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Introduction

Discussed below are the Atrocities and Tortures carried out by Caligula. He was certainly addicted to other people's suffering. It is said that he often tortured people slowly to death to prolong their agony from which de derived some perverse pleasure but also as some experiment to understand or obtain proof of an after life. Could they, he enquired, see Isis. Death was also undertaken for pecuniary gain. He spent so lavishly that the treasury was bare and according to Cassius Dio would seize the murdered person estate for himself. in reality it was because of their property; for the treasury had become exhausted and he never could have enough[1]

Was his blood lust the unhappy consequence of his serious illness at the beginning of his reign. Did this event change his countenance or was he exacting pain on others such as he had felt himself during his sickness. Or did the emotion pain of losing his sister Drusilla unhinge him? He seemed to take his loss out on his nearest and dearest who had got him to his position. Others, again, owed their ruin to the emperor's illness of the preceding year and to the death of his sister Drusilla, since, among other things, any one who had entertained or had greeted another, or even had bathed during those days, incurred punishment. [2]

As Tiberius descended into melancholia and increasing depravity, how much of his influence rub off on the young Caligula? He must of been aware of the murders under his reign like the story of Sextus Marius who was charged with incest with his daughter on the pretext of seizing his Spanish gold mines even though they would have been seized in the name of the state. As Tacitus puts it.. Was it probable that, when Tiberius with his long experience of affairs was, under the influence of absolute power, wholly perverted and changed, Caius Caesar, who had hardly completed his boyhood, was thoroughly ignorant and bred under the vilest training, would enter on a better course, with Macro for his guide. [3]

The relationship between Gaius and his subjects worsened and spiraled out of control. His laws were opposed by the populace, which in turn led to fits of petulant childish rage, which provoked yet more resistance from his people. In one who was not all powerful the effect would not be so violent but for an immature Emperor who witnessed the sour anger of Tiberius it was lethal. His contempt for his people was such that during one gathering at the amphitheatre Suetonius and Cassius Dio both quote him as saying that he wished all of Rome had but a single neck to hang them by. Cassius Dio observes an angry ruler on one side, and a hostile people on the other, were plainly in evidence [4]

an angry ruler on one side, and a hostile people on the other, were plainly in evidence [5]

There was also a modicum of logic in his censure of the senate. They often criticized the cruelty of Tiberius after his death yet he reminded them they were accomplices in his acts of barbarity. He mentions Sejanus as an example of a figure once revered then with apparent fickleness turned against him. He anticipated the same change of heart when it came to their support for him. He was in effect saying that he was revenging the senators before they had a chance to act. Sejanus also you first puffed up with conceit and spoiled, then put him to death. Therefore I, too, ought not to expect any decent treatment from you This is not to excuse his barbarous behaviour but may seek to explain it, if only to a small degree. [6]

Consistent he was not. A poor shoemaker laughed at him and called him a big humbug. On account of his poverty he let the man live. "What do I seem to you to be?" And the other answered (I give his exact words): "A big humbug." Yet the man met with no harm, for he was only a shoemaker. Thus it is, apparently, that persons of such rank as Gaius can bear the frankness of the common herd more easily than that of those who hold high position. [7]

As we can read below supplicating oneself and fawning admiration was not always a successful ploy for saving ones life but it worked for Lucius Vitellius, a roman of high birth and one time governor of Syria. He seemed destined for execution but managed to humiliate himself so successfully that he managed to convince Gaius that he was below his rank and not worthy to make an example of. Therefore it paid dividends not to appear too smart, arrogant, powerful, good-looking or to have a beautiful wife.

It is not surprising that he met a violent death. Did his atrocities prolong his life and put the fear of god(s) into those who wished him evil or was he just storing up trouble for the future? He lasted not quite four years and it seems implausible given the violence of his nature that he would live to rule for many years more than he did.

As to the veracity of the stories we have Suetonius and Cassius Dio to thank and they seem to corroborate themselves in the general facts if not all the details. It is difficult to know if Cassius Dio had read Suetonius or other authors such as Tacitus, Philo or Seneca, who were contemporaries of Caligula. Unfortunately, just as Tacitus is getting into gear with his history of Caligula there is a gap of ten years as those chapters are lost and we only retake up the story in Claudius' reign. Nevertheless, what we hear of Caligula up to that time does not contradict what we read in the other histories.

Tortures

Beaten or Flayed

Writers at the Grecian games at Syracuse and Attic plays at Lyons in Gaul were beaten with a rod or thrown in water if their praises did not meet with Caligula's approval.

[Performers]...were forced to blot out what they had written with a sponge or their tongue, unless they preferred to be beaten with a rod, or plunged over head and ears into the nearest river.[8]

The Overseer of the Spectacle, who was a kind of producer of Gladiatorial battles was beaten with iron and leather manacles. These would have the effect of removing the flesh off the bones of the victim.

overseer of the spectacles and wild beasts to be scourged in fetters, during several days successively, in his own presence, and did not put him to death until he was disgusted with the stench of his putrefied brain [9]

Branding or Burning

Unknown victims of high rank were branded with irons

After disfiguring many persons of honourable rank, by branding them in the face with hot irons...[10]

Amputations

A knight who had fought wild beasts and then cried out his innocence had his tongue cut out and then was sent back to the arena

A Roman knight, who had been exposed to the wild beasts, crying out that he was innocent, he called him back, and having had his tongue cut out, remanded him to the arena.[11]

A slave who had stolen some silver had his hands cut off and draped around his neck and paraded to all the guests

a slave having stolen some thin plates of silver with which the couches were inlaid, he delivered him immediately to an executioner, with orders to cut off his hands, and lead him round the guests, with them hanging from his neck before his breast[12]

Hard Labour

Unknown victims of high rank were made to work back breaking work

condemned them to the mines, to work in repairing the high-ways

Bondage and other Restraints

Unknown victims of high rank were bound to a stake or shut up in cages

tying them by the neck and heels, in the manner of beasts carried to slaughter, would shut them up in cages[13]

Psychological Torture

A parent was forced to watch his son being executed and then invited to a celebration and forced to make fun of the execution

Another he invited to his table immediately after he had witnessed the spectacle, and coolly challenged him to jest and be merry[14]

Victims of Atrocities occasioning Death

Suffocation/Strangulation

Tiberius . He allegedly suffocated and strangled Tiberius, his step-father as he lay dying.

He caused a pillow to be thrown upon him , squeezing him by the throat, at the same time, with his own hand[15] However, Tacitus ascribes the death to Macro Macro, nothing daunted, ordered the old emperor to be smothered under a huge heap of clothes [16]

Crucification

A Freedman of Tiberius who witnessed his death at the hands of Caligula was crucified

One of his freedmen crying out at this horrid barbarity, he was immediately crucified[17]

Poisoning

Antonia, his grandmother may have been poisoned by Caligula

Indignities of this kind, and ill usage, were the cause of her death; but some think he also gave her poison [18]

Caligula would sell survivors from gladiatorial contest to the highest bidder. Many bought these slaves to ingratiate themselves with Gaius. Yet he still poisoned the best of these slaves, even though presumably they already been bought.

Yet after doing all this he later put the best and the most famous of these slaves out of the way by poison [19]

Stabbings and Decapitations

His cousin Tiberius Gemellus had previously been made joint heir by Tiberius. Caligula had him murdered on the pre-text that he was plotting against him in 37AD

His brother Tiberius, who had no expectation of any violence, was suddenly dispatched by a military tribune sent by his order for that purpose.[20]

A Gladiator who had been practicing with Caligula threw himself at his feet and was stabbed to death

A gladiator who was practising with him, and voluntarily threw himself at his feet, he stabbed with a poniard[21]

An officer who was attending a sacrifice of a victim that Caligula was about to axe to death, instead took the axe to the officer and cut him into pieces

When a victim was to be offered upon an altar, he, clad in the habit of the Popae, and holding the axe aloft for a while, at last, instead of the animal, slaughtered an officer[22]

Esius Proculus was a fierce and strong soldier with a nickname of Colossal. Caligula had him pulled from the spectators at the amphitheatre and made to fight a light and then a strongly armoured gladiator. He beat them both but was clothed in rages and paraded around the city and then butchered.

him forthwith to be bound, to be led clothed in rags up and down the streets of the city, and, after being exhibited in that plight to the women, to be then butchered.[23]

Suicides to avoid Death at the hand of Caligula

His father-in-law Silanus committed suicide by cutting his throat with a razor to avoid execution by Caligula

He forced Silanus, his father-in-law, to kill himself, by cutting his throat with a razor.[24] Gaius' father-in‑law, Marcus Silanus, though he had made no promise and taken no oath, nevertheless took his own life [25]

His forced Macro and his wife Ennia and their children to commit suicide.



Macro himself, and Ennia likewise, by whose assistance he had obtained the empire; all of whom, for their alliance and eminent services, he rewarded with violent deaths.[26] He was blamed likewise for compelling Macro together with Ennia to take their own lives [27]

A consul committed suicide after Caligula broke his facses (wooden rod) when he trumped up a complaint about him on the day they celebrated Augustus' victory over Mark Antony

These were the reasons, then, why he summarily dismissed these officials, first breaking in pieces their fasces; whereupon one of them took it so much to heart that he killed himself [28]

Eaten Alive By Animals

Criminals were fed to wild animals needed for Gladiatorial battles when the price of meat was high

When flesh was only to be had at a high price for feeding his wild beasts reserved for the spectacles, he ordered that criminals should be given them to be devoured[29] Cassius Dio adds that they had they tongues cut out first. and to prevent the possibility of their making an outcry or uttering any reproaches, he first caused their tongues to be cut out [30]

Thrown to their death

A criminal who asked to fight many Gladiator instead of being fed to the lions was thrown off the ramparts even after defeating many gladiators as he had vowed.

he delivered, adorned as a victim, with garlands and fillets, to boys, who were to drive him through the streets, calling on him to fulfill his vow, until he was thrown headlong from the ramparts[31]

At Puteoli a number of Romans were invited to a dedication of a bridge. Caligula became drunk and for sport had many them thrown into the sea. Most survived. Others who who survived the initial submersion in the water were beaten to death by oars

At Puteoli, at the dedication of the bridge which he planned, as already mentioned, he invited a number of people to come to him from the shore, and then suddenly, threw them headlong into the sea; thrusting down with poles and oars those who, to save themselves, had got hold of the rudders of the ships. [32]

When he had become sated and glutted with good and strong drink, he hurled many of his companions off the bridge into the sea 10 and sank many of the others by sailing about and attacking them in boats equipped with beaks [33]

The building of the bridge had caused strains on the exchequer and Gaius made false claims against many wealth people in attempt to seize their estate. Many were brought to trial while others committed suicide anticipating their fate. Those found guilty were thrown to their death.

Gaius had exhausted his funds in constructing it, he fell to plotting against many more persons than ever because of their property...So these were punished, some in prison and others by being hurled down from the Capitoline; and still others killed themselves beforehand [34]





Torn Apart Limb from Limb

A Senator that Caligula wanted murdered forced someone to make a false accusation against the Senator and provoked the mob to tear him apart

he employed some persons to call him a public enemy, fall upon him as he entered the senate-house, stab him with their styles, and deliver him to the rest to tear asunder. Nor was he satisfied, until he saw the limbs and bowels of the man, after they had been dragged through the streets, piled up in a heap before him[35]

Beatings and Flayings Leading to Death

The Overseer of the Spectacle, who was a kind of producer of Gladiatorial battles was beaten with iron and leather manacles. These would have the effect of removing the flesh off the bones of the victim.

overseer of the spectacles and wild beasts to be scourged in fetters, during several days successively, in his own presence, and did not put him to death until he was disgusted with the stench of his putrefied brain [36]

Victims were routinely beaten slowly and suffered thousands of small wounds so that they would die slowly

He generally prolonged the sufferings of his victims by causing them to be inflicted by slight and frequently repeated strokes; this being his well-known and constant order: (273) "Strike so that he may feel himself die."[37]

Burning Alive

A writer was burned alive for writing a witty verse with double entendre

He burned alive, in the centre of the arena of the amphitheatre, the writer of a farce, for some witty verse, which had a double meaning [38]

Method of Death Unknown

King Juba's son, Ptolemy

His cousin (which one)

Ptolemy, king Juba's son, his cousin (for he was the grandson of Mark Antony by his daughter Selene), and especially Macro himself, and Ennia likewise, by whose assistance he had obtained the empire; all of whom, for their alliance and eminent services, he rewarded with violent deaths [39] While the senators were passing these decrees, Gaius sent for Ptolemy, the son of Juba, and on learning that he was wealthy put him to death [40]

A Roman of praetorian rank who was executed after going away to recuperate

he ordered him to be put to death; adding these words "Bleeding is necessary for one that has taken hellebore so long, and found no benefit"[41]

Several Gauls and Greeks who were condemned to death

And having condemned several Gauls and Greeks at one time, he exclaimed in triumph, "I have conquered Gallograecia." [42]

When playing dice he lost a lot on money. He called for a census of Gauls and had the wealthiest killed

"Here you are playing for a few denarii, while I have taken in a good one hundred and fifty millions [43]

Common Criminals were routinely executed every ten days on the command of Caligula

It was his custom every tenth day to sign the lists of prisoners appointed for execution; and this he called "clearing his accounts." [44]

When Caligula was seriously ill at the beginning of his reign a plebeian foolishly offered his life in the hopes that Caligula would recover. The real reason was that he believed he would be rewarded for his selfless and loyal act. Caligula took his words at face value and had him executed

Publius Afranius Potitus, a plebeian, perished, because in a burst of foolhardy servility he had promised not only of his own free will but also under oath that he would give his life if only Gaius should recover; and likewise a certain Atanius Secundus, a knight, because he had announced that in the same event he would fight as a gladiator. For these men, instead of the money which they hoped to receive from him in return for offering to give their lives in exchange for his, were compelled to keep their promises, so as not to be guilty of perjury. Such, then, was the cause of these men's deaths [45]

Twenty-six knights who had fought as gladiators

...put many people to death, among others twenty-six knights, some of whom had devoured their living, while others had merely practised gladiatorial combat [46]

A knight was forced to fight in a gladiatorial combat on the pretext of having insulted his mother Agrippina. He won the contest only for his to be handed over to his accusers and slain

Moreover he compelled one of the prominent knights to fight in single combat on the charge of having insulted his mother Agrippina, and when the man proved victorious, handed him over to his accusers and caused him to be slain. [47]

The knight's father was then confined to a cage although he had committed no part in his son's alleged insult and then slain

And the man's father, though guilty of no crime, he confined in a cage, as, indeed, he had treated many others, and there put an end to him [48]

A man was committed to death for committing treason maiestas on the charge of selling hot water

the emperor charged with maiestas and put to death a man who had sold hot water [49]

Yet another reference is made by Cassius Dio that Caligula murdered men merely to seize their estate. At about the time that the Germans were stirring up trouble he marched to the Rhineland and pretended to engage the enemy and then returned home. He was vexatious for no reason.

He murdered some men on the ground that they were rebelling, and others on the ground that they were conspiring against him; but the real complaint was one and the same for the whole people — the fact that they were rich. [50]

The poor did not come off lightly either when it came to taxes. He once wrote a tax-raising decree on stone tablet and placed it high on a wall so no one could read it. When the populace finally learned of the imposition on thir income they were enraged and marched on the Circus. Once ensconced in the enclosure Caligula had them all slaughtered.

Once when the people had come together in the Circus and were objecting to his conduct, he had them slain by the soldiers; after this all kept quiet [51]

On another occasion he was acclaimed imperator (commander of the army even though he had one no battles. He did by a ruse capture some for and had his legion slaughter them.

To be sure, he did once by a ruse seize and bind a few of the foe, whereas he used up a large part of his own force, striking some of them down one at a time and butchering others then masse[52]

The governor of Germany for ten years was murdered merely because he endeared himself to his soldiers

Lentulus Gaetulicus, who had an excellent reputation in every way and had been governor of Germany for ten years, for the reason that he was endeared to the soldiers [53]

He put to death his homosexual lover and husband of Druscilla

Another of his victims was Lepidus, that lover and favourite of his, the husband of Drusilla, the man who had together with Gaius maintained improper relations with the emperor's other sisters, Agrippina and Julia, [54]

Not surprisingly plots were hatched to depose Caligula. One such plot was headed by Anicius Cerealis and his son, Sextus Papinius. They were found out were tortured to give up names of others and Anicius and others were murdered.

he persuaded Papinius, by promising him his life and impunity, to denounce certain others, whether truly or falsely; he then straightway put to death both Cerealis and the others before his very eyes [55]

It was mentioned above that he would inflict psychological torture by making the victim's parents watch the execution. On one such occasion, after watching his son executed and learning that he would suffer the same fate, the father tried to trick Caligula in believing he was part of a larger conspiracy and promised to give up names of others to save his life. He implicated many of Gaius' friends and may of succeeded had he not tried to implicate Callistus and Caesonia and arouse distrust. He was subsequently put to death.

.. he had ordered Betilinus Bassus to be slain, he compelled Capito, the man's father, to be present at his son's execution....Capito.[.] pretended to have been one of the conspirators and promised to disclose the names of all the rest; and he named the companions of Gaius and those who abetted his licentiousness and cruelty. Indeed, he would have brought many to destruction, had he not gone on to accuse the prefects and Callistus and Caesonia, and so aroused distrust. He was accordingly put to death [56]