Thus, the same handful of accounts, led by @avec_marine and @messsmer, initiated all three hashtag campaigns.

Coordinated memes

The scale of the campaigns’ preparation becomes apparent when examining the memes these accounts and their amplifiers shared.

The #LaFranceVoteMarine campaign is the clearest case. As noted above, the primary accounts simultaneously tweeted four different images in the same style. Over the following hour, @messsmer tweeted all four, and another eight besides, precisely five minutes apart. @Audrey_Patriote tweeted eleven, ten of them the same as @messsmer’s, at more irregular intervals. Another account, @ImRiyrr, also posted a dozen, the same set as @messsmer’s; six are captured here for comparison:

Source: @ImRyirr / Twitter

This use of a stock of prepared images was not a one-off occurrence. @ImRiyrr’s posts on February 14 even more obviously betrayed an entire deck of pre-planned memes.

The purpose of the #Marine2017 campaign was to publicize Le Pen’s election manifesto. During the first hour, the lead accounts tweeted a number of extracts from the manifesto as colored tiles:

Source: @messsmer / Twitter

In total, @messsmer posted fifteen such tiles; @avec_marine posted eight; @grimmgrimm84 posted twenty-five. A few of the posts were common to all of them, but most were not.

The stock of tiles was far bigger than this, however. Between 18:04 and 18:21, @ImRiyrr posted ninety-five different tiles of Le Pen’s pledges. None was accompanied by any text other than the hashtag:

Source: @ImRiyrr/ Twitter. Some of the ninety-five memes posted, collected by machine analysis.

Perhaps as an indication that this coordinated use of a prepared stock of memes was meant to be kept secret, @ImRyirr’s tweets themselves have since been deleted; however, the images themselves have all been archived (samples here, here, here and here).

This storm of 95 meme-tweets in 17 minutes, each with nothing but a hashtag and a picture, demonstrates two things. First, it reveals the practice of preparing a huge stock of memes in advance. That was further confirmed on February 26, when @messsmer tweeted a link to an online store of images:

Source: @Messsmer / Twitter. “All our visuals are available for download here!”

Second, it indicates that @ImRiyrr is an automated “bot” account, used to amplify the hashtag and memes.

Penetration through automation

In fact, @ImRiyrr is by no means the only automated account to have taken part in the hashtag campaigns. A number of factors indicate that the campaigns owed their online penetration to automation.

Firstly, all three campaigns — each of which launched at 16:50 UTC, 17:50 French time — featured explosive spikes in Twitter traffic in the first half-hour of the campaign, and a rapid decline thereafter.

Timeline of tweets using the hashtag #Marine2017 on February 14.

Timeline of tweets using the hashtag #LePionMacron on February 21.

Timeline of tweets using the hashtag #LaFranceVoteMarine on February 26.

This is characteristic of a campaign using a set of automated accounts for a set period, rather than a grassroots campaign in which users’ engagement grows over time, peaks and then slowly declines.

Secondly, the campaigns featured a very high average number of tweets per user. According to a machine scan of the February 14 campaign, 1,104 users posted 12,237 tweets using the hashtag #Marine2017 between 16:50 and 18:00. That translates into an average of 11 tweets per user in the first hour.

On February 21, during the first hour of tweeting, the equivalent average was 8.6 tweets per user; it rose slightly to 8.9 per user on February 26.

This is remarkable. For comparison, a controlled sample of an unrelated “general-interest” event — the 2017 Super Bowl — collected 1.5 million tweets from over 800,000 users, at a rate of 1.875 per user. A sample from a specialist biology conference in December 2016 recorded an average of 3.4 tweets per user, out of 24,000 tweets.

Chart showing average user activity for three Le Pen campaigns and two unrelated events.

Thus, the explosive growth of the Le Pen hashtags was caused by a group of unusually dedicated users tweeting many times each.

Hyperactive users

That impression is confirmed by an analysis of the pattern of users. A high proportion of the traffic on these hashtags was generated by a relatively tiny number of accounts — a few dozen at most — which tweeted with inhuman rapidity, artificially amplifying the posts from the key accounts.

The account @2larochejaquel1, for example, posted 288 tweets in the first hour and ten minutes of the #Marine2017 campaign, at a rate of one every 16 seconds. All were retweets. @Vbloodymary posted 252 over the same period, almost all retweets; @calydol posted 258, all retweets; @NiardoujMohamed posted 257, almost all retweets.

This combination of sustained hyper-tweeting and an emphasis on retweets suggests that these are either automated bots or semi-automated “cyborgs”, designed specifically to post large numbers of tweets.

Moreover, while some of the accounts which amplified the campaign belonged to verified users, especially far-right politicians, a very high proportion of posts in the first hour came from unverified, and probably automated, accounts.

For example, the ten most active users of the #Marine2017 hashtag posted 1,971 tweets in the first hour — 16 percent of all the tweets posted. The top 50 users posted 5,713 tweets, or 47 percent of the total.

The same held true of the #LePionMacron and #LaFranceVoteMarine campaigns. In both, the top ten users accounted for around 15 percent of posts in the first hour, while the top fifty accounted for around 45 percent.

Again, this indicates a small and hyperactive group of largely automated accounts driving a hashtag through the sheer volume of their retweets — rather than an organic, grassroots campaign.

Active leaders, active amplifiers

However, the leaders did not simply rely on massive automated retweeting to achieve an effect: they were very active themselves, posting numerous tweets of their own, and retweeting one another.

This gave the amplifier accounts a large amount of material to retweet, without making the pattern so obvious that it would trigger bot-detection algorithms.

The @messsmer account, for example, posted forty-five tweets on #LaFranceVoteMarine between 16:50 and 18:00 on February 26. Of these, thirteen were memes, the other thirty-two were retweets, including of fellow leaders @AudreyPatriote (four times) and @AntreduPatriote (four times), and even, once, himself.

AudreyPatriote posted eight different memes over the same period, as well as retweeting @avec_marine:

Source: @AudreyPatriote / Twitter

Supporting them, the amplifier account @NiardoujMohamed retweeted @Messsmer twelve times in the hour and @AudreyPatriote six times. The amplifier @georges_resist retweeted @AudreyPatriote seven times and @Messsmer five times; @Vbloodymary retweeted each five times.

With support such as this, the key accounts were able to rack up impressive numbers of retweets:

Effect and counter

The combination of active leaders and hyperactive amplifiers had an effect: according to their own account, all three hashtags made it into the top trends.

Source: @avec_marine / Twitter. “We’re first! We’re going on!! #Marine2017”

It is instructive to note that in the above tweet, @avec_marine tagged two other users, namely @Messsmer and @AudreyPatriote, confirming the live coordination between the leading members of the group.

Source: @avec_marine / Twitter. “Enormous success for the Patriosphere with #LaFranceVoteMarine! At the top of the trends and already more than 25,000 tweets! Thank you!”

This indicates the extent to which a small group of users, with sufficient material and sufficiently active amplifiers, can break into the top trends.

The traffic, and the use of automation, was not all in one direction. One of the top tweeters on #Marine2017, with 231 tweets before 18:00, was called @17luc011956, a pro-Macron account which attempted to hijack the hashtag with a mixture of pro-Macron and anti-Le Pen memes:

Source: @17luc011956 / Twitter. “Marine Le Pen wants to restrict access to schooling for foreign children. MLP: You is no more can go French school. Child: Madame, your opinion vexes me. Access to knowledge is not a privilege, but a necessity. Thus, you are contravening Article 26 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights.”

The alphanumeric account handle, its one-sided tweeting, its lack of any personal features, its hyperactivity and its plentiful use of memes indicate that this is a pro-Macron cyborg, also backed by a stock of memes. However, it achieved no retweets or mentions in the first hour, and failed to disrupt the spread of the hashtag.

Conclusion

The social media operation supporting Le Pen is, indeed, sophisticated, aggressive and well prepared. It also appears to be effective, driving its hashtags to the top of the trends through the use of large quantities of material and a significant number of automated accounts.

However, it is also small. All three campaigns were launched by the same handful of accounts, and amplified by a consistent group of hyperactive supporters. They owed their effect not to massive online support, but to the calibrated use of automated accounts, active enough to make the hashtag trend, but not so active that they were detected.

Above all, they were shortlived. None of these “patriot” actions achieved an impact on Twitter beyond the initial spike: they faded away within hours of being launched. Le Pen’s online army is not a grassroots movement, but a small group trying to look like one.