Ultra-dense hydrogen H(0)

Ultra-dense hydrogen H(0) is closely related to the lowest form of Rydberg Matter (RM) of the type H(1) (Manykin et al. 1992); Holmlid 1998, 2012). The ultra-dense hydrogen materials will all be named H(0) here, while the different isotopic forms studied will be named p(0), d(0) and pd(0). A review of H(0) was recently published (Holmlid and Zeiner-Gundersen 2019) and the description given in the present study is thus kept brief. The quantum mechanical basis for d(0) was discussed by Winterberg (Winterberg 2010a,b) suggesting the formation of d–d bonding by exchange forces as the crucial factor of its formation. Other more general theoretical descriptions have been published (Holmlid and Zeiner-Gundersen 2019; Holmlid 2013b). d(0) as well as p(0) is observed experimentally to be superfluid at room temperature (Andersson and Holmlid 2011). They are both also proposed to be type-II superconductors at room temperature from the observed Meissner effect (Andersson et al. 2012; Holmlid and Fuelling 2015). Only hydrogen atoms are expected to give an ultra-dense material form, since the inner atomic electrons prevent this formation for all other atoms but possibly for doubly excited He atoms (Holmlid 2004, 2008a, 2011c).

d(0) is the first example studied on Earth of the ultra-dense hydrogen materials that apparently exist in many different objects in space for example in stars and giant planets. H(0) is the lowest energy form of hydrogen, and it will exist everywhere in space where hydrogen exists. Thus, the properties of H(0) are of general importance for our understanding of the Universe (Holmlid 2018b). H(0) has a density up to a thousand times higher than the interior of the Sun, and the particles released in the laboratory by relatively weak laser pulses have kinetic energy of at least 15 MK, similar to the temperature in the Sun (Andersson and Holmlid 2010). Recently, the proton solar wind was shown to agree well with the protons ejected by CE from p(0) (Holmlid 2017c). The most important properties observed for H(0) have not been considered to be possible previously, namely the short bond distances and the strong bonds. The H(0) clusters have dimensions down to a few pm. This is directly verified by rotational spectroscopy in the visible (Holmlid and Zeiner-Gundersen 2019; Holmlid 2017a, 2018a). This means that the H(0) clusters will not scatter electromagnetic radiation with wavelength longer than a few pm, and thus that H(0) clusters will be invisible in absorption in any spectral range with wavelength longer than typical gamma rays. Due to the strong interatomic bonding in H(0) with energy of the order of 1–2 keV, absorptions in the visible or UV ranges are unlikely. No stationary electronic excited states at intermediate energies exist in H(0), but several different spin states have been observed (Holmlid 2017a, 2018a). Rotational transitions exist at many eV energies, as described in two recent publications (Holmlid 2017a, 2018a).

H(0) formation

Next, we need to consider the energetics of H(0) formation. The d–d and p–p bond energy of the order of 500 eV corresponds to a temperature of approximately 5 MK. Thus, in any dense region in space where the temperature is lower than approximately 1 MK, ultra-dense hydrogen H(0) is the most important form of hydrogen (Holmlid 2018b). This means that even inside many stars will this form of hydrogen be of great importance. The formation of H(0) is spontaneous from higher Rydberg matter (RM) states, for example by H(3) falling down to H(1) (Andersson et al. 2012). H(1) (Badiei and Holmlid 2006) is easily converted to H(0). The facile oscillatory conversion between D(1) and D(0) was even directly observed in real time (Badiei et al. 2010b). This means that the stable state H(0) is easily reached by hydrogen in space at large enough densities or low enough temperatures. Thus, vast amounts of H(0) are proposed to exist in the Universe and this should be the primordial form of hydogen in space. Of course, if H 2 molecules dominate in some region at present, the formation of H(0) there is slower and more complex, often requiring absorption of H 2 on solid surfaces like carbon or metal oxide surfaces which give dissociative adsorption.

H(0) stability

The stability of H(0) will be higher than for any other known material. Temperatures above the MK range are required to dissociate this material after it has been formed. Of course, fragmentation due to ionizing photons and fast particles will take place. When the energy density of the radiation field is lower than that corresponding to 1 MK, the ultra-dense hydrogen phase should be stable. The superfluid H(0) phase will quite easily transport energy deposited in one location to other places.

All implications of the large densities of the superfluid and superconductive material H(0) in space are certainly not yet clear. A few conclusions about the effects of H(0) in space were published recently (Holmlid 2018b).

Star formation in H(0)

H(0) consists of small clusters H\(_{2N}\) with pm sizes (Holmlid and Zeiner-Gundersen 2019). The main forces which may give condensation of such clusters to larger solid or liquid volumes have not yet been studied directly. Winterberg (Winterberg 2010a,b) proposed exchange forces to form larger volumes of D(0), but that was for condensing atoms, not for clusters. Basic forces like dispersion forces and electrostatic forces like dipole interactions (Holmlid 2017a, 2018a) between the clusters will always exist. Such forces vary with distance as \(r^{-6}\), so they may be \(10^{12}\) times stronger for typical distances \(r\) of 2 pm in H(0) instead of \(2~\mathring{\mathrm{A}}= 200~\mbox{pm}\) for typical molecules. However, since the polarizability is several orders of magnitude smaller for H(0) clusters than for ordinary molecules due to their strongly bound electrons, the interaction giving condensation in H(0) is not \(10^{12}\) times stronger; it seems likely that it is \(10^{3}\)–\(10^{6}\) times stronger than in an H 2 gas. The high energy electrons which exist at the largest length scale of H(0) (Hirsch 2012) are more easily influenced by Coulomb interactions and will give attractive forces between the clusters. These much stronger attractive forces for H(0) will lead to a much faster condensation than in H 2 , and the nuclear processes in H(0) (Holmlid and Olafsson 2015a,b, 2016) will start almost immediately in an H(0) cloud. That this will speed up the onset of ordinary p + p fusion reactions seems likely, since the increased temperature given by the nuclear reactions in H(0) should help in starting ordinary fusion reactions. Thus, the rate of star formation may be strongly increased by the condensation and nuclear reaction properties of H(0). This means that also the rate of galaxy formation will be strongly increased. It is suggested that H(0) was the primordial form of hydrogen in space due to its stability up to MK temperatures.

Three levels of matter

The description used here of matter at three different length scales is based on a publication by J.E. Hirsch (Hirsch 2012), stating on p. 5 “There exists a remarkable parallel in the physics at the three different length scales” \(r _{q} = \hbar /(2\mathit{mec})\) the ‘quantum electron radius’, \(a _{0} = \hbar ^{2} /m _{e} e ^{2}\) the Bohr radius and \(2\lambda _{\mathrm{L}}= 137\) \(a _{0}\) with \(\lambda _{\mathrm{L}}\) the London penetration depth, and with the fine structure constant \(\alpha = 1/137\) as the common ratio between these length scales” (Hirsch 2012). Ultra-dense hydrogen H(0) has the length scale \(r _{q}\) while ordinary Rydberg matter has length scale \(a _{0}\). Super properties like superconductivity are coupled to the largest length scale which is also similar in its properties to Rydberg matter at large excitation levels (Rydberg-like circular electron orbits, Hirsch 2012). The energy scales are related by the square of the fine structure constant \(\alpha ^{2}\) which gives the energy scale for the largest length scale of 181 μeV (Hirsch 2012). This is equal to 2.1 K, relatively close to the CMB temperature of 2.7 K (see further below). A real thermal contribution from the material H(0) is the most likely factor giving the observed CMB temperature of 2.7 K.