This project is not directly funded. We acknowledge the support of the Maryland Nanocenter, its Surface Analysis Center and AIMLab and the University of Maryland supercomputing resources (http://hpcc.umd.edu). Z.H. and R.S.-Y. acknowledge the financial support from NSF-DMR award no. 1809439. P.X. and Chao Wang thank the support from the Advanced Research Projects Agency—Energy (ARPA-E), Department of Energy (DOE) and the Petroleum Research Fund, American Chemical Society. L.M., T.W. and J.L. acknowledge the financial support from the US Department of Energy under Contract DE-AC02-06CH11357. Research conducted at beamline 9-BM used resources of the Advanced Photon Source, an Office of Science User Facility operated for the US DOE by Argonne National Laboratory under Contract no. DE-AC02-06CH11357. Chongmin Wang thanks the support of LDRD of PNNL and the in situ ETEM was conducted in the William R. Wiley Environmental Molecular Sciences Laboratory (EMSL), a national scientific user facility sponsored by DOE’s Office of Biological and Environmental Research and located at PNNL. PNNL is operated by Battelle for the Department of Energy under Contract DE-AC05-76RLO1830.