Further information and requests for resources and reagents should be directed to and will be fulfilled by Lead Contact, Ludovic Orlando ( ludovic.orlando@univ-tlse3.fr ).

Experimental Model and Subject Details

Schubert et al., 2017 Schubert M.

Mashkour M.

Gaunitz C.

Fages A.

Seguin-Orlando A.

Sheikhi S.

Alfarhan A.H.

Alquraishi S.A.

Al-Rasheid K.A.S.

Chuang R.

et al. Zonkey: A simple, accurate and sensitive pipeline to genetically identify equine F1-hybrids in archaeological assemblages. Following low-depth sequencing, a total of 278 ancient equids reached a nuclear DNA coverage higher than 0.01X and were investigated for sex and species identification using the methodology implemented in Zonkey ( Table S1 ) (). Additionally, 87 pure horses recovered from museum and/or private collections, palaeontological and archaeological sites spread across Eurasia, showing moderate to high endogenous DNA content 0.06-0.78 were selected for whole-genome sequencing at a depth-of-coverage higher than 1-fold. The following section describes the archaeological contexts associated with all equids sequenced in this study ( Tables S1 S2 , and S3 ). The full name of each specimen is composed of the excavation site, followed by the sample name and age (in years ago from 2017), as estimated from direct radiocarbon dating ( Table S1 ) or inferred from the archaeological context.

Belgium (Goyet A1) Germonpré, 2004 Germonpré M. Influence of climate on sexual segregation and cub mortality in Pleniglacial cave bear. The sample Goyet_Vert311_35870, a proximal fragment of a metatarsus, was unearthed from the first bone horizon (A1) of the third cave of Goyet, which was excavated for the first time in 1868 by Edouard Dupont. The paleolithic Goyet cave is part of a larger cave system located in the Belgian Mosan basin. Cave bear, reindeer and wild horse remains are the most common represented animals at the site (). Excavations also revealed samples Goyet_Vert293_UpperPalaeolithic, Goyet_Vert300_31750 and Goyet_Vert304_UpperPalaeolithic.

China The sample Fengtai_Fen4_2820 originates from the multilayered dwelling of the Kayue site of Fengtai (Province Qinghai), which is located at the rim of a large valley and consists of two phases. An early phase consisting of mainly wooden houses, dated to ∼1190-920 BCE and a later phase composed of mud brick constructions, dated to ∼980-750 BCE. The presence of permanent houses and the substantial amount of remains of domesticated plant grains like wheat and barley found at the site indicate a relative advanced mixed agropastoral economy.

Croatia (Bapska, Nuštar, Otok) The late Neolithic settlement of Bapska-Gradac is located in Eastern Croatia, 4.5 km south of the Danube river. The site consists of different layers that have been associated with the Sopot and Vinča cultures and potentially also the Starčevo culture based on tools and pottery finds. Radiocarbon dating of individual BapskaGradac_BAPSKA_1305 revealed that the remain was intrusive and dated to ∼1305 years ago (C7th–C8th). th and C9th. Samples Nustar_4_1187 and Nustar_5_1187 were unearthed during a rescue excavation in 2011 from one of the only two graves containing human and horse remains. Both graves were found near the southwest edge of the cemetery and were oriented east-west. Within the burial, the human remains were located on the right side, leaving the horse remains on the left side. Numerous grave goods such as iron knives, bronze belts decorated with floral motifs and horse equipment were found. Some pathologies were detected on Nustar_5_1187, and are exclusive to the spine, including thoracolumbar transitional vertebrae, spondylitis ankylopoetica (first two lumbar vertebrae) and spondylosis chronica deformans on four thoracic vertebrae and one lumbar vertebra. Further morphological analysis showed that the horse skeleton found in grave 4 (Nustar_4_1187) was probably five and a half to six years old at the time of death and had a slightly larger height to the withers of 143 cm, whereas Nustar_5_1187 reached an age of circa seven years and had average withers height of 139 cm ( Vukičević et al., 2017 Vukičević T.T.

Papeša A.R.

Alić I.

Kabalin A.E.

Ostović M.

Kužir S. Contribution to understanding Avar burials with equids in Croatia: detailed archaeozoological analysis. The late Avar period cemetery of Nuštar is located in continental Croatia and is dated to the C8and C9. Samples Nustar_4_1187 and Nustar_5_1187 were unearthed during a rescue excavation in 2011 from one of the only two graves containing human and horse remains. Both graves were found near the southwest edge of the cemetery and were oriented east-west. Within the burial, the human remains were located on the right side, leaving the horse remains on the left side. Numerous grave goods such as iron knives, bronze belts decorated with floral motifs and horse equipment were found. Some pathologies were detected on Nustar_5_1187, and are exclusive to the spine, including thoracolumbar transitional vertebrae, spondylitis ankylopoetica (first two lumbar vertebrae) and spondylosis chronica deformans on four thoracic vertebrae and one lumbar vertebra. Further morphological analysis showed that the horse skeleton found in grave 4 (Nustar_4_1187) was probably five and a half to six years old at the time of death and had a slightly larger height to the withers of 143 cm, whereas Nustar_5_1187 reached an age of circa seven years and had average withers height of 139 cm (). th-early C9th. Among the 22 graves found, there were only two burials (Grave 4 and 16) containing the remains of humans and horses. The sample used in this study was found within grave context 16 alongside a 40 to 50 years old male skeleton. The morphology of the bones identified the horse as a mare, which was confirmed genetically. Further morphological analyses estimated the withers height of the mare to 139 cm ( Vukičević et al., 2017 Vukičević T.T.

Papeša A.R.

Alić I.

Kabalin A.E.

Ostović M.

Kužir S. Contribution to understanding Avar burials with equids in Croatia: detailed archaeozoological analysis. The sample Otok_OTOK16_1307 was found at the archaeological site of Otok-Gradina, near the city Vinkovci during an excavation carried out in 1970. Based on the grave goods, the site was dated to the late C8-early C9. Among the 22 graves found, there were only two burials (Grave 4 and 16) containing the remains of humans and horses. The sample used in this study was found within grave context 16 alongside a 40 to 50 years old male skeleton. The morphology of the bones identified the horse as a mare, which was confirmed genetically. Further morphological analyses estimated the withers height of the mare to 139 cm ().

Estonia (Otepää hill-fort, Ridala, Saadjärve) The sample Estonia_Ote2_1184 originates from the archaeological site of Otepää Hill-fort, which is located on an eponymous upland area in the south of Estonia. This site covers a time period ranging from the Iron Age to the Middle Ages. However, the majority of the archaeological bone material and artifacts found at the site are associated with the late Iron Age. The site produced numerous tools (needles, knife handles, spinning-whorls, combs), weapons (arrowheads), ornaments (tusks, pendants, brooch), toys (die, toggles) and other unidentified objects. Those artifacts have been mostly made out of bones and antler of domestic and wild animals, but teeth (mainly canines) were also used to manufacture pendants. The bone material found at Otepää Hill-fort consists of cattle, pig, elk, bird, sheep, goat and horse remains. Among the horse bone material, there were also two bones showing signs of processing. 2 and was dated to the C8th–C7th. Until now, approximately one tenth (435 m2) of the area has been excavated. A total of 2020 bone fragments have been recovered, 75% of which belonging to domestic animals (sheep/goat, pigs, cattle, and horses) and 25% to wild animals (seals). Sheep and goat bone fragments are the most frequent while horse bones represent the least frequent of all faunal remains. The horse remains recovered from this site belong to eight different individuals. Two were foals, two were slaughtered before the age of three and the other four were between two and four and a half years old. The presence of remains from exclusively juvenile individuals suggests their use for food consumption ( Lang, 2012 Lang V. The Bronze and Early Iron Ages in Estonia. The sample Ridala_Rid2_2717 was recovered from a fortified settlement on a moraine ridge close to the coastal zone of Saaremaa Island (west Estonia), which was at the time of the settlement a coastal island. Excavations were carried out in 1961 by Aita Custin and in 1963 by Artur Vassar. The archaeological site covers an area of around 4500 mand was dated to the C8–C7. Until now, approximately one tenth (435 m) of the area has been excavated. A total of 2020 bone fragments have been recovered, 75% of which belonging to domestic animals (sheep/goat, pigs, cattle, and horses) and 25% to wild animals (seals). Sheep and goat bone fragments are the most frequent while horse bones represent the least frequent of all faunal remains. The horse remains recovered from this site belong to eight different individuals. Two were foals, two were slaughtered before the age of three and the other four were between two and four and a half years old. The presence of remains from exclusively juvenile individuals suggests their use for food consumption (). Lõugas, 1997 Lõugas L. Post-glacial development of vertebrate fauna in Estonian water bodies: a palaeozoological study. Sample Saadjarve_Saa1_1117 was excavated in 1984 at the settlement site of Saadjärve in eastern central Estonia, which is located 17 km north of the city of Tartu. Next to the remains of elks, cattle, goats, sheep, pigs, foxes, beavers, water voles, pikes and breams, fourteen horse remains were recovered together with a range of the remains of freshwater fish, such as perch and burbot ().

France (Beauvais: Maladrerie Saint-Lazare and rue de L’Isle-Adam, Boinville-en-Woëvre, Boves “Chemin de Glisy,” Capesterre, Chartres “Boulevard de la Courtille,” Evreux “Clos-au-Duc 3 rue de la Libération – 2007,” Longueil-Annel, Mâcon “Rue Rambuteau,” Metz “Place de la République,” Saint-Claude, Saint-Laurent Blangy “Actiparc 2002,” Vermand 2005 and Saint-Just-en-Chaussée) La Maladrerie Saint-Lazare, located in Beauvais, Northern France, was a leper colony founded during the late C11th or early C12th. It remained in activity until the French revolution, when it was closed and then sold to the French State. Horse Beauvais_GVA122_417 was sampled from a petrosal bone excavated in 2013 from a latrine transformed into a waste pit (US 8057). The site from rue de L’Isle-Adam at Beauvais is a former convent, excavated in 1992, dating back to the C15th. A deep hole containing equine bones, including sample Beauvais_GVA375_567, was found next to the church of the convent. The bone remains include pieces of rachis and various dislocated anatomical parts. nd and C3rd have been discovered, including Boinville_GVA125_1817, an 8-to-10-year-old male, genetically identified as a donkey ( Schubert et al., 2017 Schubert M.

Mashkour M.

Gaunitz C.

Fages A.

Seguin-Orlando A.

Sheikhi S.

Alfarhan A.H.

Alquraishi S.A.

Al-Rasheid K.A.S.

Chuang R.

et al. Zonkey: A simple, accurate and sensitive pipeline to genetically identify equine F1-hybrids in archaeological assemblages. Boinville-en-Woevre is an ancient Gallo-Roman villa, located in Meuse, France. Fifteen pits containing the remains of some large equids have been found in the pars rustica of the villa. Some of those pits contained several individuals, potentially buried simultaneously. In total, 22 individuals dating back to the C2and C3have been discovered, including Boinville_GVA125_1817, an 8-to-10-year-old male, genetically identified as a donkey (). Boves « chemin de Glisy » corresponds to a large archaeological area of Northern France. Several settlements dated from Iron Age and Roman periods have been studied. The excavation of a large pit (6.80 m deep), corresponding to a Gallo-Roman quarry (C3th) revealed several carcasses of animals (sheep, equids), including individual Boves_GVA191_1717. The site of Roseau, located in Capesterre Belle-Eau (Guadeloupe), is associated with both some European remains dating back to the C16th–C17th, and some pre-colonial Amerindian remains dating back to the C11th–C15th. Individual Capesterre_LIS2_417 is associated with the European settlement. Twenty-four horses sequenced in this study were excavated from the archaeological site of “Boulevard de la Courtille C277,” situated in the outskirts of Chartres, France. Hundreds of well-preserved scattered equids skulls were found lying on the grounds, probably employed to drain excessive water in the antic city of Autricum (present-day Chartres). These 24 individuals are Chartres_GVA1_1917, Chartres_GVA2_1917, Chartres_GVA4_1917, Chartres_GVA9_1917, Chartres_GVA26_1917, Chartres_GVA28_1917, Chartres_GVA36_1917, Chartres_GVA39_1917, Chartres_GVA43_1917, Chartres_GVA47_1917, Chartres_GVA48_1917, Chartres_GVA53_1917, Chartres_GVA56_1917, Chartres_GVA60_1917, Chartres_GVA64_1917, Chartres_GVA64_1917, Chartres_GVA68_1917, Chartres_GVA75_1917, Chartres_GVA78_1917, Chartres_GVA81_1917, Chartres_GVA95_1917, Chartres_GVA111_1917, Chartres_GVA112_1917 and Chartres_GVA115_1917. th to the Renaissance. The equine bones represent 2.8% of more than 5,000 remains collected ( Jonvel, 2014 Jonvel R. Démuin « Le village ». Rapport final d’opération. Autour du château médiéval (IXe-XVIe siècle). The archaeological site of Démuin is located in Somme, France and revealed an occupation period extending from the C9to the Renaissance. The equine bones represent 2.8% of more than 5,000 remains collected (). Individuals Demuin_GVA401_917 and Demuin_GVA402_917 were sampled from isolated bones discovered in two grain silos transformed into trash. The site “clos-au-Duc 3 rue de la liberation” in Evreux, France, is a funeral site dated to the C1st to C3rd. Several excavated pits contained parts of equid skeletons, including samples Evreux_GVA130_1817, Evreux_GVA132_1817, Evreux_GVA133_1817, Evreux_GVA135_1817 and Evreux_GVA140_1817. There does not seem to be any ritual connection between humans and equids since dead horses have been shown to represent waste. However, the site is connected to a rendering activity. The archaeological site of Longueil-Annel, located in the middle valley of Oise, between the towns of Noyon and Compiegne, has been associated with different occupations throughout the Neolithic, Bronze Age and Iron Age. However, individual LongueilAnnel_GVA129_267 comes from a skeleton found in a modern pit dating back to the C18th. The “Rue Rambuteau” site is situated in the outskirts of the antique city of Mâcon, Eastern France, and dates back to the C3rd. The excavated area is a large dirt quarry containing a great amount of animal remains, mainly equids, but also cattle, dogs and pigs. In total, 1,497 parts of dead equids were thrown in this waste area, representing at least 16 individuals, Macon_GVA201_1767. Individual Metz_GVA321_492 was unearthed from the “Place de la République” site in Metz, France. The excavation, spreading over 1,375 m2, has allowed the identification of numerous archaeological levels and remains, from the C1st to the C19th. The excavations at Saint-Claude “Cité de la connaissance” (Basse-Terre, Guadeloupe), have revealed some pre-columbian occupations and some ancient sugar refineries. Some equine remains could be identified in levels dating back to the second half of the C18th, including SaintClaude_GVA381_242, sampled from a petrous bone belonging to a 7-to-10-year-old individual. Actiparc at Saint-Laurent-Blangy, Northern France, is a large area of 300 hectares excavated as part of the construction of a craft activity area. Excavation campaigns revealed several types of settlements, including rural habitats, indigenous farms and a necropolis. The time periods represented range from the ancient La Tène period in the Iron age, to the Roman period (3rd century BCE – 4th century CE). The bones of horses Actiparc_GVA124_2143, Actiparc_GVA307_2127, Actiparc_GVA308_2312, Actiparc_GVA309_2302 and Actiparc_GVA311_2253 all come from waste pits. The gallic sanctuary of “Les Rossignols” in Saint-Just-en-Chaussée (Oise, France), excavated in 1994-1995, was occupied from the final La Tène period in the Iron Age (D1-D2) up until the Roman High Empire. The most remarkable remains were ditches filled with horse bones with pieces of chariots and harnesses, and some human bones. Samples SaintJust_GVA212_2162, SaintJust_GVA219_2162 and SaintJust_GVA242_2250 were recovered from such ditches. Saint-Quentin is an archaeological site in Aisne, France, from which a large number of bovine and equine samples have been recovered. However, the precise nature of the assemblages has not been defined yet, it is therefore unsure whether the site can be associated with some cultural activities or was rather used as a ditch. Individuals SaintQuentin_GVA237_1917 and SaintQuentin_GVA238_1917 were sampled from petrosal bones dated to the C1st–C2nd. The excavations at Vermand, in the department of Aisne, Northern France, were carried out in 2015 and delivered remains of an ancient Roman way, as well as the remains of equines, including individual Vermand_GVA199_1742, which was excavated from structure 15 of the site.

Georgia (Dariali) Tamara fort is situated in the Dariali Gorge of Northern Georgia, next to the Russian border, on a raised landform of the west bank of the Tergi river. It was occupied from the Sasanian period to the Medieval period. Excavations at the site indicate several occupations mainly between c. 400-1000 CE and a late reoccupation between the late C13th and early C15th. Individual Dariali_Georgia2_317 most likely dates back to this medieval period or a post-medieval one.

Germany (private collections, Schloßvippach) The samples Mainz_Mzr1_1373 and FrankfurtHeddernheim_Fr1_1863 were both sampled from a private collection of Prof. emer. Helmut Hemmer (Johannes Gutenberg-University Mainz). It was compiled between the 1960s to 1980s, mainly consisting of stray finds of single loose bones found during excavations of Roman sites of the Rhine-Main area, Germany. Sample Mainz_Mzr1_1373 is a calvarium found at the construction site of the Mainz University clinic and was radiocarbon dated to 1,373 years ago. Sample FrankfurtHeddernheim_Fr1_1863 is a calvarium found in Frankfurt-Heddernheim (Nida) in a soil filled well shaft and was radiocarbon dated to 1,863 years ago. Schloßvippach is an Early Bronze Age site located in Germany, dating back to 1600-2200 BCE and composed of a settlement of long dwelling houses and a burial site with a large number of graves. Excavations have revealed some ceramics, bronze tools and jewels, as well as animal bone remains, including the horse sample Schloßvippach_Svi6_3917. Gaunitz et al., 2018 Gaunitz C.

Fages A.

Hanghøj K.

Albrechtsen A.

Khan N.

Schubert M.

Seguin-Orlando A.

Owens I.J.

Felkel S.

Bignon-Lau O.

et al. Ancient genomes revisit the ancestry of domestic and Przewalski’s horses. Addendum to (), regarding the Roman horse from Augsburg-Haunstetten (Haunstetten_1979): Archaeozoological analysis revealed a 5-8-year-old stallion with a withers height of 124 ± 3 cm according to Kiesewalter. The specimen shows splint, a premature ankylosis between the inside splint bone and the cannon bone of the right foreleg. This was probably caused by too early and too much exercise. The teeth are showing cementum hypoplasias in the occlusal plane and transversal enamel hypoplasia near to the dentinoenamel-junction. The latter is indicating unspecific stress at the end of enamel formation.

Iceland (Berufjörður and Granastaðir) The sample Berufjordur_VHR102_1067 was excavated in 1898 by Daniel Bruun and Brynjúlfur Jónsson at site of Berufjörður in Barðastrandasýsla (Westfjörds), Iceland and is dates to the Viking Age (ca. 850-1050 CE). Due to the incomplete documentation of the site the exact association of the horse and human burials at the site is not clear. Only a few horse teeth with fragments of a maxilla were kept from this particular horse burial, the horse was 5-to-7-year-old at death. The tooth sampled for this study was a maxillary molar. The tooth has been radiocarbon dated to cal. (2σ) 890–1015 CE. Einarsson, 1995 Einarsson B.F. The Settlement of Iceland, A Critical Approach: Granastaðair and the Ecological Heritage. Individual Granastadir_VHR031_1057 was sampled from a maxillary molar from Granastaðir, an early Viking farmstead in Northern Iceland. The molar has been radiocarbon dated to cal. AD (2σ) 895–1025. The site was excavated by Bjarni F. Einarsson between 1987 and 1991 (). A collection of animal bones was recovered from the site both from a midden and from within the excavated buildings mostly representing domestic animals.

Iran (Belgheis, Kulian Cave, Sagzabad, Shahr-i-Qumis, Tepe Hasanlu, Tepe Mehr Ali) The citadel of Belgheis is located three kilometers away from the modern city of Esfarayen, in North East Iran. It covers an area of 180 hectares and was occupied from the beginning of the Islamic period until the C18th. Individual Belgheis_TrBWBX116_485 sequenced in this study was sampled from a left third lower molar recovered from Tr BWBX116, Unit 12, Depth 515-235, dated to the Seljukid-Ilkhanid periods (C11th–C14th). Radiocarbon dating, however, further indicated that the specimen belonged to the C16th. Biglari and Taheri, 2000 Biglari F.

Taheri K. The discovery of Upper Paleolithic remains at Mar Kuliyan and Mar Dalan Cave, Rawansar. Essays on the Archaeology, Geology, Geography and Culture of Rawansar Area. Kulian Cave is located near the city of Rawansar, about 52 km northwest of Kermanshah, in west Iran. The site contains Pleistocene and Holocene archaeological deposits (). The cave is about 20 m long and consists of two chambers. A petrosal bone of a horse sequenced for this study, KulianCave_MV178_1694, was found in the inner chamber. Animal bone accumulation in this chamber most likely originated from carnivore activity and natural death. The equid belongs to a female individual and was dated to the time of reign of Sasanian king Shapur II (309–379 CE). Negahbān, 1974 Negahbān E.O. Samples Sagzabad_SAGS27_3117 and Sagzabad_SAGxPit22_3117 were excavated from the archaeological site of Sagzabad, located in the central district of Buin Zahra in the Qazvin plain, 140 km west of Tehran, Iran. Multiple archaeological campaigns have evidenced a continuous occupation from the Late Bronze Age to the Iron Age II (). The large animal assemblage is composed of more than 10,000 identified bones and shows the importance of domestic herbivores ovi-caprines and cattle, followed by an important contribution of domestic equids. th century BCE to the 8th century CE ( Hansman et al., 1970 Hansman J.

Stronach D.

Bailey H. Excavations at Shahr-I Qūmis. Hansman and Stronach, 1970 Hansman J.

Stronach D. A Sasanian Repository at Shahr-I Qūmis. th, nomadic group and in particular the Hephthalites or White Huns attacked Persia several times, invading parts of eastern Persia for several years. These events may have had also an impact of the equine population. A large set of equine bones from Shahr-i-Qumis has been studied during these last years at the British Institute of Persian studies in Tehran and currently a morphometric geometric project is ongoing on this material. Shahr-i-Qumis is a site in North East Iran, consisting of several isolated mounds spread across an area of 28 km. It dates back to the Parthian and Sasanian periods, although some recent radiocarbon datings of faunal remains tend to show a longer period of occupation, from the 8century BCE to the 8century CE (). The site has been identified as Hekatompylos, the capital of the Parthian Empire and major hub of the Silk Road and Great Khorasan Road. Excavations at Shahr-i-Qumis revealed a very large quantity of equine skeletons, including sample ShahrIQumis_AM115_1557 (). The radiocarbon date obtained for this sample place it either during the kingdom of Yazdegerd II (438–457 CE) or his brother Peroz I (457–484 CE). At the beginning of the C5, nomadic group and in particular the Hephthalites or White Huns attacked Persia several times, invading parts of eastern Persia for several years. These events may have had also an impact of the equine population. A large set of equine bones from Shahr-i-Qumis has been studied during these last years at the British Institute of Persian studies in Tehran and currently a morphometric geometric project is ongoing on this material. Dyson, 1989 Dyson R.H. The Iron Age architecture at Hasanlu: an essay. Dyson, 1989 Dyson R.H. The Iron Age architecture at Hasanlu: an essay. Tepe Hasanlu is a fortified site located in Solduz Valley of Western Azerbaijan province, Northwestern Iran. The site was occupied from the Late Neolithic to the Iron Age and consisted of two distinct parts: a High Mound and a Low Mound (). A total of four individuals sequenced in this study originate from this site. Two horse samples were recovered from the citadel of Iron Age II (1,050-800 BCE) associated with the Mannaean kingdom and destroyed by the Urartians during a battle around 800 BCE. While individual TepeHasanlu_3461_2930 was unearthed from a rough soil deposit, TepeHasanlu_3394_2808 was found together with thousands of artifacts and faunal remains, within the deposit and collapse of buildings, likely used as horse stables (). Individuals TepeHasanlu_1140_2682, TepeHasanu_3459_2667 and TepeHasanlu_V31E_2667 date back to the Urartian occupation period that followed the destruction of the citadel. Dyson, 1999 Dyson R.H. The Achaemenid painted pottery of Hasanlu IIIA. After a hiatus, period IIIa related to the Achaemenid Dynasty (550-330 BCE), for which no substantial architectural remains have been found. Period II is also a debated issue but generally assigned to the Seleucid or Parthian period, post-Achaemenid (). These historical periods were very short at Hasanlu, chronologically between 400 to 270 BCE. Four samples, including TepeHasanlu_2327_2352, TepeHasanlu_2529_2352, TepeHsanlu_2689_2352 and TepeHasanlu_3398_2352, belong to this Historic Era. th-4th mill. BCE), and shows an over-representation of domestic animals such as cattle, sheep and goats but also a significant number of wild herbivores, such as hemiones and gazelles ( Sheikhi Seno et al., 2012 Sheikhi Seno S.

Mashkour M.

Sardari A. Subsistence Economy of the Lapui settlement of Tepe Mehr Ali Fars on the basis of the archaeozoological analysis. Schubert et al., 2017 Schubert M.

Mashkour M.

Gaunitz C.

Fages A.

Seguin-Orlando A.

Sheikhi S.

Alfarhan A.H.

Alquraishi S.A.

Al-Rasheid K.A.S.

Chuang R.

et al. Zonkey: A simple, accurate and sensitive pipeline to genetically identify equine F1-hybrids in archaeological assemblages. Tepe Mehr Ali is located in the province of Fars, Southwest of Iran. The site belongs to the Lapui culture, dated to the Chalcolithic (6-4mill. BCE), and shows an over-representation of domestic animals such as cattle, sheep and goats but also a significant number of wild herbivores, such as hemiones and gazelles (). Individual TepeMehrAli_Trj12x31_CopperAge was genetically identified as a pure hemione specimen ().

Kazakhstan (Belkaragay, Halvai) 2 and is composed of ten house-like structures, in which many different animal bones were discovered. Those were attributed to various species, including the wolf, the Saiga antelope, the fox, the hemione and the horse, such as samples Belkaragay_NB13_CopperAge and Belkaragay_NB15_CopperAge included in this study ( Kosintsev, 2015 Kosintsev P.A. Bone remains from the settlement Belkaragay I. Logvin and Shevnina, 2015 Logvin A.V.

Shevnina I.V. Settlement Belkaragaj 1. Belkaragay is a Copper Age site located in the Kostanay region, Kazakhstan. The area of excavation spreads over 1,000 mand is composed of ten house-like structures, in which many different animal bones were discovered. Those were attributed to various species, including the wolf, the Saiga antelope, the fox, the hemione and the horse, such as samples Belkaragay_NB13_CopperAge and Belkaragay_NB15_CopperAge included in this study (). Sample Halvai_KSH4_4017 was excavated from Kurgan Halvai 5 (pit number 4), which located on the left bank of the Tobol branch of the Karatomar Reservoir in Northern Kazakhstan (Kostanay Region), located 500 m to the north-east of the Sintashta kurgan Halvai 3. The kurgan was 30 m in diameter and 80 cm in height. Pit number 4, which is associated with the Sintashta culture of the Bronze Age, was located directly in the center of the kurgan. The horse skull was found close to the edge of the southern wall of the pit. In addition to the horse skull, the pit also contained human remains, belonging to a female, and other grave goods, such as a zoomorphic stone altar, stone tips, pebble fragments and fragments of a vessel. Another individual, Halvai_KSH5_2542, was excavated from Kurgan Halvai 3 (pit number 8A). The horse skeleton was found together with the remains of an approximately 50 years old woman and a sheep. Based on the position of the skeleton and stratigraphic information, the burial can be assumed to have been constructed during the Early Iron Age.

Kyrgyzstan (Boz-Adyr) The Boz-Adyr burial ground is located on the slope of the Ak-Bakshy mountain range, located in the Issyk-Kul region, Kyrgyzstan. The burials are located in mounds, which is characteristic for the funeral traditions of the nomadic and semi-nomadic populations of Tien Shan and Semirechye, especially during the C12th–C15th. During the excavation in 2014, three burial mounds showing next to human remains also the skeletons of horses were discovered (burial mounds number 10, 16 and 19). The burial rites associated with those graves are characteristic for the Turkic period of the C6th–C9th. Burial mound 16 was a swampy rock-earthen embankment of a circular shape with a diameter of 5 m. At a depth of 150-160 cm, the remains of a decapitated adult male, accompanied by a horse, were discovered. The skeleton of horse sample BozAdyr_KYRH8_1267 was supported by two boulders, with its legs bent and the head pointing west. The neck was bend facing north. Alongside with the horse remains, bit wear, iron stirrups and the remains of a wooden saddle were also discovered. Burial mound number 19 is located 15 m to the west of burial mound number 16. At a depth of 140 cm, the undisturbed remains of a human and horse, BozAdyr_KYRH10_1267, were discovered. The human skeleton was found lying on its back with the head pointing to the east, and the legs bent pointing to the right. The horse was positioned on it, with the abdomen turned to the right and the head pointing to the west.

Lithuania (Marvelė cemetery) th to the C11th. It consists of 211 human burials that also contain about 250 horse remains, either whole skeletons, head and forelegs only or scattered remains ( Bertašius and Daugnora, 2001 Bertašius M.

Daugnora L. Viking age horse graves from Kaunas region (Middle Lithuania). Marvele is a large medieval cemetery located in Kaunas, Lithuania, and dates back to the C8to the C11. It consists of 211 human burials that also contain about 250 horse remains, either whole skeletons, head and forelegs only or scattered remains (). The vast majority of buried horses are young adults under ten years and can be associated with some ritual offerings, which seemed to be common in the Baltic Aukštaičiai people during that era. Individuals Marvele_01_1138, Marvele_02_1138, Marvele_05_1138, Marvele_16_1138, Marvele_18_1189, Marvele_21_1087, Marvele_22_1138, Marvele_27_1138 and Marvele_32_1144 were all excavated from Marvele cemetery.

Moldova (Miciurin) The horse sample Miciurin_Mic2_3267 was excavated from the Bronze Age site of Mciurin, Moldova (1500-1000 BCE). The discovery of some slag fragments and some mill remains indicate the presence of Bronze craftsmanship, and to some extent mill cereal agriculture at Miciurin.

Mongolia (Gol Mod II, Khatuu 2, Olon-Kurin-Gol (Olon Guuriin Gol), Uushgiin Uvur, Talvan Tolgoi, Khotont) rd century BCE to the 1st century CE ( Miller et al., 2006 Miller B.

Allard F.

Erdenebaatar D.

Le C. A Xiongnu tomb complex: Excavations at Gol Mod 2 Cemetery, Mongolia (2002–2005). The Gol Mod II site is a cemetery located in Central North Mongolia, north of the Khangai mountains, that dates back to the 3century BCE to the 1century CE (). All sequenced horses from this site come from Grave #1, which apparently belonged to an aristocratic figure of the Xiongnu period. With a length of 86 m, the whole burial structure is one of the largest burial structure of Central Asia. The grave has been robbed, but still yields with rather astonishing bronze, glass and gold artifacts, which suggests a burial ritual for kings of the Xiongnu period. At a depth of 10 m, remains of 25 different horses were excavated, including GolModII_Mon23_2007, GolModII_Mon24_1993, GolModII_Mon25_2011, GolModII_Mon26_1995 and GolModII_Mon27_2011, which were all sampled from petrous bones. Khatuu 2 is an Iron Age site located in the Mongolian Altai, associated with the nomad culture of Pazyryk and dating back to the 4th and 3rd centuries BCE. Sample Khatuu_Kha2_t1_2312 was excavated from a tomb that contained the skeletons of one human and one horse. The undisturbed and permafrozen Pazyryk burial complex of Olon-Kurin-Gol (Olon Guuriin Gol) was excavated in the summer of 2006 by a German-Mongolian-Russian expedition team. The Kurgan is located close to the upper Olon-Kurin-Gol River on the southern slope of the Saylyugem Mountains, Mongolian Altai. The grave contained the partially-mummified, fully-dressed remains of a Scythian warrior and two horse skeletons. The samples OlonKurinGol_OKG1_2367 and OlonKurinGol_OKG2_2367 originate from such horses. Along with the horse remains, the harness and saddle of the horses were found. Kovalev et al., 2016 Kovalev A.A.

Erdenebaatar D.

Rukavishnikova I.V. A ritual complex with deer stones at Uushigiin Uvur, Mongolia: composition and construction stages. The individuals UushgiinUvur_Mon37_3085, UushgiinUvur_Mon39_3085, Uushgiin UushgiinUvur_Mon40_3085, UushgiinUvur_Mon41_3085, UushgiinUvur_Mon42_3130, UushgiinUvur_Mon43_3120, UushgiinUvur_Mon44_3085, UushgiinUvur_Mon45_3080, UushgiinUvur_Mon79_3085, UushgiinUvur_Mon87_3117 and UushgiinUvuur_Mon89_3085 were all sampled from petrosal bones excavated from the Uushgiin Uvur site, a large Bronze Age complex of deer stones and ritual mounds, located in front of the Ulaan Uushig Mountain, Mongolia. There are about 30 deer stones, arranged in a row from north to south, surrounded by many ritual structures with solid or ring-shaped rock coverings. Mongolian-Russian archaeologists within the Uushgiin Uvur – 2013 Project, run by the Department of Archaeology of Ulaanbaatar University of Mongolia and the Institute of Archaeology, Russian Academy of Sciences, excavated a ritual complex with deer stones (). All deer stone statues are made of light gray, reddish brown or blue-gray granite. Based on the horse bones, the Uushgiin Uvur Deer Stone Complex was dated to 1,312-810 BCE. Youn et al., 2007 Youn M.

Kim J.C.

Kim H.K.

Tumen D.

Navaan D.

Erdene M. Dating the Tavan Tolgoi Site, Mongolia: Burials of the Nobility from Genghis Khan’s Era. Tavan Tolgoi is a steppe cemetery located in South East Mongolia, associated with the Mongolian Empire and dated to 1,206-1,368 CE (). It is characterized by a post and unique stone carvings that indicate the presence of no less than 14 graves. Eight graves were excavated in 2004 and 2005 by a team from the National University of Mongolia and revealed artifacts dating to the Mongolian Empire period. Grave 4 contained horse stirrups, a birch bark quiver, male adult human remains as well as sheep and horse cranial bones, from which the genomes of TavanTolgoi_GEP13_730, TavanTolgoi_GEP14_730 and TavanTolgoi_GEP21_730 were sequenced. In 2012, a Chinese-Mongolian team of archaeologists excavated a mound on the top of the mountain Bayantsogt, located in Khotont Soum in the Arkhangai Aimag province. The site is elevated at 1.75 m above sea level. The mound itself is approximately 2.6 m tall with the basal diameter of about 26 m and shows a 24 m-long and six meters-wide ridge on its southeast face. Graverobbers have left a hole starting from the top. The excavation yielded wooden artifacts, sheep and/or goat bones, along with some horse bones, including a petrosal bone of individual Khotont_UCIE2012x85_1291. The external features and internal organization of the mound indicate that it belonged to ancient Uyghurs (611-840 CE).

Poland (Bruszcewo) Individual Bruszcewo_Bru4_3917 was excavated from the Early Bronze Age site of Bruszcewo, located in Poland around 60 km south of Poznan and dating back to 2,200-1,600 BCE.

Portugal (Santarém) Alcáçova of Santarém is placed in the right bank of the lower Tagus estuary, it is an important and large site (50,000 m2) located in a plateau overlooking the river, where an extensive diachronic occupation (since Late Bronze Age until nowadays) has been identified. The sample 254, an inferior premolar 4, was recovered in the excavations carried out in 2001, at layer [14], corresponding to the Islamic occupation, according to the ceramic material, well dated to the C11th–C12th.

Russia (Altata, Arzhan II, Balagansk, Bateni – Karasuk, Derkul, Kokorevo, Krasnaya Gorka, Lebyanzhinka IV, Merzly Yar, Oktyabrsky, Potapovka I, Sayangorsk, Sintashta) Altata is a settlement located in the Saratov region, Russia, encompassing a total area of 100 to 200 m2, from which different artifacts associated with the Neolithic could be recovered. Animal remains found at this site have been identified aurochs, foxes and horses, including sample Altata_NB31_Neolithic. The Scythian burial mound or the so-called kurgan of Arzhan represents the youngest of its kind and can be associated with the Aldy-Bel culture, which dates back to the boundary of the 7th and 6th century BCE. The elite funeral complex is located only nine kilometers away from Arzhan I in the Uyuk hollow, from which ArzhanI_Arz3_2767 was excavated. The undisturbed kurgan is 80 m in diameter and 2 m-high and consists of 27 graves, from which individuals ArzhanII_Arz15_2642 and ArzhanII_Arz17_2642 were unearthed. Additionally, a special burial including fourteen harnessed horses was found during the excavation expedition from 2001 to 2003, which includes individuals ArzhanII_Rus9_2500 and ArzhanII_Rus11_2500. Individual Balagansk_Rus19_2017 was excavated from Balagansk, a village located close to the Angara river in the Irkutsk region, flooded by the Bratsk reservoir. It represents a Central Asian trading settlement associated with the Ust-Talka culture. Mallory and Adams, 1997 Mallory J.P.

Adams D.Q. Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture. The sample Bateni_Rus16_3318 was retrieved from a right distal metatarsal bone and belongs to the Late Bronze Age Karasuk culture (1,500-800 BCE), which followed the Andronovo culture in the South of Siberia. It covered an area from the Aral Sea to the Yenisei river on the East and to the Altai mountains and Tien Shan in the South. Karasuk communities are known to be farmers who practiced a mixture of agricultural and stockbreeding of cattle, sheep and horse. They are especially known for their metallurgy, in particular for their daggers and knives (). The bone sample was excavated close to the Bateni settlement, Republic of Khakassiya. The excavation site is not accessible anymore due to the flooding of the Krasnoyarsk Reservoir. Derkul is a settlement dating back to the Neolithic, situated in the Orenburg region of Russia, and from which only one house-like structure has been excavated. Both Neolithic artifacts and animal bones, including remains of individuals Derkul_NB2_Neolithic and Derkul_NB4_Neolithic, could be unearthed from this small site. Kokorevo I is a late Upper Palaeolithic site associated with the Kokorevo culture, located by the Upper Yenisey river, Russia. The horse sample Kokorevo_Rus3_14450 was found in level 4, and is thus thought to be slightly older than level 3, dated to 14,450 years BP. This Pleistocene horse most likely represents a wild individual. Horse sample KrasnayaGorka_Rus48_1446 was sampled from a left humerus unearthed from the Krasnaya Gorka burial mound, Republic of Tyva, Russia, and dating back to the C6th. No further information could be recovered regarding this site. Individual LebyazhinkaIV_NB35_Neolithic was unearthed from the settlement of Lebyazhinka IV, Samara region, Russia. Based on excavated artifacts, this site has been associated with the Neolithic and the Copper Age. Animal bone remains found on site have been associated with beavers, horses, Siberian roe deers, aurochs and elks. The Paleolithic horse MerzlyYar_Rus45_23789 was sequenced from bone fragments recovered from an outcrop in the Todza depression, close to the village of Seiba, Republic of Tuva, Russia. It is not associated with any archaeological context. Oktyabrsky is a village located on the lower Volga river, in Ustin district, Kalmyk Republic of Kalmyk, Russia. The burial ground is associated with the Sarmat culture, but as many steppe cemeteries, it contains a number of additional younger graves. Individual Oktyabrsky_Rus37_830 was sampled from a left metatarsal bone of a complete horse carcass, unearthed from grave 1 of the burial mound number 16. A second individual, Oktyabrsky_Rus38_659, was unearthed from grave 1 of burial mound 3. These burial grounds are associated with Sarmatian time in general, but some bone remains, including the two individuals included in this study, date back to more recent times, namely the early post-Khazar and the late Golden Horde periods. Sintashta is a late Bronze Age archeological site located in Chelyabinsk Oblast, Russia, and is associated with the eponymous Sintashta culture. This site includes five cemeteries and no less than 40 graves. The horse samples Sintashta_NB44_3577 and Sintashta_NB45_3577 were recovered from grave number 19, together with a chariot and two other horses. Individual PotapovkaI_1_3900 was sampled from the left mandible of mare excavated from Kurgan 3 of the settlement of Potapovka I, by the Sok River, in the Samara region, Russia. This site is associated with the Bronze Age Potapovka culture and has revealed a large number of pieces of metalwork. The horse skull was placed over the body of a decapitated woman, potentially as an offering. The city of Sayanagorsk in the Republic of Khakassiya is located in the south part of the Minusinsk basin at the left bank of the Sayan Mountains. Sample Sayangorsk_Rus41_2677 originates from the right tibia of a horse which was unearthed during the excavations from the site Ai-Dai 1 (mound 3, grave 1). This site is associated with the Tagar culture (7th to 2nd centuries BCE) in South Siberia, which was preceded by the Karasuk culture.

Slovakia (Sebastovce) Individual Sebastovce_131_1317 was sampled from a tooth, excavated from the medieval Avarian_Slavonic cemetery of Šebastovce, Slovakia, dating back to the C7th–C8th.

Spain (Camino de las Yeseras, Cantorella, Capote, El Acequión, Els Vilars) rd and the 2nd millennia BCE. Domestic structures such as hut pits have been associated with both pre-Beaker phase and Bell-Beaker culture. Because of its remarkable size and strategic location - near rivers and flint mines, it is thought to have played a major role in central Iberia ( Blasco et al., 2011 Blasco C.

Rios P.

Liesau C. Yacimientos calcolíticos con campaniforme de la región de Madrid: nuevos estudios. 2, with more than 50 adjunct structures and a stratigraphy of about 2 m. One of the excavated units yielded 1772 faunal remains, including both domestic and wild animals. The horse CaminoDeLasYeseras_CdY2_4678 was excavated from the central area of the site and radiocarbon dated to 2,861-2,496 BCE, which is associated with the Pre-Bell-Beaker phase of the site ( Liesau, 2017 Liesau C. Fauna in Living and Funerary Contexts of the 3rd Millennium BC in Central Iberia. The large settlement of Camino de las Yeseras, located in San Fernando de Henares, Madrid, Spain, was occupied between the beginning of the 3and the 2millennia BCE. Domestic structures such as hut pits have been associated with both pre-Beaker phase and Bell-Beaker culture. Because of its remarkable size and strategic location - near rivers and flint mines, it is thought to have played a major role in central Iberia (). The central area of Camino de las Yeseras is a big structure with a sunken floor of circa 600 m, with more than 50 adjunct structures and a stratigraphy of about 2 m. One of the excavated units yielded 1772 faunal remains, including both domestic and wild animals. The horse CaminoDeLasYeseras_CdY2_4678 was excavated from the central area of the site and radiocarbon dated to 2,861-2,496 BCE, which is associated with the Pre-Bell-Beaker phase of the site (). Abad et al., 2011 Abad Ò.E.

i Garra A.M.

Bieto E.T. Cantorella (Maldà, Urgell), un nou assentament a l’aire lliure del neolític final-calcolític i del bronze ple a la vall del Corb. The Cantorella settlement is situated in the Corb valley, Catalonia, Spain, discovered in March 2010 and dated to 3,670-1,800 BCE. It was inhabited twice in prehistory, once during the Final Neolithic - chalcolithic and once during the Bronze Age, and a distance of 200 m separates the two settlements. Although Cantorella faunal archaeological records are scarce compared to Iron Age Catalan sites, horse remains are very abundant relative to other animals, especially in the Late Neolithic - Chalcolithic occupancy (). A number of 15 silos of that period revealed the presence of Equus sp., which might represent an autochthonous species of horse. Horse remains were present in approximately 50% of the final Neolithic structures but absent from all but two Bronze Age silos. Cantorella_UE2275x2_4791 was sampled from a petrous bone unearthed from silo SJ-191 that contained two horse skulls from Final Neolithic - Chalcolithic period. The sample Capote_Cap102_2464 is an upper molar tooth. It was found in a bone depot, inside of a house at the hill-fort of Castrejón de Capote, a Celtic fortified village of the Iberian Late Iron Age (4th–1st century BCE). This house, “HE-A,” is an archetypical household of two rooms, the first bigger and used for several functions (cooking, eating, etc.) and the second and smaller, for storing and sleeping. In this pattern of household, the first room used to be a hearth and a quern, and in this room, there is a central big hearth that was stratigraphically dated to the middle of 2nd century BCE. Below the layer sequence of this depot, there is an older sequence dated from the 4th century to the first half of the 2nd century BCE, and above, a later sequence from the second half of the 2nd century BCE to the first half of the 1st century BCE. The three sequences show similar household remains but only the intermediate one has faunal remains, mainly from horses, cows and pigs. Although this hill-fort is well-known in Celtic archaeology for an important very well-preserved shrine, where collective banquets were hold by the time of the sequence IIb, the charcoal and bones remains of HE-A are believed to belong to the household field. Liesau, 2005 Liesau C. Arqueozoología del caballo en la antigua Iberia. The two individuals belonging to the Bronze Age village of El Acequión were sampled from petrous bones (ElAcequion_Spain38_4055 and ElAcequion_Spain39_3993). El Acequión is located on the margins of an eponymous drained endorheic lake. Excavated features in the inner precinct include huts, pavements and dump yards, where most of the faunal remains derive. An extraordinary number of horse bones have been found on site, many of them exhibiting chop and hack marks, which gave rise to the hypothesis that, despite its chronology, some of these horses could represent domestic animals (). No human remains have been recorded. Nieto Espinet, 2016 Nieto Espinet A. Seguint les traces de la transhumància. Aproximació teòrica a partir dels resultats arqueozoològics de la fortalesa dels Vilars (Arbeca, Garrigues). The fortress of Els Vilars, located in the Segre valley, Catalonia, Spain, is a complex defensive site, occupied between 750 BCE and 325 BCE. The fortress has been built and developed throughout four distinct periods: Vilars 0 (775-700/675 BCE), Vilars I (700-675-550 BCE), Vilars II (550-425 BCE), Vilars III (425-375/350 BCE) and Vilars IV (375/350-325 BCE). The pre-Iberian phases (Vilars 0 and I) yielded little faunal archaeological record and very few equids (representing only ∼0.8% of animal remains) as they were most likely associated with a pastoral economy based on subsistence activities. Both the quantity of domestic animal and the proportion of horse remains excavated increased throughout the following periods, with horses representing more than 10% of excavated animal bones of Vilars III (). Intriguingly, people inhabiting Els Vilars started burying horse fetuses by Vilars I, an unprecedented ritual practice that seemed to have become more common throughout Vilars II. Individual ElsVilars_UE4618_2672 was sampled from an adult bone in a domestic unit associated with Vilars I. The sample Vicerrectorado_VIR175_1717, a superior premolar, comes from the excavation developed in a plot of the Roman city of Lucus Augusti, capital of the Conventus Lucensis and administrative center of northern Gallaecia in the northwest of the Iberian Peninsula. In this place, a long occupational sequence has been recognized, but the stratigraphic unit (UE-2101) in which this sample was recovered is assigned to low-imperial moments (C4th) considering the archaeological material present. In addition to equine remains, the fauna corresponds mainly to domestic species (cattle, pigs, sheep, goats, dogs) as well as some wild animals, mainly deer.

Sweden (Uppsala) Individual Uppsala_Upps02_1317 was sampled from a tooth excavated from a medieval site dating back to the C7th–C9th, and situated in Uppsala, Sweden.

Switzerland (Augusta Raurica, Stein am Charregass, Solothurn Vigier) st, C2nd and C3rd. Individual AugustaRaurica_JG160_1817 was recovered from an underground fountain in Insula 8, an ancient residential and artisanal area of the site ( Schmid et al., 2011 Schmid D.

Peter M.

Deschler-Erb S. Crise, culte et immondices: le remplissage d’un puits au 3ème siècle à Augusta Raurica. nd and C3rd. Individuals AugustaRauricaSchmidmatt_NBxK9279_1717 and AugustaRauricaSchmidmatt_NBxP9261_1782 were unearthed from building Schmidmatt in Augusta Raurica, which represents one of the best preserved Roman buildings of Switzerland. The Roman archaeological site of Augusta Raurica is located on the Rhine bank 20 km east of Basel, Switzerland, and was an important Roman trade center throughout the C1, C2and C3. Individual AugustaRaurica_JG160_1817 was recovered from an underground fountain in Insula 8, an ancient residential and artisanal area of the site (). The fountain was established around 80 CE together with an 11 m-deep well and an access tunnel typical of a Roman province architecture. The well was then likely used as a disposal structure and filled on several times with artifacts, tools and animal remains throughout the C2and C3. Individuals AugustaRauricaSchmidmatt_NBxK9279_1717 and AugustaRauricaSchmidmatt_NBxP9261_1782 were unearthed from building Schmidmatt in Augusta Raurica, which represents one of the best preserved Roman buildings of Switzerland. The site of Stein am Rhein Charregass was a Roman military camp on a hill close to the river Rhine. It was built as defense at the border of the Roman Empire at the end of the C3rd to the end of C4th. Large amounts of animal bones were retrieved from a ditch around the camp, including sample Charregass_NBxRa849_1667. The site Solothurn Vigier was a Roman vicus and trading post during the C1st–C4th by the river Aare. It is located along the axis of the Roman regional capital Aventicum and Augusta Raurica at the river Rhine. A bridge indicates a changing place for transport animals, which is supported by the presence of cattle and many equine remains, such as SolothurnVigier_NB63_1867 SolothurnVigier_NB175_1817 and SolothurnVigier_NB699_1867.

Turkey (Yenikapi) th century BCE. Yenikapi thus represents the major harbor of the Byzantine period, and a prominent Late Antiquity trade hub in the Mediterranean basin. Excavations revealed 36 wrecked ships, many artifacts and tools, and over 20,000 animal bones, mostly horses, mules and donkeys, but also cattle, sheep and pigs. Horse skeletons, representing ∼32.6% of all animal skeletal remains, mainly belong to young male individuals no older than ten years ( Onar et al., 2013 Onar V.

Pazvant G.

Alpak H.

İnce N.G.

Armutak A.

Kiziltan Z.S. Animal skeletal remains of the Theodosius harbor: general overview. Yenikapi is a site located in present-day Istanbul that used to be the major Byzantine harbor of Theodosius, founded by emperor Theodosius I during the 4century BCE. Yenikapi thus represents the major harbor of the Byzantine period, and a prominent Late Antiquity trade hub in the Mediterranean basin. Excavations revealed 36 wrecked ships, many artifacts and tools, and over 20,000 animal bones, mostly horses, mules and donkeys, but also cattle, sheep and pigs. Horse skeletons, representing ∼32.6% of all animal skeletal remains, mainly belong to young male individuals no older than ten years (). These include 12 stallions sequenced in this study, all sampled from petrosal bones: Yenikapi_Tur140_1289, Yenikapi_Tur141_1430, Yenikapi_Tur142_1396, Yenikapi_Tur145_1156, Yenikapi_Tur146_1730, Yenikapi_Tur150_1443, Yenikapi_Tur167_1443, Yenikapi_Tur168_1443, Yenikapi_Tur169_1443, Yenikapi_Tur170_1443, Yenikapi_Tur171_1689, Yenikapi_Tur173_1443, Yenikapi_Tur175_1443, Yenikapi_Tur176_1443, Yenikapi_Tur181_1443, Yenikapi_Tur189_1443, Yenikapi_Tur191_1443, Yenikapi_Tur193_1443, Yenikapi_Tur194_1360, Yenikapi_Tur206_1443, Yenikapi_Tur229_1443, Yenikapi_Tur243_1443, Yenikapi_Tur244_1443, Yenikapi_Tur246_1443, Yenikapi_Tur271_1443, Yenikapi_Tur273_1443, Yenikapi_Tur276_1443 and Yenikapi_Tur277_1443.

United Kingdom (Brough of Deerness, Quoygrew, Whitehall Roman Villa and Witter Place) th–C7th) and originate from excavation area C ( Barrett and Slater, 2009 Barrett J.H.

Slater A. New Excavations at the Brough of Deerness: Power and Religion in Viking Age Scotland. Brough of Deerness is a Pictish (pre-Viking Age) and Viking Age settlement set atop a roughly 30 m-high sea stack located in the East Mainland of Orkney. All horse samples analyzed in this study (BroughOfDeerness_VHR010_1417, BroughOfDeernees_VHR011_1367, BroughOfDeerness_VHR037 and BroughOfDeerness_VHR062_1417) are of Pictish date (C6–C7) and originate from excavation area C (). th until the 1930s. The sample was from Context C010 (of C11th–C12th date) within excavation area C of a coastal shell and fish-bone midden ( Barrett, 2012 Barrett J.H.B. Being an islander: production and identity at Quoygrew, Orkney, AD 900-1600. The sample Quoygrew_VHR017_1117 was excavated from the site of Quoygrew, a rural settlement situated on the island of Westray in Orkney, Scotland, that was occupied from the C10until the 1930s. The sample was from Context C010 (of C11–C12date) within excavation area C of a coastal shell and fish-bone midden (). Individual WhitehallRomanVilla_UK08_1667 was sampled from a petrous bone of a horse excavated from a Roman settlement near Nether Heyford, Northamptonshire, United Kingdom, dating back to the Roman times (C3rd and C4th). Witter Place is a post-medieval/pre-modern site, dating back to the C17th to the C19th and located just outside the northern walls of the city of Chester, United Kingdom. Excavated in 2001, the site shows a very large number of animal remains, mainly of cattle and horse (representing 93% of identifiable remains) but also dog, and to a smaller extent goat, sheep, pig and other wild mammal species, such as rabbit or hare. Witter place most likely represents a butchery site involved in animal-based industry and a possible tanning complex as suggested by the discovery of tanning pits. Most horses were old individuals over 20 years, showing some hack and chop marks for ∼3% of them. While all parts of the horse skeleton could be recovered, the distribution of bones was uneven, with a lot of long bones but very few phalanxes. Individuals WitterPlace_UK15_217, WitterPlace_UK16_217, WitterPlace_UK17_267, WitterPlace_UK18_267, WitterPlace_UK19_267 and WitterPlace_UK20_217 were recovered from petrosal bones found on site.

Uzbekistan (Yerqorqan/Erkurgan) Sample Yerqorqan_YER28_2853 was recovered from Yerqorqan (also referred to as Erkurgan), an ancient city surrounded by walls, located in Southern Uzbekistan, North of Qarshi. It was first settled during the second half of the 2nd millennium BCE, then occupied until the Sassanian period and destroyed by the Turks during the C6th. Excavations revealed the presence of a large palace located within a citadel, as well as temples and a mausoleum, thus showing the political and religious influence of the ancient city. Moreover, excavated blacksmith tools, pottery and currencies tend to suggest that this site used to be a major trading hub.

Museum Individual Museum_Earb6_89 is an English Thoroughbred racehorse stallion, known as Dark Ronald, preserved in a museum in Halle, Germany. He was born in 1905 and shot to death in 1928, when old and suffering from colic. Early in his life, he fathered many thoroughbred and sport horses, and hence has had a critical influence on the whole horse warmblood breeding industry until now. DNA was sequenced from a petrosal bone of Dark Ronald’s skull. Individual Museum_Earb5_105 was sampled from a petrosal bone of an English Thoroughbred stallion, also from a museum in Halle, Germany, that was born in 1891 and died in 1912.