In 1810, parts of West Florida were annexed by proclamation of President James Madison, who claimed the region as part of the Louisiana Purchase. These parts were incorporated into the newly formed Territory of Orleans. The U.S. annexed the Mobile District of West Florida to the Mississippi Territory in 1812, despite Spain’s objection. Andrew Jackson first became a national hero as a result of his victory over the Indians in the Creek War of 1813-1814. After that victory, he forced the Treaty of Fort Jackson on the Creek, resulting in their loss of territory in southern Georgia and central and southern Alabama. As a result, many Creek left Alabama and Georgia and moved to Florida. These Creek refugees joined the Seminole Indians, native to Florida.

In August, 1814, a British fleet entered Pensacola Bay with the consent of the Spanish government and raised the British flag over forts there. The Indians of the surrounding region were now openly desirous to make war on the Americans and the British supplied them with arms and ammunition. The streets of Pensacola were full of Indians in British uniforms marching and drilling. Jackson determined to put a stop to all this. He raised a force of 3,000 volunteers and marched against Pensacola in November 1814. After a skirmish, the Spanish governor with his escort came to meet the Americans and offered to surrender. Jackson received the surrender and marched into the city. The British, with some of their Indian allies, were glad to make their escape to the ships, and sailed away. Then Jackson left the city and headed for a rendezvous with history at New Orleans.

After they were driven from Pensacola, The British built a strong fort on the Apalachicola River and made it headquarters for arming Indians and runaway negroes to make war against the American frontier settlements in Georgia and Alabama. This continued even after the Treaty of Ghent ended the War of 1812. The fort was commanded by a black man, Garcia, and was known as the Negro Fort. After waiting a year and a half for it to be abandoned, the United States took the fort. But the attacks on the border settlements in Georgia and Alabama by the Seminoles and “runaway negroes” continued. As Spain seemed unable to control the Indians, Jackson was put in command for what is called the First Seminole War. On March 15, 1818, Jackson’s army entered Florida, marching down the Apalachicola River and heading into East Florida. He broke Indian resistance, and destroyed villages of Indians and their black allies. Jackson next turned his attention to Pensacola, for he had heard that Indians hostile to the United States received arms and encouragement there. While on his way he received several messages from Don Jose Masot, the Spanish governor of West Florida, demanding that he should leave. But these messages made no difference to Jackson. On May 23 he entered Pensacola, and Masot, with his 175-man Spanish garrison, retreated to Fort Barrancas. The two sides exchanged cannon fire for a couple of days at Barrancas, and on May 28, 1818 the Spanish garrison surrendered. Jackson left Colonel William King as military governor of West Florida and went home. He had effectively taken portions of both East and West Floridas in less than half a year, leaving the United States in effective control. For diplomatic reasons, the United States government returned West Florida to Spain in September 1819.

This enabled American foreign policy to make a claim on all of the territory. Secretary of State John Quincy Adams attacked Spanish control of Florida, claiming the territory had become “a derelict open to the occupancy of every enemy, civilized or savage, of the United States, and serving no other earthly purpose than as a post of annoyance to them.” Now Florida had become a burden to Spain, which could not afford to send settlers or garrisons. Madrid therefore decided to cede the territory to the United States. On February 22, 1819, the Adams-Onis Treaty was signed in Washington, which gave all of Florida to the U.S. The Senate ratified the treaty unanimously. Spain may have wanted to use the treaty as an incentive to keep the U.S. from giving diplomatic support to the revolutionaries in South America, but in any event it did not ratify; so issue of ownership of Florida remained unresolved.

By the fall of 1819, Jackson was denouncing Spain for “treachery and perfidy” and chafing at the bit to invade Florida again to put an end to the stalling. In early December 1819, Jackson received instructions from Secretary of War John C. Calhoun to bring the bulk of his troops to the Florida border preparatory to an invasion. He responded approvingly to Calhoun that day saying he was getting his forces to a state of preparedness, and discussing tactics and logistics for an invasion.

Col. George Gibson was Quartermaster General during the campaign against the Seminoles in 1818. Jackson directed Gibson to purchase and forward the needed provisions, which Gibson did quickly and efficiently, procuring the essential stocks of food, loading them onto vessels, and sailing across the Gulf to Apalachicola Bay, where the supplies were taken upstream by keel boats to Jackson’s forces. Jackson had high praise for him, and now wanted him involved in the upcoming invasion.

Autograph Letter Signed, the Hermitage, December 13, 1819, to Colonel Gibson, saying he had just learned that the Spanish had not ratified the Adams-Onis Treaty, telling of the confidential preparations for a the military action in Florida, asking for Gibson’s participation, and expressing confidence in the result. “I have just rec’d your letter of the 25th ult. advising of the return of Capt Reed from Madrid, with despatches to Government, advising it of the non-ratification of the treaty. I rec’d on the 10th ult. communications from the Dept. of War. (Confidential) preparations are making to carry into effect, whatever may be directed. I set out to Tennessee, Florence, this morning to make arrangements for orders such as I anticipate to receive in ten days from this date – unless the Ordinance Department should detain a movement, by not having a battering train ready. Barrancas, altho much strengthened, and strengthening, can be possessed in a short time. I shall expect you with me, with the order for operations – and I have to request that you see Colo. Bumfort the chief of the ordinance dept, and inquire of him in what state from the last report to him I may expect to find the ordinance at Mobile. I receive no reports on this subject, but am advised that the field carriages are entirely unfit for use – and I am informed that there is no 24 or 18 that are mounted on carriages fit for the field. Report gives the number of regulars & militia at Pensacola & Barrancas 2000. it also states a reinforcement of 1500 to have reached Cuba. Let these numbers be as it may, if we have the necessary supplies of provisions, ordinances & quartermasters stores, we can reduce the Floridas in a short time. As you are upon the spot, will thank you to procure the necessary funds for your Department, and that of the quarter masters Department & urge the ordinance Department to have everything ready.

“I rejoice to hear of your recovery, and that Mr. Calhoun is out of danger. my health is precarious, but I trust in God, it will enable me to be upon my legs until we are in the peacable possession of Floridas – for I think as soon as we are, Spain will gladly be at peace with us. Mrs. J joins me in good wishes for your health & happiness & believe me to be in haste your friend sincerely, Andrew Jackson.”

In the end, President Monroe did not want to launch yet another military action in Forida without Congressional approval, and as 1820 dawned he sought to obtain it. Congress was considering the momentous Missouri Compromise, however, and did not divert itself from those considerations. Meanwhile, Spain learned of the threatened invasion and at last decided to act, ratifying the Adams-Onis Treaty in the fall of 1820, thus negating a reason to carry it out.