Text: Tim Jackson. Illusrations: Luis V. Rey. Article from the July 2012 issue of Africa Geographic Magazine.

Well before mammals came to the fore, the earth was ruled by some of the largest and most bizarre creatures ever – dinosaurs, And Africa had its fair share of the weird and wild beasties, Tim Jackson catches up with some leading palaeontologists and introduces us to Africa’s Mega Five.

Discovering the remains of a dinosaur must be amazing. Imagine coming across the exposed fragment of a fossilised bone and gradually uncovering one of these ancient creatures. Humbling too, if you think that ‘our’ earth was once ruled by a fantastical group of mega-reptiles for almost 200 million years. It is mind-blowing to contemplate that when dinosaurs took up their reign, all of the world’s major continents were united as a single landmass called Pangaea.

The age of the dinosaurs began in the later part of the Triassic Period some 251-202 million years ago (mya). Together with the crocodilians (whose few descendants survive today) and the ‘flying reptiles’ or pterosaurs, they were all descended from the early archosaurs or ‘ruling reptiles’ that wandered the earth at the time. Later, during the Jurassic Period (202-146 mya), Pangaea split in two – Laurasia to the north and Gondwana to the south. Towards the end of the Jurassic, modern birds – our remaining dinosaur legacy – began to evolve from the theropod dinosaurs. Enter the Cretaceous Period (146-65 mya) and these huge landmasses split into the continents more or less as we know them today. It was at the end of this epoch that some sort of catastrophic event, or events, put an end to the dinosaurs – the earth’s most recent mass extinction.

Since the 1800s palaeontologists have been piecing together a picture of the dinosaur record across Africa and neighbouring Madagascar. Compared to other continents, Antarctica and Australia excluded, relatively little is known about Africa’s dinosaurs. Most discoveries have been made in semi-arid areas where the chances are better of finding the fossils, while palaeontologists are left to wonder what marvels might lie below the rainforests of Central Africa.

The first recorded African dinosaur fossils were found in South Africa during the mid-19th century. Other notable finds included titanosaurs, uncovered by the French palaeontologist Charles Deperet in Madagascar in 1896. Titanosaurs, first discovered in India, were some of the last of the sauropods (the famous long-necked dinosaurs) to appear and their remains are still being unearthed in Africa today.

In the early 1900s a German team led by Werner Janensch carried out some of the best-known dinosaur hunts, which uncovered remarkable fossils in the Tendaguru region of south-eastern Tanzania. Around the same time Ernst Stromer, another pioneering German palaeontologist, led a similar assault on the dinosaur fauna of Egypt. He is remembered for his descriptions of two iconic species – Spinosaurus and Carcharodontosaurus – Between the world wars, English scientists Parrington and Parkinson took over excavation at Tendaguru, while Frenchmen Albert-Felix de Lapparent, Rene Lavocat and Philippe Taquet were active in the Sahara during the 1960s and ’70s.

The 1980s brought fresh energy to African palaeontology, with Louis Jacobs’ discovery of a major fossil site in the hills of Malawi and others in Cameroon. The following decade brought even more excitement, this time in Madagascar where David Krause of Stony Brook University, New York, and his team described three new taxa of non-avian therapods and saurapods (with another soon to be described), placing the island firmly on the dinosaur hotspot map.

More recently Paul Sereno from the University of Chicago has turned up some amazing dinosaur finds in the Sahara. Sereno has also undertaken several expeditions to Niger and Morocco, and has made significant inroads into understanding the diversity of African dinosaurs.

South Africa has a rich history of fossil collecting too. Bone-bearing beds across the Karoo Basin are renowned as much for mammal-like reptiles, whose heyday preceded the dinosaurs, as they are for dinosaurs themselves. In fact one of the country’s most famous fossils, in scientific circles at least, is that of an ancient archosaur called Enparkeria. Though not strictly a dinosaur itself, it was a closely related species and provides insights into the ways in which dinosaurs might have evolved.

James Kitching was undoubtedly one of South Africa’s great fossil finders. A vertebrate palaeontologist by trade, his contributions to Karoo palaeontology have earned him international recognition. He is most famous for recovering seven Massospondylus eggs discovered by road-builders in today’s Golden Gate Highlands National Park, with their unhatched embryos intact.

Internationally Africa has a reputation for turning up some of the more spectacular dinosaurs. These include giant meat-eating theropods (also the ancestors of modern birds) as well as megaherbivores (sauropods) and their cousins the prosauropods. Stand aside Tyrannosaurus rex, here comes the Malagasy cannibal!

Where to next?

‘Most work is still concentrated in South Africa, Lesotho, Tanzania, Madagascar, Morocco and Egypt. How-ever, some of my colleagues are starting to look at Ethiopia and Kenya in more detail, with the possibility of exciting results. Much of the continent is still relatively unexplored for vertebrate fossils and I’d expect there to be a burst of discoveries in the future,’ predicts Paul Barrett, a researcher at London’s Natural History Museum.

Adam Yates of the Museum of Central Australia, Alice Springs, expands on this. ‘Angola is definitely a country that is only just starting to reveal its palaeontological treasures. Another possibility for the near future is Mozambique. I would have gone looking myself but for the fact that the best areas with potential for dinosaur fossils haven’t been totally cleared of landmines yet!’

Robert Reisz, head of the vertebrate palaeontology research team at the University of Toronto, adds to the geographical mix. ‘The Sudan is actually a very active area of current research, with teams from Canada and Germany doing field work there,’ he says.

The Malagasy cannibal

Majungasaurus

My team’s discovery of the first-ever skull of Majungasaurus in 1996 really got the dinosaur component of our Madagascar project going in earnest,’ says David Krause. Majungasaurus was an apex predator in its time. It had blade-like teeth that left characteristic marks as it bit against the bones of its prey. Many of the fossils in the bone beds where Majungasaurus was found show these distinctive bite marks, including Majungasaurus itself. Whether it actively killed its brethren or whether it scavenged them remains a mystery.

‘Because of the exquisite preservation of several skulls and skeletons, we know much about the anatomy of Majungasaurus,’ says Krause. ‘In addition to discovering that it was the apex predator of its day and that it had cannibalistic tendencies, we know from the rocks it was buried in that it lived in a highly seasonal environment. Its pulmonary architecture [relating to its lungs and air sacs] has been studied by Pat O’Connor of Ohio University in great detail, and various bone pathologies have also been well documented.’

Facts

Pronunciation: mah-JOONG-gah-SAW-rus.

Meaning: ‘Majunga lizard’.

When: 70-65 mya (Late Cretaceous).

Where: Madagascar.

Discovered: 1955 by Rene Lavocat near the village of Majunga (now Mahajanga) in northern Madagascar. He described the fragmented jaw of a juvenile.

Classification: Theropod.

Length: 7-9 metres.

Mass: 1100 kilograms.

Did you know?

A fossil Majungasaurus was once misidentified as a thick-skulled, plant-eating pachycephalosaur. Thinking it was the skull dome of a new species, scientists named it Majungatholus atopus in 1979. However, in 1996 discovery of the first complete skull of Majungasaurus showed that the fossil was actually just a “horn” on the head of this strange carnivore.

Common Resident

Massospondylus

One of the most remarkable things about Massospondylus is that so many of them have been found. ‘This is actually a fairly plain and unimpressive dinosaur and is very common. Indeed when I’m asked to look at a new dinosaur discovery I’m always hoping that it is not just another Massospondylus!’ confesses Adam Yates. ‘However that abundance means that we have an excellent range of samples, including individuals from eggs and tiny hatchlings (below) to old adults. So we can look at such things as changes in growth and variation within the species. There is a preserved nesting ground of this species, which gives us all sorts of information on the reproductive and parenting behaviours of this animal. No other dinosaur from Africa has yielded so much information on its biology.’

Facts

Pronunciation: MASS-oh-SPON-DIE-lus.

Meaning: ‘Longer vertebra’.

When: 200-183 mya (Early Jurassic).

Where: Southern Africa, including South Africa, Lesotho, Zimbabwe.

Discovered: Described by Richard Owen in 1854 from remains collected in the Harrismith area of Drakensberg, South Africa.

Classification: Prosauropod.

Length: Five metres.

Mass: 250 kilograms.

The long-necked plant eater

Giraffatitan

‘Giraffatitan from the Late Jurassic of Tendaguru is one of the most spectacular dinosaurs of all time, and many people consider it to be the signature dinosaur of Africa’ says Robert Reisz. This is perhaps not that surprising as Giraffatitan was one of the largest animals ever to have lived. There are dinosaurs from around the world that are undoubtedly larger, yet Giraffatitan is the only one from which we have a relatively complete skeleton. A composite skeleton of the species, made up of the bones of several individuals, stands proudly in the Museum fur Naturkunde in Berlin – the tallest mounted dinosaur skeleton ever to go on display. Some 1900 litres of blood are thought to have circulated throughout its body, while estimates suggest its heart weighed a massive 200 kilograms.

Facts

Pronunciation: GIRAFFE-a-TIGHT-an.

Meaning: ‘Giant giraffe’.

When: 155-146 mya (Late Jurassic).

Where: Tanzania.

Discovered: Excavated from Tendaguru in Tanzania by the German expeditions of 1909-1912. Classification: Sauropod.

Length: 26 metres.

Mass: 26-38 tonnes.

Did you know?

Giraffatitan was originally named Brachiosaurus brancai, a name more familiar to most people. But its discovery was pre-dated by that of B.altithorax in the US. As the two species were recently found to be less closely related that was previously believed, the genus name of the African form had to be changed, to Giraffatitan. When most people talk about Brachiosaurus today, they are actually referring to the African Giraffatitan.

The fish-eater

Spinosaurus

Spinosaurus is one of the most bizarre dinosaurs on record. Its whacko features include an elongated jaw crammed with crocodile-like teeth as well as a massive sail-like structure that ran along the length of its back. ‘Spinosaurus, known from northern Africa, is particularly fascinating because it remains an important, somewhat enigmatic dinosaur of great size,’ says Robert Reisz. Matt Lamanna of the Carnegie Museum of Natural History in Pittsburgh, adds: ‘This dinosaur has broadened our knowledge of theropod biology in several important ways. First, at an estimated length of up to 17 metres, it’s arguably the largest theropod yet discovered, and so it’s pushed the limits of how big predatory dinosaurs could get. Second, Spinosaurus has loads of skeletal peculiarities, most notably the tall spines arising from its backbone, and as such it’s expanded our conception of the anatomical diversity of dinosaurs. Third, and perhaps most importantly, there’s now pretty compelling evidence that Spinosaurus spent a lot of time in the water, and that it ate fish, so it’s added to our understanding of dinosaurian ecology too.’

Quite what the sail-like structure – some of the bones in it measure 1.7 metres long – was used for is a mystery. But Lamanna hasn’t finished. ‘Spinosaurus is emblematic of African dinosaurs in general – we don’t know much about it, but the little we do know indicates that it was amazing, bizarre and evolutionarily and ecologically unique.’

Facts

Pronunciation: SPY-no-SAW-rus.

Meaning: ‘Spine lizard’.

When: 100-95 mya (mid-Cretaceous).

Where: Egypt (and several other sites in North Africa).

Discovered: 1912 in the Bahariya Oasis in central Egypt by the German palaeontologists Ernst Stromer and Richard Markgraf.

Classification: Theropod.

Length: 14-17 metres.

Mass: 6-9 tonnes.

Did you know?

Africa is unusual for its array of fish-eating dinosaurus. Besides Spinosaurus, these include Suchominus from Niger and possibly Masiakasaurus from Madagaskar.

Old shark tooth

Carcharodontosaurus

Carcharodontosaurus is arguably Africa’s biggest meat-eating dinosaur, though Spinosaurus lays a strong claim too. In fact, some scientists claim it is larger and heavier than its better-known relatives Tyrannosaurus rex from North America and Giganotosaurus from Argentina, though this is hotly debated. In 1995 University of Chicago palaeontologist Paul Sereno and his team excavated a skull of this giant in the mountainous Kem Kem region of Morocco. The skull was 1.6 metres long and lined with 18 blade-like teeth on either side. It is actually named after the shark genus Carcharodon, which includes the great white shark Carcharodon carcharias, on account of its triangular teeth (most therapods have teeth that curve backwards). Measuring 15 centimetres, the teeth allowed Carcharodontosaurus to slice through its victims with ease.

Facts

Pronunciation: car-CARE-oh-DON-tuh-SAW-rus.

Meaning: ‘Shark-toothed lizard’.

When: 100-95 mya (mid-Cretaceous).

Where: North Africa.

Discovered: The first skeleton was discovered by Richard Markgraf in the Bahariya Oasis of Egypt in 1914, but it was only described by Ernst Stromer in 1931. The original description, however, was made in 1925 by Charles Deperet and J. Savornin from the Continental Intercalate aquifer in Algeria.

Classification: Theropod.

Length: 10.5-13 metres.

Mass: 7 tonnes.

Did you know?

Despite this dinosaur’s massive size, its cranial capacity was 15 times less than that of humans.

The bone collectors

Tim Jackson chats to leading palaeontologists about Africa’s dinosaurs.

When it comes to our understaning of dinosaur biology, what would you rate as the most important African species and why?

Robert Reisz, University of Toronto, Canada

Because of their abundance, size range, embryos and eggs, Massospondylus has recently climbed the subjective ladder to become the most important. The biology and evolution that we can derive from this dinosaur is unprecedented.

Why hasn’t more research been conducted on dinosaurs in Africa?

Paul Barrett, Natural History Museum, London, UK

A number of reasons. Until relatively recently many areas of Africa were very isolated and remote with little good infrastructure for getting people and supplies in and heavy caches of fossil bones out. Also, historically, most work on African dinosaurs was done by scientists from former colonial powers who did little to encourage the growth of palaeontology in the countries from which the fossils came. These situations are improving rapidly, however, with easier transport and the development of home-grown interest and expertise in African palaeontology.

Historically, who would you single out for their contribution to dinosaur biology on the continent – and why?

Oliver Rauhut, Ludwig Maximilians-University Munich, Germany

Definitely Berlin palaeontologist Werner Janensch. He organised and led the German East Africa expeditions to Tendaguru from 1909 to 1912. These were the largest dinosaur expeditions ever carried out to date, with more than 260 tonnes of bones collected. Tendaguru still stands as almost the only reference point for Late Jurassic dinosaurs from the southern hemisphefe. Not only did Janensch organise the extremely difficult logistics of these expeditions and lead the excavations in the field, he also described most of the dinosaur remains. The monographs that he published over a period of more than 50 years are still reference points for many studies in the field today.

So what’s it really like to work on dinosaurs in the field?

Matt Lamanna, Carnegie Museum of Natural History, Pittsburgh, US

It’s almost always incredible fun; you’re out in some remote, often beautiful area that not many people get to, searching for new evidence bearing on the history of life. And when you find something good, it’s exhilarating. Remember the feeling you got when you were a kid, and you were about to open a gift that you knew was going to be awesome? The feeling is kind of like that, but magnified about 10 times.

Why haven’t more dinosaurs been discovered in Africa?

Pat O’Connor, Ohio University College of Osteopathic Medicine, Athens, US

To a large extent this relates to tectonics. Major portions of the African continent were relatively stable during much of the age of dinosaurs, particularly during the Cretaceous Period. And in order to preserve fossils, you need to have the proper sedimentological setting, including one that has regional highs and lows – the lows are the places where sediments and, perhaps, the skeletons of animals collect and ultimately get preserved as fossils.

What is the most exciting dinosaur find you have made in Africa?

Anusuya Chinsamy-Turan, University of Cape Town, South Africa

Nqwebasaurus thwazi, a small meat-eating dinosaur from the Eastern Cape. It is exciting for me because I was involved in its naming; it is the only isiXhosa-named dinosaur. It means ‘the fast runner from Thwazi’, which is the isiXhosa name for the Kirkwood area.

Do you have a favourite dinosaur from the continent?

Roger Smith, Iziko Museum, Cape Town, South Africa

My personal favourite would be Heterodontosaurus [this month’s cover star] because I look after the type specimens and have spent many months in the field studying the Elliot Formation palaeo-environments and working with sculptors and artists to reconstruct the fleshed-up models we have in the Iziko South African Museum in Cape Town.

Dinosaur Art: Luis V. Rey (b.1955) is a Spanish-Mexican artist and illustrator, a 1977 graduate of the San Carlos Academy, (UNAM). He is best known for his innovative, award-winning colourful art in the field of dinosaur paleoart, promoting awareness of the developing evidence for feathered dinosaurs. He is an active member of the SVP (Society of Vertebrate Paleontology) and of the Dinosaur Society (UK). He also works in portraiture and makes political pieces, in paint and other media. See his work on his website and blog or contact him on his e-mail.