Nearly one-third of Russia’s population has come face-to-face with domestic violence in their own families or among acquaintances, according to an independent survey published Friday. Russia decriminalized certain forms of domestic violence in 2017, a decision that top lawmakers have said was a mistake two years later. Activists say the absence of a domestic violence law leaves women vulnerable to abuse at the hands of their partners, which official estimates say happens to one in five women.

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According to the Levada Center polling agency, 31% of Russian respondents have encountered domestic violence — either in their social circles (19%), between their parents (7%) or in their own families (5%). “Given the sensitivity of the topic of [domestic] violence in an interview setting, we can assume that the share may be higher in both cases,” Levada said, referring to the 5% and 7% responses. More than two-thirds (68%) said they’ve never heard of cases of abuse among people they know. Respondents aged 40-54, respondents with lower education levels and women respondents were most likely to disclose cases of physical violence, the pollster said.