Russian airstrikes were concentrated in areas held by rebels who are not affiliated with the Islamic State and who often clash with it. Circles show known locations of Russian airstrikes from September 2015 to March 2016. Turkey Qamishli Kobani Manbij Hasaka Al Bab 58 strikes Isis control 25 Aleppo Raqqa Idlib Ath Thawra Rebel control Euphrates River Latakia 3 Jabla Deir al-Zour Hama Syria Mayadin Salamiyah Tartus Homs Abu Kamal lebanon Sparsely populated areas Rebel control Iraq Damascus Nawa Suwayda Jordan Dar‘a Turkey Qamishli Kobani Hasaka Manbij 58 strikes Isis control 25 Aleppo Raqqa Idlib Rebel control Latakia 3 Deir al-Zour Syria Tartus Homs Abu Kamal lebanon Sparsely populated areas IRAQ Damascus Nawa Sweida Jordan Kobani Manbij Al Bab 58 strikes Isis control 25 Aleppo Idlib Ath Thawra Rebel control Latakia 3 Jabla Hama Syria Salamiyah Tartus Homs lebanon Sparsely populated areas Rebel control Kobani Manbij 58 strikes Isis control 25 Aleppo Idlib Rebel control Latakia 3 Syria Tartus Homs lebanon Sparsely populated areas The New York Times | Source: IHS Conflict Monitor

Russia struck ISIS targets, but mostly in areas where the group threatened the Syrian government. It helped the government break a siege at an airbase near Aleppo, and attacked targets near Palmyra and Deir al-Zour. Qamishli Turkey Kobani Manbij Hasaka Al Bab Aleppo Isis control Raqqa Idlib Ath Thawra Euphrates River Latakia Jabla Deir al-Zour Hama Government Control Syria Mayadin Salamiyah Tartus Homs Palmyra Abu Kamal lebanon Iraq Damascus Nawa Suwayda Jordan Dar‘a Turkey Qamishli Kobani Hasaka Manbij Isis control Aleppo Raqqa Idlib Latakia Deir al-Zour GOVERNMENT CONTROL Syria Tartus Homs Palmyra Abu Kamal lebanon IRAQ Damascus Nawa Sweida Jordan Turkey Kobani Manbij Al Bab Aleppo Isis control Raqqa Ath Thawra Euphrates River Deir al-Zour Hama Syria Salamiyah Palmyra Turkey Kobani Manbij Isis control Aleppo Raqqa Deir al-Zour Syria Palmyra Damascus The New York Times | Source: IHS Conflict Monitor

Russia helped pro-government forces push back rebels and consolidate territory in key parts of the country. Russian targets ranged from the Qaeda-linked Nusra Front to relatively secular groups made up mainly of army defectors and backed by the United States, with a spectrum of Islamist groups in between. Darker areas indicate territorial gains from September 2015 to March 2016. Turkey Qamishli Kobani Hasaka Manbij Aleppo Raqqa Idlib Euphrates River Rebel control Latakia Deir al-Zour GOVERNMENT GAINS Government Control Tartus Syria Homs Palmyra Abu Kamal lebanon Sparsely populated areas IRAQ Damascus Nawa Sweida Jordan Turkey Qamishli Kobani Manbij Hasaka Al Bab Aleppo Raqqa Idlib Ath Thawra Rebel control Euphrates River Latakia Jabla GOVERNMENT GAINS Deir al-Zour Hama Government Control Salamiyah Syria Mayadin Tartus Homs Palmyra Abu Kamal lebanon Sparsely populated areas Iraq Damascus Nawa Suwayda Jordan Dar‘a Kobani Manbij Al Bab Aleppo Idlib Ath Thawra Rebel control Latakia Jabla GOVERNMENT GAINS Hama Government Control Salamiyah Tartus Homs Palmyra lebanon Sparsely populated areas Kobani Manbij Aleppo Idlib Rebel control Latakia GOVERNMENT GAINS Government Control Tartus Homs Palmyra lebanon Sparsely populated areas Damascus The New York Times | Source: IHS Conflict Monitor

Russia was accused by human rights groups of killing civilians and bombing civilian infrastructure indiscriminately. Schools and hospitals were regularly hit, in what opposition groups considered a deliberate effort to drive away people who were not likely to reconcile with the government. Workers and residents try to rescue a man after a reported airstrike in a rebel-held area of Aleppo on March 11, 2016. Thaer Mohammed/Agence France-Presse — Getty Images

Russia played an essential role in negotiating a cease-fire that is working better than expected. A Red Crescent aid convoy reached a rebel-held suburb near Damascus on Feb. 23, 2016. Amer AlmohibanyAgence France-Presse -- Getty Images

It is unclear whether Kurdish forces coordinated with Russia, but Kurdish-controlled territory expanded considerably during Russia’s air campaign. Russia supports Kurdish aspirations for a federal system and is pushing for the Kurds to be treated as part of the opposition. But other opposition groups view Kurds with suspicion. Turkey Qamishli Kobani Hasaka Manbij Kurdish control Kurdish GAINS Aleppo Raqqa Idlib Latakia Deir al-Zour Tartus Homs Syria Palmyra Abu Kamal lebanon IRAQ Damascus Nawa Sweida Jordan Turkey Qamishli Kobani Manbij Kurdish control Hasaka Al Bab Kurdish GAINS Aleppo Raqqa Idlib Ath Thawra Latakia Deir al-Zour Jabla Syria Hama Salamiyah Tartus Homs Palmyra Abu Kamal lebanon Iraq Damascus Nawa Suwayda Jordan Dar‘a Turkey Qamishli Kobani Manbij Kurdish control Hasaka Kurdish GAINS Raqqa Ath Thawra Deir al-Zour Syria Palmyra Abu Kamal Iraq Turkey Qamishli Kobani Hasaka Manbij Kurdish control Kurdish GAINS Raqqa Deir al-Zour Syria Palmyra Abu Kamal IRAQ The New York Times | Source: IHS Conflict Monitor