Whether a molecule of vitamin E is a tocopherol or a tocotrienol depends on its hydrocarbon chain - tocopherol chains - such as the one shown in the left-hand image above - are fully saturated and as such have no carbon-carbon double bonds. Tocotrienol chains - shown in the right-hand image above - have three carbon-carbon double bonds. The saturated tocopherol chain is referred to as a phytyl group, which the unsaturated tocotrienol chain is referred to as a farnesyl group.

Attached to each chromanol ring are three functional groups (R1, R2 and R3 in the diagrams), and the combination of functional groups determine if a vitamin E molecule is an alpha, beta, delta or gamma molecule. These functional groups are either composed of a hydrogen atom or a methyl (CH3) group. When R1, R2 and R3 are all CH3 groups, the vitamin E molecule is an alpha molecule. Alpha-tocopherol specifically is the most biologically active form of vitamin E, and as a result, most of the studies we have done on vitamin E look specifically at this form, and most supplements also contain exclusively this form. As a result of this, supplement takers often lose access to the benefits of the other seven forms of vitamin E, eg gamma-tocopherol (gamma vitamin E has CH3 groups at R2 and R3 but a hydrogen atom at R1). Gamma-tocopherol has a lower antioxidant activity relative to alpha-tocopherol, but seems to demonstrate more potent anti-inflammatory and anti-cancer effects. Beta (CH3 groups at R1 and R3, H atom at R2) and delta (CH3 group at R3, H atoms at R1 and R2) forms of vitamin E also have their own benefits, and consumption of just alpha-tocopherol loses out on these, as well as the benefits of all the tocotrienols.

The carbon-carbon double bonds in the farnesyl group cause the tocotrienol chain to be shorter and more flexible than the of tocopherol chains, which in turn allows tocotrienols to cover more of the surface of cell membranes in a short space of time, generally making them exhibit their effects more potently and quicker than their corresponding tocopherol. Some of the reported benefits of tocotrienols include improved brain function, as well as more potent anti-cancer properties than alpha-tocopherol. They are also thought to contribute towards a lowering of cholesterol.

THE RDA (RECOMMENDED DIETARY ALLOWANCE) AND UTL (UPPER TOLERABLE LIMIT) OF VITAMIN E

The RDA for vitamin E is 12mg (18 I.U.) in the EU, 15mg (22.5 I.U.) in the US & Canada, and 10mg (15 I.U.) according to the Nordic Nutrition Recommendations. The Upper Tolerable Limit is 1000mg (1500 I.U.).

The US & Canadian Institute of Medicine and the FDA - who calculate the DRIs and Daily Values respectively - both agree on an RDA of 15mg of vitamin E for adults, but notably this increases up to 19mg (28.5 I.U.) for women who are either pregnant of lactating in order to meet the needs of both them and their baby.

Of note, however, is the fact that because most research on vitamin E has been done on the alpha-tocopherol form alone, this has influenced the formation of the RDAs listed above. As such, these should be considered RDAs solely for the alpha-tocopherol form. While falling below these amounts in your alpha-tocopherol consumption likely won’t pose an issue if you have a high intake of gamma-tocopherol for example, it is still worth bearing in mind there is a potential risk there, and studies have not been done extensively enough in this topic to conclude that no issues would arise.





SIGNS OF VITAMIN E DEFICIENCY

Vitamin E deficiency can lead to a compromised immune system, and increased risk of cancer due to less prevention of free radicals. It can also cause nerve and muscle damage, vision problems, and even a loss of control over muscle movements.

Vitamin E deficiency is quite rare in healthy individuals. It mainly occurs in people who have an issue digesting fats, because vitamin E is a fat-soluble vitamin and needs a little fat intake to increase its absorption. However, being aware of the symptoms of deficiency is always a good idea.

One type of cell the body uses to fight off disease is known as a T cell. Immature T cells undergo a process of differentiation into different, more specialised immune cells. Vitamin E is involved in this process, and in cases of severe vitamin E deficiencies, these cells are less able to differentiate into mature immune cells, limiting our potential immune response. As mentioned previously, vitamin E also acts as an antioxidant and fights free radicals, which lowers our risk of developing cancers; a deficiency of vitamin E means this effect is limited, raising our cancer risk.

Vitamin E’s antioxidant effect also plays a role in muscle and nerve maintenance. Both muscles and nerves can be subject to oxidative stress, which can cause damage long-term. By acting as an antioxidant, vitamin E is able to prevent some of this damage to muscles and the nervous system (specifically the Purkinje neurones). When Purkinje neurones are sufficiently damaged, their ability to transmit electrical signals to the muscles is inhibited, and this can lead to a loss of control over the muscles if a deficiency becomes particularly severe.

Finally, vitamin E has a protective effect on some of the light receptors in the eye. This is one contributor to protection against age-related macular degeneration, as well as the development of cataracts. Your risk for both of these conditions increases if you are deficient in vitamin E.







SIGNS OF VITAMIN E TOXICITY

High vitamin E intakes can inhibit our absorption of vitamins A and K, leading to deficiencies of these. High intakes also seem to increase all-cause mortality risk slightly. Less severe symptoms include diarrhoea, fatigue, nausea and dizziness.

Vitamin E seems to compete for absorption with vitamin A and vitamin K. In cases where a large amount of vitamin E is consumed and is not properly balanced with a large amount of vitamins A and K, this can lead to symptoms of deficiency, especially of vitamin K. The most serious symptom likely to be seen as a consequence is an impaired ability for the blood to clot, which can increase the risk of prolonged bleeding when injured.

Intakes of more than 400 I.U. of vitamin E seem to be associated with a small but notable rise in all-cause mortality risk - approximately increasing the risk of dying within 5 years by 5%. The exact reason for this is unknown and can only be hypothesised on, but given the studies involved tended to only test with alpha-tocopherol, and such large intakes of alpha-tocopherol inhibit the body’s absorption of other forms of vitamin E (including forms like gamma-tocopherol that have a greater protective effect against cancers), it seems likely this could at least be part of the reason why.

Finally, high intakes of vitamin E seem to cause gastrointestinal distress by irritating the stomach. This can lead to the digestive symptoms listed above. This can be avoided by limiting intake, or by splitting up your doses throughout the day. They are also worsened by consuming vitamin E on an empty stomach.





WHAT WE USE IN OUR PRODUCTS

In our products, we include some of each of the eight isomers of vitamin E, with the total amount of all combined being 100mg (150 I.U.) - an amount chosen to meet needs, whilst still being well below the Upper Tolerable Limit, and the 400 I.U. level that is associated with a minor rise in all-cause mortality.

There is unfortunately not very much research on the optimal ratio of the different isomers of vitamin E. When making our recipe, we had to use what little research was available in order to try to find an optimal formula. By combining recommendations from various sources, we came across an optimal target of the following:

Approximately 8-12% tocotrienols and 88-92% tocopherols.

Approximately 45-55% of all vitamin E in the form of gamma-tocopherol.

Approximately 15-20% of all vitamin E in the form of alpha-tocopherol.

A gamma-tocopherol to alpha-tocopherol ratio of between 2.5:1 and 3.5:1.

The remaining non-tocotrienol vitamin E as a mix of beta- and delta-tocopherol.

At least 15mg (22.5 I.U.) of alpha-tocopherol to hit the US and Canadian DRI for vitamin E (the highest recommendation).

As isolated sources of each individual tocopherol and tocotrienol are not available (from what we were able to find), we instead relied on a mixed tocopherol powder and a mixed tocotrienol powder (which also contained alpha-tocopherol). Using these two powders, we were able to craft our recipe, which contains the following:

100mg of total vitamin E.

9mg of total tocotrienols, composed of 3.2mg of alpha, 0.4mg of beta, 4.2mg of gamma, and 1.2mg of delta. This gives an overall tocotrienol content of 9%.

16.2mg of alpha-tocopherol, representing 16.2% of total vitamin E and exceeding the 15mg US and Canadian DRI.

52.8mg of gamma-tocopherol, representing 52.8% of total vitamin E, and giving a gamma-tocopherol to alpha-tocopherol ratio of 3.26:1.

7.3mg of beta-tocopherol and 14.7mg of delta-tocopherol.

If further research comes to light that suggests a different ratio of vitamin E isomers is optimal, we will revisit our formula and attempt to balance it to reflect the new guideline. However, at the current time we are happy with the formula, and believe it represents the optimal ratios for health.