s Banks and Building and Loan Associations. The problem of the unemployed and the efforts for its solution or mitigation will also be considered.

Source: From a note printed on a separate piece of paper included with first edition of the Announcement of the Courses of Instruction of Harvard University. The course was included in Announcement of the Courses of Instruction Provided by the Faculty of Arts and Sciences for the Academic Year 1900-01 (second edition). Cambridge, Massachusetts: 1900, p. 42.

____________________________________

[Course Enrollments]

[Economics] 92 hf. Mr. W. F. WILLOUGHBY. —The Labor Question in Europe and the United States. The Social and Economic Condition of Workingmen.

3 Graduates, 53 Seniors, 40 Juniors, 35 Sophomores, 3 Freshmen , 12 Other: Total 146.

[Economics] 9a2 hf. Mr. W. F. WILLOUGHBY.—Provident Institutions. Workingmen’s Insurance, Friendly Societies, Savings Banks.

1 Graduate, 13 Seniors, 5 Juniors, 2 Sophomores, 1 Other: Total 22.

Source: Harvard University. Annual report of the President and reports of the departments, 1900-01, p. 64.

____________________________________

ECONOMICS 9

THE LABOR QUESTION IN EUROPE AND THE UNITED STATES

TOPICS AND REFERENCES

[Books marked * reading required.]

I.—Methods of Industrial Remuneration

*1. Schloss: Methods of Industrial Remuneration (to be purchased). *2. Gilman: Profit Sharing *3. Gilman: A Dividend to Labor, Parts I and III. *4. Monroe: Profit Sharing in the United States. (American Journal of Sociology, May, 1896.) *5. W. J. Ashley: Coöperative Production in England. (In Surveys, Historic and Economic.) *6. Gide: Productive Coöperation in France. (Quarterly Journal of Economics, November, 1899) 7. Acland and Jones: Workingmen Coöperators. 8. Beatrice Potter: The Coöperative Movement in Great Britain. 9. Holyoake: The Cooperative Movement of To-day. 10. H. D. Lloyd: Labor Copartnership. 11. Benjamin Jones: Coöperative Production. 12. Gide: Has Coöperation Introduced a New Principle into Economics? (Economic Journal, December, 1898.) 13. History of Coöperation in the United States. (Johns Hopkins University Studies, VI.) 14. Reports of British Labor Department on— (a) Profit Sharing, by D. F. Schloss. (b) Gain Sharing, by D. F. Schloss. (c) Standard Piece Rates and Sliding Scales, 1900. (d) Coöperative Contracts, by D. F. Schloss.

II.—Organization of Industry

1. Hobson: Evolution of Modern Capitalism, Chaps. IV and V. 2. Wright: The Factory System. (U. S. Tenth Census.) *3. Wright: The Factory System as an Element in Civilization. (In Rand’s Economic History.) *4. Willoughby: The Concentration of Industry in the United States. (Yale Review, May, 1898.) 5. Willoughby: The Regulation of the Sweating System. (Economic Monographs, U.S. Commission to Paris Exposition, 1900.) 6. Jenks: The Trust Problem. 7. Ely: Trusts and Monopolies.

III.—The Organization of Employers and Employees

1. Sidney and Beatrice Webb: The History of Trade Unionism. 2. Sidney and Beatrice Webb: Industrial Democracy. 3. Howell: Conflicts of Labor and Capital. *4. Trade Unionism, Old and New (to be purchased). 5. Hollander: A Study of Trade Unionism. (Political Science Quarterly, December, 1898.) *6. Cummings: A Collectivist Philosophy of Trade Unionism. (Quarterly Journal of Economics, January, 1899.) 7. Wright: An Historical Sketch of the Knights of Labor. (Quarterly Journal of Economics, Vol. I, No. 2.) *8. Aldrich: The American Federation of Labor. (Economic Studies, American Economic Association, August, 1898.) 9. Burke: History and Function of Central Labor Unions. (Columbia Studies, 1900.) 10. Sidney and Beatrice Webb: Trade Union Democracy. (Political Science Quarterly, September and December, 1896.) *11. Wright: Industrial Evolution of the United States, Chaps. XVIII-XX. 12. De Rousiers: The Labor Question in Britain. 13. McNeill: The Labor Movement. 14. Great Britain Labor Department: Annual Reports on Trades Unions.

IV.—Industrial Disputes: their Prevention and Settlement

1. U. S. Department of Labor: Reports on Strikes and Lockouts. 2. U. S. Department of Labor: Bulletins. (See digests of foreign statistical reports for statistics of strikes in European countries.) 3. Great Britain Labor Department: Annual Reports on Strikes. 4. U. S. Strike Commission, 1894: Report. *5. Industrial Evolution of the United States, Chaps. XXIV-XXVI. 6. Wright: Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration, 1881. 7. Josephine Lowell: Industrial Arbitration and Conciliation. 8. T. A. Carroll: Conciliation and Arbitration in the Boot and Shoe Industry. (Bulletin, U. S. Depart. of Labor, No. 8.) 9. J. B. McPherson: Voluntary Conciliation and Arbitration in Great Britain. (Bulletin, U. S. Depart. of Labor, No. 28.) 10. Edward Cummings: Action under Labor Arbitration Acts. (Quarterly Journal of Economics, July, 1887.) *11. Edward Cummings: Industrial Arbitration in the United States. (Quarterly Journal of Economics, July, 1895.) *12. S. N. D. North: Industrial Arbitration; its Methods and its Limitations. (Quarterly Journal of Economics, July, 1896.) *13. F. J. Stimson: The National Arbitration Law. (International Journal of Ethics, July, 1898.) 14. Willoughby: Industrial Arbitration and Conciliation. (Economic Monographs, U. S. Com. to Paris Exposition, 1900.)

V.—Stability of Employment

1. Great Britain Labor Department: Report on Agencies and Methods for Dealing with the Unemployed, 1893. 2. Massachusetts Board: Report of the Massachusetts Board to Investigate the Subject of the Unemployed, 1895. 3. Geoffrey Drage: The Unemployed, 1894. 4. Hobson: The Problem of the Unemployed, 1896. 5. Great Britain Labor Depart.: Annual Reports on Trade Unions. *6. Willoughby: Employment Bureaus. (Economic Monographs, U. S. Commission to Paris Exposition, 1900.) *7. Bogart: Public Employment Offices in the United States and Germany. (Quarterly Journal of Economics, May, 1900.) 8. Mavor: German Labor Colonies and the Unemployed. (Journal of Political Economy, December, 1893.) 9. Peabody: The German Labor Colonies. (Forum, Feb., 1892.) 10. Gore: The Poor Colonies of Holland. (Bulletin, U. S. Department of Labor, No. 2.)

VI.—The State in Relation to Labor

*1. Jevons: The State in Relation to Labor. 2. Brentano: The Relation of Labor to the Law of To-day. 3. Stimson: Labor in its Relation to Law. *4. Stimson: Handbook to the Labor Law of the United States. 5. Willoughby: Foreign Labor Laws. (Bulletin, U. S. Department of Labor, Nos. 25-28, 30, 33.) *6. Willoughby: State Activities in Relation to Labor in the United States. (Johns Hopkins University Studies, 1901.) 7. Willoughby: Accidents to Labor as Regulated by Law in the United States. (Bulletin, U. S. Depart. of Labor, No. 32.)

VII.—The Coöperative Movement

*1. Beatrice Potter: The Coöperative Movement in Great Britain (to be purchased). 2. Holyoake: The Coöperative Movement of To-day. *3. Edward Cummings: Coöperative Stores in the United States. (Quarterly Journal of Economics, April, 1897.) *4. Edward W. Bemis: Coöperative Distribution in the United States. (Bulletin, U. S. Department of Labor, No. 6.) 5. Report of First Annual Congress of the International Coöperative Alliance, London, 1896. 6. Henry Wolff: Peoples’ Banks. 7. Dexter: Coöperative Savings and Loan Associations. *8. Dexter: Coöperative Savings and Loan Associations. (Quarterly Journal of Economics, April, 1889.) 9. U. S. Department of Labor: Report on Building and Loan Associations. *10. Willoughby: Building and Loan Associations in the United States. (Economic Monographs, U. S. Commission to Paris Exposition, 1900.)

VIII.—Provident Institutions

*1. Willoughby: Workingmen’s Insurance (to be purchased). *2. Willoughby: The French Workmen’s Compensation Act. (Quarterly Journal of Economics, July, 1898.) *3. Willoughby: The Belgian General Savings and Old-Age Pension Bank. (Journal of Political Economy, March, 1900.) *4. Brabrock: Provident Institutions and Industrial Welfare. 5. U. S. Department of Labor: Report on Compulsory Insurance in Germany, by J. G. Brooks. 6. New York Bureau of Labor: Annual Report, 1899, Part 2, The Compensation of Accidental Injuries to Workingmen. 7. Great Britain Labor Department: Report on Provision for Old Age by Government Action in certain European Countries, 1899. 8. Wilkinson: The Friendly Society Movement. 9. Emory Johnson: Brotherhood Relief and Insurance of Railway Employees. (Bulletin, U. S. Department of Labor, No. 17.) 10. Edward W. Bemis: Benefit Features of American Trade Unions. (Bulletin, U. S. Department of Labor, No. 22.) 11. Hoffman: History of the Prudential Insurance Company of America.

IX.—Housing of the Working Classes

1. U. S. Department of Labor: Report on the Housing of the Working Classes, by E. R. L. Gould. 2. New York Tenement House Committee: Report. *3. Willoughby: The Modern Movement for the Housing of the Working Classes in France. (Yale Review, November, 1899.) 4. Reynolds: The Housing of the Poor in American Cities. (Pub. American Economic Association, VIII, Nos. 2,3.)

X.—Socialism and Communism

1. Kirkup: History of Socialism. 2. Rae: Socialism of To-day. [sic, Contemporary Socialism is the correct title] 3. Webb: Socialism in England. 4. Nordhoff: Communistic Societies in America. 5. François: Socialism in France. (Journal of Political Economy, December, 1898.) 6. Schmidt: The Present Condition of Social Democracy in Germany. (Journal of Political Economy, September, 1898.) 7. Russell: German Social Democracy.

____________________________________

ECONOMICS 9

WRITTEN EXERCISE

What is the attitude of the trade-union movement towards the wages system?

In this respect how is it essentially different from socialism or the coöperative movement as a method of social reform? At about what date did trade unions begin to be formed in Great Britain?

Show why, in view of existing industrial conditions, trade unions were not formed at an earlier date, and why the rise of the modern industrial system has led to the constant development of these unions. Divide the history of trade unions in Great Britain into periods, and give the characteristic features of each. What general organization or federation of trade unions are there now in Great Britain and the general character of each? Enumerate some of the principal events in the history of trade unions in the United States. Contrast the Knights of Labor and the American Federation of Labor as regards their scheme of organization, objects and means of action. Describe the existing forms of trade union organizations: the Local Union, National Trade Union, Central Labor Union or City Trades Council, State Federation, and American Federation of Labor so as to show the relations existing between them.

Show also why there is need for these various kinds of organizations, and why they do not conflict one with the other. Explain why the national trade union is the unit of government rather than the local union.

Show the severe of action of the American Federation of Labor, its power over the national trade unions and the service performed by it in bringing about unity and harmony in the labor movement.

Why does the Federation permit the affiliation of “local trade unions” and “federal unions”? Show why the primary form of organization must be by trades rather than by districts, and subsequent union be by federation rather than amalgamation. What are the essential aims of the trade unions as regards (a) the method of making the labor contract, and (b) the terms of the labor contract. What is meant by the standard rate? Show how this principle in connection with collective bargaining once determined upon must logically be extended so as to mean the fixing of a standard rate for the trade of the whole country by means of a joint bargain between the national associations of the employers and employees.

In what trades has this condition been reached within the past year in this country? Explain how the benefit feature of trade unions is an element of strength to the unions in their strictly trade action, as well as a device for mutual assistance. Give the reasoning according to which the unionists maintain that under modern conditions collective bargaining preserves the freedom of contract better than individual bargaining.

Give the employer’s reasons for insisting upon bargaining with his employees individually. What effect does a standard rate have upon the question of incentive to work on the part of individuals and of industrial efficiency generally? What are the means of action of trade unions in enforcing their demands? Explain the essential difference between conciliation, mediation, and arbitration. Show the importance of distinguishing between disputes involving (1) the interpretation and enforcement of labor contracts and (2) the making of new contracts. Especially show why arbitration is a principle that can properly be invoked as regards the first class, but it should only be the last resort as regards the second. In what ways has the state in Europe and the United States intervened for the prevention or adjustment of labor disputes?

Show why its action has in all cases been productive of so little result. Show how collective bargaining in practical operation necessitates the constitution of joint boards of conciliation, and therefore offers a very effective means for avoiding and settling industrial disputes. What are some of the most important respects in which the trade union movement in Europe is different from the trade union movement in Great Britain and the United States?

____________________________________

ECONOMICS 9a

PROVIDENT INSTITUTIONS

TOPICS AND REFERENCES

[Books marked * reading required.]

1. Willoughby: *Workingmen’s Insurance (to be purchased).

*The French Workmen’s Compensation Act. (Quarterly Journal of Economics, July, 1898.)

*The General Savings and Old-Age Pension Bank of Belgium. (Journal of Political Economy, March, 1900.)

*Building and Loan Associations. (Economic Monographs. U. S. Commission to Paris Exposition, 1900.) *2. Brabrock: Provident Institutions and Industrial Welfare. *3. Wolff: Peoples’ Banks. *4. Wilkinson: The Friendly Society Movement. *5. Dexter: Coöperative Savings and Loan Associations. (Quarterly Journal of Economics, III-3.) *6. Bemis: Benefit Features of American Trade Unions. (Bulletin U. S. Department of Labor, No. 22.) *7. Fiske: Industrial Insurance. (Charities Review, March, 1898.) *8. Johnson: Brotherhood Relief and Insurance of Railway Employees. (Bulletin U. S. Department of Labor, No. 17.) 9. Transactions of Second International Actuarial Congress, London, 1898. 10. U. S. Department of Labor: Report on Compulsory Insurance in Germany, by J. G. Brooks. Report on Building and Loan Associations. 11. National Fraternal Congress (U. S.): Reports of Annual Meetings. 12. New York Bureau of Labor: Annual Report, 1899, Part II. The Compensation of Accidental Injuries to Workingmen. 13. Great Britain Labor Department: Report on Provision for Old Age by Government Action in certain European Countries. 14. Hoffman: History of the Prudential Insurance Company of America. 15. Baernreither: English Associations of Workingmen. 16. Dexter: Coöperative Savings and Loan Associations. 17. Dr. Zacher: Die Arbeiter-Versicherung im Auslande.

[Other reading will be assigned later.]

Source: Harvard University Archives. Syllabi, course outlines and reading lists in Economics, 1895-2003 (HUC 8522.2.1), Box 1, Folder “Economics, 1900-1901”.

Image Source: The Washington Times, 28 March 1911.