A portrait of Maharaja Ranjit Singh, the greatest Sikh emperor. In 1819, Kashmir was annexed by the forces of Ranjit Singh.

In the last decades of the 17th century during the reign of Aurangzeb, the Mughal empire had started declining. After his death in 1707, ambitious regional chieftains consolidated power in their respective territories and the links with the central Mughal command started weakening.

Northern India was a sea of chaos. The misrule by the Mughal satraps made it possible for Ahmad Shah Abdali, the founder of the Durrani empire in Afghanistan, to consolidate power.

Abdali raided India at least eight times between 1748 and 1767. Kashmir was conquered in the course of these raids, in 1752.

Afghan rule: 1752-1819

Abdullah Khan lshik Aqasi, a commander sent by Ahmad Shah Abdali, defeated the remnants of the Mughal army in 1752, bringing an end to Mughal rule in Kashmir.

Due to political instability in Kabul, the Durrani Subedars in charge of Kashmir kept changing, and 28 of them ruled Kashmir in the course of 67 years of Afghan rule.

If Kashmiris had any hopes that Kabul’s rule would better their lives, those were quickly dashed. Though there were no external invasions, the period was marked by oppression, high taxation and governors who were variously cruel, brutal or indifferent, according to several historical accounts.

Sikh rule: 1819-1846

The Sikhs and the Afghans fought a number of battles during the reign of Maharaja Ranjit Singh, the greatest of the Sikh warrior-emperors. Meanwhile, by the late 18th and early 19th centuries, the British East India company had steadily consolidated its power in the subcontinent. Jammu and Kashmir became one of the theatres of conflict as these three empires played out their power games in northern India and beyond. The Afghans were the first to be elbowed out.

In 1819, Kashmir was annexed by Ranjit Singh’s forces, thus ending Afghan rule and more than four centuries years of Muslim rule in the Valley.

The Sikh rulers were generally tolerant towards different faiths, but some decisions rankled the majority Muslim population in the Valley. For instance, Diwan Moti Ram, the first governor under Sikh rule (incidentally a Hindu), called for halting of public azan and Friday prayers in the Jama Masjid. That said, the Sikhs ensured there was adequate representation of Hindus, Muslims and Sikhs in the administration.

Dogra rule: 1846-1947

After Ranjit Singh’s death in 1839, the British, sensing this was an apt moment to begin their long-cherished dream of annexing Punjab, established a cantonment in Sindh, and annexed Sindh a few years later.

The infighting within the Sikh empire made things easier for the East India Company and after two decisive battles with the Sikhs, Punjab was annexed in 1849.

But even before the end of the Sikh empire, Kashmir was acquired by the British as per the Treaty of Amritsar in 1846. Gulab Singh became the first Dogra ruler of Jammu and Kashmir after an understanding was reached with the British. The modern state of Jammu and Kashmir took shape under Dogra rule.

Gulab Singh was succeeded by Ranbir Singh in 1857. Pratap Singh was next in the line in 1885. Hari Singh took to the throne in 1925. During Dogra rule, the State administration was dominated by the Kashmiri Pandits (Brahmins). Except for some elite families, Muslims generally remained socially and economically backward. However, Muslim troops were often recruited from Poonch to quell any disorder in the valley. The Dogra rule came to an end shortly after India gained freedom. Jammu and Kashmir now became a state of the democratic republic of India.

Disclaimer: The views expressed by the author are personal.