Universal Astrolabe (11th century) *

Photo: Volker Moehrke * In the Middle Ages, while Europeans were busy warring, plundering, and burning heretics at the stake, Muslim scholars were inventing the most advanced devices of the day. They refined the scientific method, developed effective cardiac drugs, and built celestial observatories—yet over time their contributions were largely forgotten.

Historian Fuat Sezgin spent 60 years tracking down ancient manuscripts and commissioning craftspeople to reproduce hundreds of instruments, from clocks to syringes. His replicas on display at the Islamic Science and Technology History Museum in Istanbul remind us that the culture now often associated with an antiscience ideology was once a catalyst for innovation. "Modern Muslims do not know this great history," Sezgin says, "so they sometimes have a complex toward modern science." His work exposes a geeky heritage to be proud of. Here are a few of those bright ideas from the so-called Dark Ages.

Universal Astrolabe* (11th century), pictured above*

What it is: An instrument for reading the stars

Why it matters: Starting around AD 622, Muhammad's followers spread throughout the Middle East and into Central Asia and North Africa. Astrolabes, which may date back to the Greeks, enabled travelers to determine time and direction from the constellations. But early users had to tote around a set of customized plates for each latitude. This all-in-one model, created by an astronomer known as Azarchel, lightened adventurers' loads. With it, globe-trotting Muslims could pray daily at the correct hours, facing Mecca, whether they were in Ibiza or Kazakhstan. Astrolabes ultimately led to the development of astronomical clocks.

Alembic (8th century)

What it is: An apparatus for distilling liquids

Why it matters: Islamic culture forbids the drinking of alcohol, but early Muslim scientists made great advances in distillation, a process they refined to create medicines, perfumes, and essential oils. The alembic was the first device that could fully separate substances with different volatilities. A liquid mixture was heated until the component with the lowest boiling point vaporized and rose to meet cool air at the neck. There it condensed back into liquid form, and the purified fluid dripped into a collection container. This was the precursor of the pot still, without which—perish the thought—whiskey would not exist.

Torpedo (13th century)

What it is: The first self-propelled projectile for sea warfare.

Why it matters: The Chinese invented gunpowder, but Hassan al-Rammah got the idea of stuffing it into a metal case and shooting it across water to shock and awe an enemy ship. In The Book of Fighting on Horseback and With War Engines (1280), al-Rammah dubbed it a "self-moving and combustible egg." This spiny missile would be filled with saltpeter, flammable liquid, and metal filings. Once ignited, combustion would propel the torpedo to its target, where it might explode.

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