If you ask Wikipedia about polymorphism, it will tell you that it is about “provisioning a single interface to entities of different types”. And this is true(remember that interface here and in whole post means API, not some element that is part of the language, like scala’s trait ). In the following post we will go through a series of cases where traditional way of implementing polymorphism(by which I mean inheritance) is not enough .

Basic example

Just to remind what is the typeclass, let’s look at the same interface encoded with inheritance and typeclass:

//inheritance trait Hello { def hello : String } class World ( name : String ) extends Hello { def hello : String = "Hello " + name } new World ( "Earth" ). hello

//typeclass trait Hello [ T ] { def hello ( t : T ) : String } class World ( val name : String ) val helloWorld = new Hello [ World ] { def hello ( t : World ) : String = "Hello " + t . name } helloWorld . hello ( new World ( "Earth" ))

As we can see inheritance variant is less verbose and nicer to use. So why would anybody want to use typeclasses anyway? Here are some reasons…

Problem 1: Derive interface for new types automatically

Imagine you have following code already there. Nothing sophisticated, one interface that says “you can convert something to String “, and few methods depending on it.

trait Serializable { def serialize : String } def writeToFile ( data : Serializable , file : File ) def writeToSocket ( data : Serializable , socket : Socket ) def print ( data : Serializable )

But after some time you add a json support:

trait Json { def write : String } trait Jsonable { def toJson : Json } case class User ( name : String , age : Int ) extends Jsonable { ... }

And then you would like to use the old api without modyfing it. Just like this:

print ( User ( "John" , 18 ))

Sadly, it’s not possible, because User doesn’t implement Serializable , although it can be easily converted to string through Json abstraction. Ther are three ways to go:

create 3 new overloads taking Jsonable interface instead of Serializable - this is obviously wrong, as it doesn’t scale

interface instead of - this is obviously wrong, as it doesn’t scale make User implement Serializable - this is not a good solution, because you don’t always have access to particular type, and even if you do, you have to do this for every type that is Jsonable and not Serializable

implement - this is not a good solution, because you don’t always have access to particular type, and even if you do, you have to do this for every type that is and not create conversion method jsonableToSerializable - this is better approach, but you loose you original type during such conversion and also(at least with explicit conversion) you have to call this method explicitly with every use of original API. If you go with implicit conversion, it is almost good, but it has may limitations(e.g. cannot be chained, like Jsonable -> Serializable -> SomethingElse )

Lets see how such scenario can look with typeclass encoding:

trait Serializable [ T ]{ def serialize ( t : T ) : String } def writeToFile [ T: Serializable ]( data : T , file : File ) def writeToSocket [ T: Serializable ]( data : T , socket : Socket ) def print [ T: Serializable ]( data : T ) trait Json { def write : String } trait Jsonable [ T ] { def toJson ( v : T ) : Json } case class User ( name : String , age : Int ) implicit val userJsonable : Jsonable [ User ] = ??? implicit def jsonableToSerializable [ T: Jsonable ] : Serializable [ T ] = new Serializable [ T ] { def serialize ( t : T ) : String = implicitly [ Jsonable [ T ]]. toJson ( t ). write } print ( User ( "John" , 18 ))

Problem 2: Provide multiple implementations

You want to compare objects. But you want to do this in multiple ways in different contexts. This cannot be done with inheritance, so we will go with typeclass encoding right away.

trait Equatable [ T ] { def equals ( a : T , b : T ) : Boolean } case class User ( name : String , age : Int ) val eq1 : Equatable [ User ] = ??? val eq2 : Equatable [ User ] = ???

Problem 3: Define external interface for external type

This is very common(at least for me) situation. We have a type defined in module/library A

case class User ( name : String , age : Int )

and an interface defined in module/library B:

trait Equatable { def equals ( a : Any ) : Boolean }

now we would like to define User as Equatable . This cannot be done with inheritance and is straight forward with typeclasses.

// defined in module A trait Equatable [ T ] { def equals ( a : T , b : T ) : Boolean } // defined in module B case class User ( name : String , age : Int ) // defined in module C implicit val userEq : Equatable [ User ] = ???

Problem 3.5: Define interface for simple types

There is no way to inherit from simple types like Int or Float so there is no way to make them conform to any interface by inheritance. Happily typeclasses doesn’t have this problem:

implicit val intEq : Equatable [ Int ] = ???

Problem 4: Get exact type that implements the interface

Let’s create Sortable interface, that will tell us that given collection can be sorted. The best we can do with pure inheritance is:

trait Sortable { def sort () : Sortable //or Any }

Not very useful because we loose all type information after sorting. It gets a little better if we add some generics:

trait Sortable [ Coll ] { def sort () : Coll }

But still, there is no way to be sure that output collection is exactly the same type as output one(we can create class List extends Sortable[Set] ). To solve this we have to use typeclass that looks almost exactly the same:

trait Sortable [ Coll ] { def sort ( coll : Coll ) : Coll }

Problem 5: Implement multiple interfaces with dependencies

Imagine, that to make something Jsonable , we have to provide some dependency object, and the same goes with Persistent

abstract class Jsonable ( jsonFactory : JsonFactory ) { ... } abstract class Persistent ( persistenceCtx : PersistenceContext ) { ... } case class User ( username : String , age : Int ) // no way to inherit both, at least until dotty is here

So again, we fallback to typeclasses:

abstract class Jsonable [ T ]( jsonFactory : JsonFactory ) { ... } abstract class Persistent [ T ]( persistenceCtx : PersistenceContext ) { ... } case class User ( username : String , age : Int ) implicit val userJsonable = new Jsonable [ User ](???) implicit val userPersistent = new Persistent [ User ](???)

Problem 6: Define static function

We would like to define an interface that allows to create an instance of given type from String and, as you probably have guessed by now, it cannot be done with inheritance, because to inherit some behavior you need and instance already. With typeclass it is straight forward:

trait FromString [ T ] { def create ( str : String ) : T }

Summary

We have seen some examples, where typeclasses show their expressive power. They are great tools, but I would like to advise you to use them carefully. There are some problems with typeclasses, and two greatest ones are:

they are not as widely understood as inheritance, so if you are working with some Java developers, make sure they understand the idea

implicits can become a head ache very easily and you can’t use typeclasses efficiently without implicits

So remember good old Uncle Ben: