In the previous post I’ve introduced the hwloc-rs library, which allows you to discover and manage hardware topologies. Discovering the capabilities of a machine is insightful, but it gets more interesting if you can perform certain actions based on those insights.

Binding threads or processes to distinct CPU cores is very important in high performance applications to isolate workloads, keep inter-core messaging latency to a minimum and also to prevent the operating system from relocating your threads between cores as it sees fit. This becomes even more important in NUMA architectures, where the memory access latency depends on the memory location relative to the processors (binding memory chunks, while also supported by hwloc is not covered in this post).

Example Benchmarks with OpenMPI and Intel MPI on a 12-core Xeon E5 show that the throughput and latency vary greatly when passing messages between cores. Between cores on the same NUMA node the latency is around 330ns with a throughput of 4220MiB/s, but once messages need to cross the boundaries between cores in different NUMA nodes the latency shoots up to 590ns and the throughput drops to 3410MiB/s.

As always with such low-level concerns like this, the APIs differ across operating systems and some platforms don’t even support CPU binding at all. This is where hwloc shines again - it provides us with easy to use abstractions that we can readily use in our rust code. The following blog post explains the different options (checking for support, process binding, thread binding) in greater detail.

The docs provide helpful instructions to get started, but make sure you pick up at least version 0.3.0 if you want to try it out:

[dependencies] hwloc = "0.3.0"

Checking for Support

Before even thinking about binding your thread or process to a specific core you need to check whether your target platform supports it. Spoiler: if you are thinking about trying this on OSX, you are out of luck. But this gives us a chance to compare the output of the following code on Linux and OSX:

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 extern crate hwloc; use hwloc::Topology; /// Example on how to check for specific topology support of a feature. fn main () { let topo = Topology::new(); // Check if Process Binding for CPUs is supported println!( "CPU Binding (current process) supported: {}" , topo.support().cpu().set_current_process()); println!( "CPU Binding (any process) supported: {}" , topo.support().cpu().set_process()); // Check if Thread Binding for CPUs is supported println!( "CPU Binding (current thread) supported: {}" , topo.support().cpu().set_current_thread()); println!( "CPU Binding (any thread) supported: {}" , topo.support().cpu().set_thread()); // Debug Print all the Support Flags println!( "All Flags:

{:?}" , topo.support()); }

On Linux:

CPU Binding (current process) supported: true CPU Binding (any process) supported: true CPU Binding (current thread) supported: true CPU Binding (any thread) supported: true All Flags: TopologyDiscoverySupport { pu: 1 }, TopologyCpuBindSupport { set_thisproc_cpubind: 1, get_thisproc_cpubind: 1, set_proc_cpubind: 1, get_proc_cpubind: 1, set_thisthread_cpubind: 1, get_thisthread_cpubind: 1, set_thread_cpubind: 1, get_thread_cpubind: 1, get_thisproc_last_cpu_location: 1, get_proc_last_cpu_location: 1, get_thisthread_last_cpu_location: 1 }, TopologyMemBindSupport { (omitted) }

On OSX:

CPU Binding (current process) supported: false CPU Binding (any process) supported: false CPU Binding (current thread) supported: false CPU Binding (any thread) supported: false All Flags: TopologyDiscoverySupport { pu: 1 }, TopologyCpuBindSupport { set_thisproc_cpubind: 0, get_thisproc_cpubind: 0, set_proc_cpubind: 0, get_proc_cpubind: 0, set_thisthread_cpubind: 0, get_thisthread_cpubind: 0, set_thread_cpubind: 0, get_thread_cpubind: 0, get_thisproc_last_cpu_location: 0, get_proc_last_cpu_location: 0, get_thisthread_last_cpu_location: 0 }, TopologyMemBindSupport { (omitted) }

As a result, the following sections use a (virtual) Linux machine with 4 cores to demonstrate the binding capabilities. To give you some context, here is the lstopo output of the VM:

$ uname -a Linux vagrant-ubuntu-trusty-64 3.13.0-71-generic #114-Ubuntu SMP Tue Dec 1 02:34:22 UTC 2015 x86_64 x86_64 x86_64 GNU/Linux $ lstopo -p --no-io Machine (490MB) + Socket P#0 + L2d (6144KB) L1d (32KB) + Core P#0 + PU P#0 L1d (32KB) + Core P#1 + PU P#1 L1d (32KB) + Core P#2 + PU P#2 L1d (32KB) + Core P#3 + PU P#3

The CpuSet

One important type to know when performing CPU binding operations is the CpuSet. The CpuSet is just a type alias for a generic Bitmap which has its bits set according to CPU physical OS indexes.

You can create a CpuSets instance too, but in general you will retrieve them through the topology or its objects, then copy/modify it and finally use it for your custom CPU binding. Every bitmap implements the Display and the Debug trait (amongst others), so printing their values is often a good idea. The next examples will make heavy use of CpuSets , so make sure to browse around the API a bit and make yourself familiar with it.

Process Binding

If your platform supports it as well, hwloc provides two different ways to bind a process. You can either bind the current process or an arbitrary process identified by its process ID (commonly referred to as pid ).

Binding the Current Process

Here is an example which binds the current process to the last core available:

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 extern crate hwloc; use hwloc::{Topology, TopologyObject, ObjectType, CPUBIND_PROCESS}; fn main () { let mut topo = Topology::new(); let mut cpuset = last_core(& mut topo).cpuset().unwrap(); cpuset.singlify(); println!( "Cpu Binding before explicit bind: {:?}" , topo.get_cpubind(CPUBIND_PROCESS)); println!( "Cpu Location before explicit bind: {:?}" , topo.get_cpu_location(CPUBIND_PROCESS)); match topo.set_cpubind(cpuset, CPUBIND_PROCESS) { Ok (_) => println!( "Correctly bound to last core" ), Err (e) => println!( "Failed to bind: {:?}" , e) } println!( "Cpu Binding after explicit bind: {:?}" , topo.get_cpubind(CPUBIND_PROCESS)); println!( "Cpu Location after explicit bind: {:?}" , topo.get_cpu_location(CPUBIND_PROCESS)); } /// Helper method to find the last core fn last_core (topo: & mut Topology) -> & TopologyObject { let core_depth = topo.depth_or_below_for_type(&ObjectType::Core).unwrap(); let all_cores = topo.objects_at_depth(core_depth); all_cores.last().unwrap() }

This prints the following on the linux machine:

Cpu Binding before explicit bind: Some(0-3) Cpu Location before explicit bind: Some(2) Correctly bound to last core Cpu Binding after explicit bind: Some(3) Cpu Location after explicit bind: Some(3)

So let’s break it apart a bit. The first thing we need to do is find the CpuSet for the last core so we have a reference to bind it to. Note that this singlify call here is useful so that the process does not have a chance of migrating between multiple logical CPUs in the original mask.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 let mut cpuset = last_core(& mut topo).cpuset().unwrap(); cpuset.singlify(); //... fn last_core (topo: & mut Topology) -> & TopologyObject { let core_depth = topo.depth_or_below_for_type(&ObjectType::Core).unwrap(); let all_cores = topo.objects_at_depth(core_depth); all_cores.last().unwrap() }

Now that we have our “target”, we can start binding the current process there. To visualise what’s going on, we also print the binding and location for the current process before and after the explicit binding:

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 println!( "Cpu Binding before explicit bind: {:?}" , topo.get_cpubind(CPUBIND_PROCESS)); println!( "Cpu Location before explicit bind: {:?}" , topo.get_cpu_location(CPUBIND_PROCESS)); match topo.set_cpubind(cpuset, CPUBIND_PROCESS) { Ok (_) => println!( "Correctly bound to last core" ), Err (e) => println!( "Failed to bind: {:?}" , e) } println!( "Cpu Binding after explicit bind: {:?}" , topo.get_cpubind(CPUBIND_PROCESS)); println!( "Cpu Location after explicit bind: {:?}" , topo.get_cpu_location(CPUBIND_PROCESS));

The current CpuSet of the process (which you can retrieve through get_cpubind(CPUBIND_PROCESS) ) contains all possibles cores where the operating system might dispatch the process on. In our case it prints 0-3 which means all four cores are possible. The call to get_cpu_location() gives us the current core location, but this can change between subsequent calls as the operating system moves the process around.

Finally we override the current binding with our custom one (the new CpuSet only contains the last core rather than all four) and apply some simple matching to make sure the binding didn’t fail for some reason. The last println! calls are just there to visually validate the new binding.

Binding an Arbitrary Process

Binding any process works very similar to binding the current process, but there is one difference - we need to find the pid of the process we want to bind. This is a little out of scope for this blog post, but since our own process also has a pid we can use that one for our examples. Unfortunately we need a little bit of unsafe libc magic there:

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 extern crate libc; fn main () { //... let pid = unsafe { libc::getpid() }; //... }

Once we have our pid, we will reuse the code from the last example to get the last core where we want to bind the process to:

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 fn main () { //... let mut cpuset = last_core(& mut topo).cpuset().unwrap(); //... } /// Find the last core fn last_core (topo: & mut Topology) -> & TopologyObject { let core_depth = topo.depth_or_below_for_type(&ObjectType::Core).unwrap(); let all_cores = topo.objects_at_depth(core_depth); all_cores.last().unwrap() }

Now we can use the same methods as previously, but with the for_process() suffix. Here is the full example, again with some debug print statements to visualise what’s going on:

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 extern crate hwloc; extern crate libc; use hwloc::{Topology, CPUBIND_PROCESS, TopologyObject, ObjectType}; fn main () { let mut topo = Topology::new(); let pid = unsafe { libc::getpid() }; println!( "Binding Process with PID {:?}" , pid); let mut cpuset = last_core(& mut topo).cpuset().unwrap(); cpuset.singlify(); println!( "Before Bind: {:?}" , topo.get_cpubind_for_process(pid, CPUBIND_PROCESS).unwrap()); println!( "Last Known CPU Location: {:?}" , topo.get_cpu_location_for_process(pid, CPUBIND_PROCESS).unwrap()); topo.set_cpubind_for_process(pid, cpuset, CPUBIND_PROCESS).unwrap(); println!( "After Bind: {:?}" , topo.get_cpubind_for_process(pid, CPUBIND_PROCESS).unwrap()); println!( "Last Known CPU Location: {:?}" , topo.get_cpu_location_for_process(pid, CPUBIND_PROCESS).unwrap()); } /// Find the last core fn last_core (topo: & mut Topology) -> & TopologyObject { let core_depth = topo.depth_or_below_for_type(&ObjectType::Core).unwrap(); let all_cores = topo.objects_at_depth(core_depth); all_cores.last().unwrap() }

If we run this on our linux box, this is the output:

Binding Process with PID 3034 Before Bind: 0-3 Last Known CPU Location: 3 After Bind: 3 Last Known CPU Location: 3

So as long as you have the process ID available and the operating system supports it, you can bind every process to any number of cores you want. This is especially helpful if you need to bind forked processes or if you need to write some kind of babysitter service that needs to keep track and orchestrate a number of processes.

Thread Binding

In addition to bind the process as a whole, it is also possible to pin individual threads inside a process to cores. Every thread has a unique thread ID ( tid ) which is used to bind a thread to a core.

The following example will spawn one thread for each core in the system and then bind each thread to one of the cores. Here is the full code in its beauty, we’ll break it apart afterwards:

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 extern crate hwloc; extern crate libc; use hwloc::{Topology, ObjectType, CPUBIND_THREAD, CpuSet}; use std::thread; use std::sync::{Arc,Mutex}; fn main () { let topo = Arc::new(Mutex::new(Topology::new())); let num_cores = { let topo_rc = topo.clone(); let topo_locked = topo_rc.lock().unwrap(); (*topo_locked).objects_with_type(&ObjectType::Core).unwrap().len() }; println!( "Found {} cores." , num_cores); let handles: Vec <_> = ( 0 ..num_cores).map(|i| { let child_topo = topo.clone(); thread::spawn( move || { let tid = unsafe { libc::pthread_self() }; let mut locked_topo = child_topo.lock().unwrap(); let before = locked_topo.get_cpubind_for_thread(tid, CPUBIND_THREAD); let bind_to = cpuset_for_core(&*locked_topo, i); locked_topo.set_cpubind_for_thread(tid, bind_to, CPUBIND_THREAD).unwrap(); let after = locked_topo.get_cpubind_for_thread(tid, CPUBIND_THREAD); println!( "Thread {}: Before {:?}, After {:?}" , i, before, after); }) }).collect(); for h in handles { h.join().unwrap(); } } fn cpuset_for_core (topology: & Topology , idx: usize ) -> CpuSet { let cores = (*topology).objects_with_type(&ObjectType::Core).unwrap(); match cores.get(idx) { Some (val) => val.cpuset().unwrap(), None => panic!( "No Core found with id {}" , idx) } }

Before the binding we need to identify the number of cores - that’s an easy task for hwloc :

1 2 3 4 5 6 let num_cores = { let topo_rc = topo.clone(); let topo_locked = topo_rc.lock().unwrap(); (*topo_locked).objects_with_type(&ObjectType::Core).unwrap().len() }; println!( "Found {} cores." , num_cores);

The code finds all cores through objects_with_type(&ObjectType::Core) and counts them. Note that we need to do use proper rust synchronization mechanisms around our Topology since we are accessing it from multiple threads in the code.

The next piece spawns one thread for each core and joins on the main thread to wait until they complete:

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 let handles: Vec <_> = ( 0 ..num_cores).map(|i| { let child_topo = topo.clone(); thread::spawn( move || { // do our other stuff }) }).collect(); for h in handles { h.join().unwrap(); }

Next up we load the current thread ID through some libc unsafe magic, lock the Topology for safety and then read the current CpuSet for the thread (to print it out later):

1 2 3 4 let tid = unsafe { libc::pthread_self() }; let mut locked_topo = child_topo.lock().unwrap(); let before = locked_topo.get_cpubind_for_thread(tid, CPUBIND_THREAD);

The next part is important:

1 2 3 let bind_to = cpuset_for_core(&*locked_topo, i); locked_topo.set_cpubind_for_thread(tid, bind_to, CPUBIND_THREAD).unwrap();

The helper function cpuset_for_core accepts an integer which represents the thread number (not the tid ) and loops through the cores available on the Topology . It then returns the right CpuSet for the given index, so the first thread will be pinned to Core 0, the second one to Core 1 and so forth. Then, we use the set_cpubind_for_thread() method to bass in the current thread id as well as the CpuSet to apply and the CPUBIND_THREAD identifier which is needed.

Finally we just collect the new binding and then print it out for visualisation:

1 2 3 let after = locked_topo.get_cpubind_for_thread(tid, CPUBIND_THREAD); println!( "Thread {}: Before {:?}, After {:?}" , i, before, after);

Running this on our 4-core machine prints:

Found 4 cores. Thread 0: Before Some(0-3), After Some(0) Thread 1: Before Some(0-3), After Some(1) Thread 2: Before Some(0-3), After Some(2) Thread 3: Before Some(0-3), After Some(3)

Conclusion

Which processes or threads to bind is purely an application concern, but the underlying mechanics are greatly simplified through the hwloc abstractions. Combining the topology discovery with the CPU binding support allows you to choose the most optimised deployment option at runtime and giving you reasonable fallback options if the most performant way is not supported on the target.