An Old Germanic Poetic Lexicon

A comparative vocabulary of Old Norse, Old English and Old Saxon, illustrating concepts and objects drawn mainly from the poetry.

(Updated 15 Sept 2011)

Introduction

This small glossary aims to provide a comparative poetic vocabulary of those Old Germanic dialects in which most poetry has been preserved, i.e. Old Norse, Old English and Old Saxon. Total inclusion or completeness is not possible but the aim has been to include as many words and phrases as possible which are characteristic both of the Old Germanic verse idiom and the ancient, heathen and heroic societies which the poetry generally reflected. Of especial interest therefore, are those terms and metaphors which relate to Dark Age and medieval warfare, weapons, heathen cult and deities, seafaring, folk beliefs, the supernatural, myth and legend, honour, heroic spirit and the upper strata of human society.

Quite many of the poetic words overlap into prose usage, however, and these are included, in addition to not a few items which are mainly found only in prose, for the sake of comparison and fullness.

The comparative lists in De Oudgermaansche Dichtertaal in haar Ethnologisch Verband [see booklist] have laid the bare foundation of this glossary but the majority of the words or compounds have been drawn from the following sources: Ordbog over det norsk-islandske Skjaldesprog by Egilsson and Jónsson, Norrøn Ordbok by Heggstad (et al.), Clark Hall's Anglo-Saxon Dictionary , Barney's Wordhoard , Pollington's Wordcraft , Turville-Petre's Myth and Religion of the North and Heyne's Hêliand, nebst den Bruchstücken der altsächsischen Genesis , as well as Zoëga's A Concise Dictionary of Old Icelandic and the glossaries to Gallée's Altsächsische Grammatik and Holthausen's Altsächsisches Wörterbuch . The superb Íslensk Orðabók , despite being a dictionary of modern Icelandic, is also useful for the ON poetic language and has proven very helpful in researching items which are not found in the ON dictionaries. Also exceptionally useful has been C.W.M. Grein's dedicated study Sprachschatz der Angelsächsischen Dichter (although it would be considerably more useful if the OE items were translated into German and not Latin!). Finally, my own notes on OE and ON poetic vocabulary from 3 years' and 2 years' respective university study of the subjects and other later notes have done good service.

For far more poetic expressions in ON than is possible to include here, including the challenging kennings, the interested reader is referred to the excellent Ordbog over det norsk-islandske Skjaldesprog .

Hopefully the vocabulary given below will prove useful for those who are studying the ancient poetry of more than one ancient Germanic dialect, in addition to being fascinating from a comparative and semantic point of view. Just how uniform the basic world-view of our Germanic forefathers (at least that represented by the literate classes in the poetry and prose literature) was, will become clear from an examination of the words and idioms below.

Some of the numerous correspondences can be noted here. Examples follow the order given in the lists, i.e. ON - OE - (OS). It is important to bear in mind that many of the terms which appear in two or all three of the Old Germanic dialects examined here will have had usages or levels of style that differed relatively. An OE poetic term denoting "war", gûð, is frequently found in Old English poetry, and gûth appears to be well favoured by Old Saxon writers too. The Old Norse equivalent, gunnr, is chiefly poetic but not much used outside names for valkyries and other terms are preferred in ON. Where I have some feeling for the relative commonality of the mutual terms, I have tried to indicate this. I have been unable to determine the style registers of the OS words but as rule of thumb, these will almost always conform to those of the corresponding OE words or idioms.

The poetic register tends to be more conservative and archaic than the vocabulary of prose, so that a poetic term in OE which is prosaic in ON, reflects different strata of vocabulary in those languages having become increasingly valid at differing times and the influence of different loanwords on OE and ON. So frêa in OE was poetic, archaic and not especially used, while in ON freyr is known from the prose. Words which are poetic in OE and ON or even all three, suggest a stage of the vocabulary which was once common to the parent Germanic language - even in prose - but which now only survive in archaic poetic usage in the older forms of the Germanic dialects.

It is not easy to explain the discrepancies in the relative frequency and stylistic usage of words that the three dialects have in common. Why, for example, do OE and OS make frequent use of gûð and gûth in the poetry, while ON uses cognate gunnr rarely (and then often in limited ways)? Why was ON jörmungrund still to be found in prose in the late medieval period, while its OE equivalent eormengrund was already poetic and archaic several centuries earlier? Why were words like ON jór, OE êoh "steed" poetic and archaic in both already by the time of the earliest records? Why was ON meiðmar being only used in the poetry while its OE equivalent mâðm was also used in prose writings? Absence of a cognate in OS may well be due to obsolescence but we also have to reckon with it simply not having been recorded. Several factors may have given rise to such situations where certain words were favoured above others, some words were confined to a particular stylistic register or had even fallen out of use in one or more of the old Germanic dialects by the time of the earliest records. We have to reckon with issues such as different exposure to foreign influences, culture and loanwords (the priests and writers of the continental Saxons, for example, were more exposed to such influences than the Icelandic saga writers). The earlier conversion to Christianity (therefore a new literary genre and worldview) of first the Anglo-Saxons and then their kindred on the Continent in relation to the acceptance of Christ by the Scandinavians, must have amplified those cultural and lexical differences that already existed. The practices, beliefs and lower mythology that accompanied belief in the old Germanic gods were far more enduring in Scandinavia than in England or on the Continent, and this would come to be reflected in their literary output and the vocabulary used in it. Where old practices or beliefs still prevailed, the equally ancient terms used to describe them would still have a place in the vocabulary and literature. An important factor to consider is also providence - what have we been left with and what has been destroyed (deliberately or by accident)? It may be that a whole series of writings in OE and OS containing hitherto unknown words in poetry or prose have been destroyed because either their subject matter was deemed inappropriate or else their content did not suit the political establishment of the day. We simply do not know. But the extant evidence does tend to suggest that there was not a corresponding body of literature in OE or OS which refers directly to (or else alludes to) pre-Christian society and its beliefs, such as exists in ON. Since writing about such matters would have been taboo for the early Christian writers (living, as they were, in lands that had only been Christian for a few generations and were now threatened by heathen raiders from the north), we can expect that in time, the knowledge of the words used to express such older concepts and beliefs would have faded from memory, while in Scandinavia, this knowledge was largely kept alive.

Whatever the reasons, it is clear that already by the time of the earliest writings in their respective dialects, OE, OS and ON often differ to quite a degree concerning words of the common Germanic inheritance they still use, what they mean and what stylistic areas are in which they are used. Yet despite these differences, it is obvious from a glance at the wordlists below, that there is a great deal still in common and the differences are probably smaller than the commonalities. We are in a number of cases dealing with words of a common Germanic literary heritage. All three dialects are still capable of expressing the pre-Christian heroic ethos in their poetry and prose, aspects of their lower mythology and relating tales of their illustrious Germanic forefathers from bygone ages. Christian saints and heroes themselves are often described and depicted as if they were warriors and heroes of a pre-Christian age. Hopefully, the common Germanic heritage of these three different Germanic cultures will be made clear by the glossaries below and what they still have in common (rather than where they differ), be made manifest to the reader.

dróttinn - dryhten - druhtin "lord, ruler" - the term is common in all three but I would say slightly more so in the West Germanic dialects.

þjóðann - þêoden - thiodan "lord, prince" - these three are almost exclusively met with in the poetry, as far as I know.

valdandi - wealdend - waldand/waldo "ruler, lord" - Certainly in OE, the word is mainly a part of the poetic register, where it is often applied to God.

vísir - wîsa - wîso "leader, chief" - usage expands far into prose e.g. OE herewîsa "general, leader in battle". ON vísi, however, is found only in the poetry.

vörðr - weard - ward "guardian, protector, watchman" - are found in both prose and poetry, although in the sense of "king, ruler" mainly in poetry.

freyr - frêa - frôho "lord" - in ON it is found in prose but in OE only in the poetry. It was therefore probably an archaic term and obsolete in prose.

herra - hearra - hêrro "lord" is late and prosaic in ON but poetic in OE. The ON word is a loan from Middle Low German.

jarl - eorl - erl "earl, nobleman, chief; man" - are found in both registers, but in OE poetic usage, only "man" is implied.

þjóð - þêod - thiud "nation, people, folk" - are found in both registers.

lýðr - lêod - liud "people, folk" - are found in poetry and prose.

gumi - guma - gumo "man, hero, warrior" - are poetic terms in OE and ON.

rekkr - rinc - rink "warrior, man" - found in ON prose, the OE equivalent is only from the poetry.

halr - hæleð - helið "hero, doughty warrior" - is from the poetic register in both ON and OE.

seggr - secg - segg "man, warrior" - is from the poetic register in both ON and OE.

kona/kván - cwên - quena "woman, wife; queen" are clearly related words, even if the OE and OS words still retain the more elevated meanings of "queen, lady".

víf - wîf(mann) - wîf "wife" is poetic in ON but prosaic in both OE and OS.

mögr - mago - magu "son, youth" is prosaic in ON but poetic in OE, where is also has the wider meanings of "male kinsman; retainer, warrior".

ambátt - ambeht - ambaht(mann) are clearly the same word and aside from the gender difference, all refer to a state of service to a lord or master. The word appears to be mainly prosaic in all three dialects. The ON word has the additional meaning of "concubine".

meiðmar - mâðm - mêðom "treasure" - the OE term is also found in prose, but the ON equivalent is only found in poetry.

valr - wæl - wal "slaughter, corpses of the slain" - all three terms are popular in prose and poetry.

hræ - hræw - hrêo "carrion, slain bodies" - are found in poetry and prose.

svefn - swefn - sweðan "sleep; dream" - are considered mainly prosaic.

víg - wîg - wîg "war, battle" - are found in poetry and prose.

hildr - hild - hildia "battle" - are poetic terms in ON and OE.

gunnr - gûð - gûth/gûðia "battle, war" is entirely poetic and infrequent in ON and although poetic in OE and OS, is rather more frequently encountered in these dialects. Part of the reason for the word becoming obsolete in ON can perhaps be attributed to its use as a valkyrie name and its use in personal names.

herr - here - heri means primarily in ON and OE "army, troops, host" but generally carries a wider meaning of "people, folk" in OS. It is found in both registers in all three dialects.

hjörr - heoro - heru- "sword" - is poetic in OE but found in both registers in ON.

mækir - mêce - mâki "sword" - is poetic in OE but found in both registers in ON (cf. Gothic mêkeis).

borð - bord - bord "shield" - are poetic terms in ON and OE.

sveiti - swât - swêt is prosaic to mean both "sweat" and "blood" in ON but the latter meaning is poetic only in OE.

gríma - grîma - grîmo "helmet" (lit. "mask") - is poetic in OE but found in both registers in ON.

megin - mægen - megin means in ON, OE and OS "power, might, strength" but also carries a further meaning in OE and OS of "troops, force". It is found in both registers in all three dialects.

viggr - wicg - wigg "steed, horse" - are poetic terms in ON and OE.

hof - hof - hof illustrates a clear North vs. West Germanic split. In ON the word denoted "heathen temple" and is often found in Norwegian and Icelandic place-names (a secondary and later meaning of "court" derives from Middle Low German influence). In OE and OS (and the West Germanic languages in general) the primary meaning is "farm, enclosure, dwelling, house" (although in OE it could also denote a heathen temple).

sótt - suht - suht are all the same word and they have not diverged in meaning. The word is prosaic in all three dialects.

svelta - sweltan - sweltan all denote "die, perish" (also "starve" in ON) and represents one of the many OE stems we have lost from English (cf. derivative swylt). The verb is mainly prosaic.

deyja - diegan - dôian "die" is perhaps a late loan into OE, probably from ON (although it may represent a lost Anglian dêgan).

mæla - (ge)mælan - mahlian "speak, say, talk" are all prosaic (wheras OE maþelian is mainly poetic). We could also mention the prosaic segja - secgan - seggian "say, speak", and the slightly more elevated kveða - cweþan - queðan "say, speak" (cf. archaic English quoth).

uðr/unnr - ýð - ûðia "wave" - are found in poetry and prose.

nökkvi - naca - nako "ship, boat" is prosaic in ON but from OE poetry.

naðr - nædre - nadara "adder, snake, viper" is prosaic in all three dialects.

fold - folde - fold "earth, ground" - is poetic in OE but found in both registers in ON.

holt - holt - holt is prosaic in all three dialects (cf. German Holz) although it is hardly common in ON, where viðr and skógr are the preferred terms. The word is still found in a slightly narrower sense in modern English. In modern Icelandic it is now a poetic word.

fjörr - feorh - ferah "life" - is found in prose and poetry in ON and OE (cf. also Gothic fairhvus, OHG ferah, OFris. ferech).

miðgarðr - middangeard - middilgard "earth, the middle kingdom" - are considered mainly prosaic. In OE and OS, the terms probably originally denoted the dwelling of men see from a heathen viewpoint (just as in ON miðgarðr) but could easily be adapted to meet a Christian ideology, with Hell below and Heaven above the world of men.

tungl - tungol - tungal "star, moon, celestial body" - are considered mainly prosaic. The ON word is still very much alive and productive in modern Icelandic.

áss - ôs - ôs "heathen god, godhead, divinity" is mainly prosaic in ON and OE and presumably also in OS.

vé - wîg - wîh "heathen shrine, temple; idol" is prosaic in ON but mainly poetic in OE. It is found in numerous place-names, particularly in Norway and Sweden, as well as being known in a few English toponyms (see my article on traces of heathen cult in Germanic place-names).

hörgr - hearg - harug has a complex and disputed history. Simply put, the earliest meaning appears to be one of rock face (and indeed in some Norwegian place-names it must have this meaning) which later developed into "cairn, heap of stones" to "stone altar" to "heathen shrine, sacred spot or site". In OE it only has the meaning of "heathen shine; idol", whereas a second meaning in ON is "rock, crag". It is prosaic in ON and OE.

Óðinn/Vóden - Woden - Wodan/Wôdin the meaning of the ON stem is disputed, óðr meant "furious, wild, raging" as well as "mind, feeling" and both may apply to the character of Óðinn (de Vries). The ON form may well be a development of an older name Óðr (cf. the situation regarding Ullr and Ullinn). The OE form must certainly be attributed to the first of these (OE wôd "senseless, mad, furious") and the OS form likewise to the equivalent OS stem (cf. OS wôdian "rage, storm, rave"). The forms and their variations derive from Gmic. *Wôðanaz and *Wôðinaz.

Þórr - Þunor - Thunar literally "thunder". An older ON form is Þunnarr and is a therefore a form rather closer to the West Germanic forms.

A phrasal idiom identical in form and content is interesting to note in all three dialects:

alda börn - ielda bearn - eldi barn "the children of men" (i.e. human beings) - it would appear that such is a stock idiom of the Old Germanic dialects. Several other similar phrases exist in all three of the dialects but this is closest to exact conformity.

Next we find many exact lexical parallels between ON words and OE words:

jór - êoh (where the ON form shows breaking) "steed" are terms known only from poetry; hilmir - helm "protector, helm, prince" the OE word is from the poetic register; baldr - bealdor "prince, king, lord" is poetic in both dialects; þengill - fengel "prince, king" is poetic in both dialects; firar-fîras "men" are both found in the plural form from the poetry; arfi - earfora "inheritor, heir, son" is prosaic in ON but from OE poetry; böð - beado "battle, war" are both from the poetic register; eggleikr - ecgplega "edge-play, battle" is an example of a quite sophisticated poetic metaphor which is identical in ON and OE; brynja - byrne "corslet, mailshirt" is found in both registers; fleinn - flân "spear, dart" is found in both registers in both OE and ON; ör - earh "arrow" is prosaic in ON but from OE poetry; lind - lind "(lindwood) shield" is poetic in OE but also found in the prose of ON; brim - brim "surf, sea, ocean" is prosaic in ON but from OE poetry; eik - âc "ship of oak, ship" is prosaic in ON but from OE poetry; ormr - wyrm (where the ON form show characteristic proto-Norse loss of initial semi-vowel w before a suceeding vowel) "snake, serpent, dragon" are prosaic, although both form many compounds found in the poetry; snákr - snaca "snake, serpent" is prosaic in OE but from ON poetry; freki - freca "greedy one, wolf" is not a recorded form when standing alone in OE but is known from poetic compounds denoting "warrior", the ON word is poetic; jörmungrund - eormengrund "the earth" is prosaic in ON but from OE poetry; þurs - þyrs "giant, ogre" are prosaic in both dialects; jötunn - eoten "giant" is poetic in OE but well known in ON prose; mold - molde "earth, world; soil, land" is prosaic in both dialects; baugbroti - bêaga brytta "breaker of rings, lord" there are a number of this type but this particular example is perhaps the closest lexically; álfr - ælf "elf, fairy" is prosaic in both dialects; púki - pûca/pûcel "goblin" is prosaic in ON and OE. The OE word is also found in a number of nature-names in the English landscape, as well as being preserved as the rarely-heard English word puck; dvergr - dweorg "dwarf" is prosaic in both dialects ( note : of these last three examples I have no instances from OS, but I am certain that at least OS equivalents of dweorg and ælf existed); blót - blôt "sacrifice" is prosaic in both dialects (cf. OHG bluostar "sacrifice"; I have no data on a possible OS equivalent at this time).

A few ON - OS lexical parallels which appear to lack OE analogues are worth noting:

vígmaðr - wîgmann "warrior" is an exact lexical parallel, the ON word is prosaic and the same would appear to apply to the OS word; himinn - himil "sky, heavens" is prosaic - I am not clear about the relation to OE heofon; þerna - thiorna "maid servant" - the ON term is prosaic and so I would imagine is the OS word - OE of course offers related words for serving-folk but I cannot find an exact equivalent to this word.

Next, some OE - OS parallels which are not known from ON can be noted. As OE and OS are both closely related Old West Germanic dialects, this is to be expected of course:

ealdor - aldor "lord, prince" is prosaic in OE; gârhete - gârheti "spear-hate, dire emnity, battle" is a fascinating parallel and one tends to look for borrowing in such expressions, although parallel development is equally feasible. The OE term is poetic; eorðerîce - erð-rîki "the earthly kingdom, the world of men" is most probably a parallel development and is prosaic in OE; rodor - radur "sky, the heavens" is mainly found in the OE poetic register; môdsefa - môdseðo "heart, mind" is poetic in OE and no doubt in OS; wældêaþ - wal-dôð "violent death, murder" is prosaic in OE; werod - werod means "troop, host; folk" in both OE and OS and while it is mainly poetic in OE, it appears to be more prosaic in OS; gesîðas - gi-siðli the OE word is poetic and would normally mean "companions" but may also denote "band of warriors, troop" just the the related OS word. In OE the stem of the word forms several poetic compounds; hord - hord is an OE and OS only term denoting "treasure hoard" and is found in both registers; wela - welo meaning "wealth, riches" is found in the poetry and the prose; flet(t) - flet denotes in both dialects "hall, house, dwelling" but has in OE the additional meaning of "floor". It is found in the poetry and the prose; leger - legar "illness" appears not to exist in ON. It is related to the verb "to lie" and is prosaic in OE; cwealm - qualm "(violent) death, murder" represents an OE-OS wordpair, although we can find the clearly related kvöl "torment, torture" and kvelja "torment, torture" in ON, even though the meaning has diverged considerably. The word is prosaic in OE and OS; gehweorfan - hwerðian have hardly diverged at all in meaning. Both are prosaic. The related ON horfa and hverfa have diverged too far in meaning to be applicable here; sprecan - sprekan and cwiddian - queddian (note relation to cweþan-queðan and ON kveða) mean "speak, say" and "talk, speak" respectively. The stem for sprecan is non-existent in ON (modern Scandinavian språk/sprog is a Middle Low German loan); nîð - nîð is found in both registers in OE (related but divergent ON níð means "insult, libel"); heofontungol - heðan-tungal is poetic in OE and OS; reced - rukud diverge slightly in meaning, with the OS word also denoting "temple". The word is poetic in OE; ealh - alah "heathen temple" is poetic in OE and presumably also in OS. Derived from Germanic *alhs, it is known from one or two English place-names and some toponymists believe a parallel but unrecorded ON word *al also existed but this is only hypothetical; hyrde - hirdi meaning literally "shepherd" but also used in OE and OS prose to denote "lord, guardian, keeper"; gewîtan - giwîtan "depart; die" is found in both registers in OE.

Finally, a number of close parallels of idiom exist - relating to form, content and meaning. Such highlight the close modes of semantic construction and, of course, the similar world-views and material conditions of the ancient Germanic peoples. The poetry is especially rich in these parallels of idiom, since it often seeks to describe more or less everyday matters or objects by way metaphoric imagery. Such imagery would, to a large extent, be common to the Norseman, the Anglo-Saxon and Saxon of the continent, and hence we often find strikingly similar metaphors and idioms being expressed in the poetic (but also the prose) language of all three:

ennitungl - hêofodes sigel - ON: "moon of the forehead", OE: "sun of the head" - both mean "eye"; ormból - wyrmhord - ON: "dragon's couch", OE: "dragon's hoard" - both mean "that which a dragon sits upon, treasure-hoard"; mjóðrann - meduheall both denote "mead-hall, hall where mead is served"; geirleikr - æscplega - ON: "spear-play", OE: "ash-wood spear play" - both denote "battle"; vápnþruma - wæpenþracu - ON: "the thunder of weapons", OE: "the clashing of weapons" - both denote "battle"; gunnblik - hildelêoma - ON: "the gleam of battle", OE: "the light of battle" - both denote "sword" (i.e. that which gleams or flashes in battle); undsveiti - heaðoswât - ON: "wound-sweat", OE: "battle-sweat" - both denote "blood"; vágmarr - wæghengest - ON: "mare of the waves", OE: "horse of the waves" - both denote "ship"; gullbúi - goldweard - ON: "one who dwells with gold", OE: "one who guards the gold" - both denote "dragon"; hræsvelgr - wælcêasiga - ON: "chooser of carrion", OE: "chooser of the slain" - the ON denotes "eagle" and the OE, "raven"; valkyrja - wælcyrige - ON: "choser of the slain", OE: "chooser of the slain" - the OE term however has come to mean "witch, sorceress", whereas the ON term of course means "valkyrie"; feorh âlecgan - ferah farlâtan - OE: "lay down, give up one's life", OS: "leave life" - both are a circumlocutive manner of expressing "to die"; forðweg - forðgang - OE: "the way forth, forward", OS: "journeying forth" - both denote "death" and there several others like these.

In terms of complexity of idiom and metaphor, ON poetic constructs in the form of the kenning and heiti, often far exceed the complexity of those from OE and OS and many verge on opaqueness. Owing to limits of space, time, resources, authorial knowledge and the aims of the article, ON constructions of the type sára þorns sveita svanr "swan of the sweat of the thorn of wounds" (i.e. raven) cannot be included here, although some more concise examples of this type are given. Many such kennings are found only in the works of one author, in one manuscript only, or once only in a manuscript. Despite being extremely interesting, from the point of view of comparison and the facilitation of the learning of vocabulary, such constructions are of very limited use and will not repay the time taken to document them. The aim of this article is to include single words or small compound words (with the exception of a small number of larger idioms) taken from the general poetic (and prosaic) stock of words used by several or many authors.

As a fascinating aside, we can note that ON muspell (i.e. Muspellsheimr, "the destruction of the world") has a direct parallel in Old High German mûspilli. Cognates are not known in either OE or OS, as far as I know.

To what extent has the poetic vocabulary of these Old Germanic dialects survived into their modern descendants of English, Icelandic and Low Saxon? Well, any native speaker of English will immediately recognise how much we have lost from the OE poetic stock of words in particular. This is at least partly because many of the poetic terms describe the concerns, ideas and possessions of the higher social classes. Following the Norman Conquest, which was largely a conquest by noblemen, such native terms describing nobility, kinship, weapons and warfare, treasure, retainers and court etc. were replaced by the Norman's own terms and hence ceased to exist. However, two other factors also have played their part. One is that many of the poetical terms are just that - only found in the poetry and hence were probably never known to those outside the noble or educated classes. Secondly, poetic vocabulary and devices went through fashions and what was fashionable for some time could soon be yesterday's news when some new idiom or metre was introduced. Something of the OE poetic idiom did survive into the early Middle English alliterative poems of the West Midlands like Lagamon's Brut , but even there, the style and lyrical feel of the classic West Saxon poetic imagery never quite achieved full representation. The everyday language of the common people was far more enduring.

In striking contrast, the great majority of the root words, if not the compounds themselves, are still known in modern Icelandic, and if not in active use, can nevertheless be found in a decent monolingual dictionary. There are far too many direct descendants to be considered here and the interested reader should consult the excellent Íslensk Orðabók , where they can be found in their hundreds, nay thousands. But just to give a very small taster of the modern situation, seiðkona "witch" is modern seiðkona, oddviti "leader, ruler" is modern oddviti, risi "giant" gives modern risi, fólkbardagi "great battle" gives modern fólkbardagi, tungl still means "moon" and so on. Compare the same terms between OE and modern English, and we only have wicce "witch" surviving from OE. Of course, many of the ON compounds would no longer be used by modern Icelanders, but this not because (as in the case of OE) they are not understood, but simply that the conditions they describe or images they use are not relevant to the modern world.

It is largely for this reason of an untainted vocabulary (although a very conservative grammatical system as plays a role) that Icelanders can still read their ancient literature with little difficulty, while the loss of a great chunk of the Old English vocabulary means the modern English speaker has to learn OE words just as he or she learns the vocabulary of French or German and until he or she does so, the treasure of OE poetry (and to a lesser extent) the prose, is denied him or her.

The situation regarding Old Saxon and modern Low Saxon is rather different and more complex. A Low Saxon speaking contact and friend, and an expert on the language, took a look at a small list of OSax. (mainly) poetic terms I provided him. Even after looking some up in reference sources, the majority of the OSax. terms could not be found even in MLS, let alone modern Low Saxon. A few have surviving cognates in modern German but most appear to be long extinct. What follows is a list of those which survived into MLG or are still found in modern Low Saxon (cognate forms in brackets):

helið "man, hero" (OE hæleð) MLS hel(i)t, ModLS Held, ModG Held 'hero';

lîk(hamo) "body" (OE lîchama, ON lík) MLS lîke, ModLS Liek, ModG Leiche, Leichnam 'corpse', ModDutch lichaam 'body';

liudi "people" (OE lêod, ON ljóð) MLS lût, lüde, ModLS Lüde, Lüüd', Lüe, Löe, ModG Leute, ModDutch lui;

quena "lady" (OE cwên, mod. queen) MLS quêne, ModLS Queen 'female animal';

rink "warrior" (OE rinc, ON rekkr) MLS --, ModLS Reck, ModG Reck(e);

thioda "people, nation" (OE þêod, ON þjóð) MLS dûdesch, ModLS düütsch (< earlier düüd+isch), ModG deutsch;

thionustman "servant, retainer" (ON þjóunstumaðr) MLS dên(e)stman, ModLS Deenstmann, ModG Dienstmann;

thiorna "maid servant" (ON þerna) MLS dêrne, ModLS Deern, Diern 'girl', ModG Dirn(e) 'girl', 'whore';

Some of these have changed in meaning since OSax. times (e.g. quena, thiorna), while others appear to have died out and been reintroduced from High German (e.g. Reck).

The following do not appear to have any analogues in MLS or modern Low Saxon:

aldor "king, lord" (OE ealdor) MLS --, ModLS --, ModG --

barn "child, son" (OE bearn, ON barn) MLS --, ModLS --, ModG

drohtin, druhtin "lord" (OE dryhten, ON dróttinn) MLS --, ModLS --, ModG Truchsess

eldi "men" (OE ieldas, ON aldir) MLS --, ModLS --, ModG --

erl "nobleman" (OE eorl, ON jarl) MLS --, ModLS --, ModG --

firihôs "men" (OE fîras, ON firar) MLS --, ModLS --, ModG --

frôho, frôjo "lord" (OE frêa, ON freyr) MLS --, ModLS --, ModG Freiherr

gumo "man" (OE guma, ON gumi) MLS --, ModLS --, ModG --

hagastald "servant" MLS --, ModLS --, ModG --

magu "son, youth" (OE magu) MLS --, ModLS --, ModG --

segg "man" (OE secg, ON seggr) MLS --, ModLS --, ModG --

skalk "servant" (OE scealc) MLS --, ModLS --, MHG schalk, MDu. skalk

thegan "man, warrior" (OE þegn) MLS --, ModLS --, ModG Degen (poetic)

thiodan "prince, lord" (OE þêoden, ON þjóðann) MLS --, ModLS --, ModG --

thiu "maid" (OE þêowa) MLS --, ModLS --, ModG --

thiwa "female servant" (OE þêowa) MLS --, ModLS --, ModG --

waldand "ruler, lord" (OE wealdand, ON valdandi) MLS --, ModLS --, ModG --

ward "protector" (OE weard, ON vörðr) MLS --, ModLS --, ModG Wärter 'guard'

wer "adult male" (OE wer) MLS --, ModLS --, ModG --

wîso "leader, lord" (OE wîsa, ON vísir) MLS --, ModLS --, ModG --

Explanation of terms generally follows this pattern: word "literal translation, figural meaning".

So in the OE idiom eorla hlêo the literal translation "defender of earls" is given first, followed by the figural meaning "king"; in the ON compound bryngagl, the literal translation "corslet-goose" is given first, followed by the figural meaning "arrow".

Where it has not been possible to translate literally the meaning of a word or compound (as in the case of many of the Óðinsheiti - names for Odin) or the etymology is obscure, the implied or figural meaning only is given.

1) Human Being, Human Body and Society

a) King

ON : dróttinn "chief, king", hildingr "king, chief, prince, hero", konungr "king", kóngr "king", ljóþi "leader of the people, king", þjóðann "leader of the nation, king", fylkir "king, chief", stjóri "ruler, king", valdr "wielder, king, chief", vísir and vísi "leader, king", fólkvörðr "guardian of the people, king", gumna stjóri "ruler of men, king", herkonungr "war-king", bauga deilir "distributor of rings, king", gullmiðlandi "distributor of gold, king", sverða deilir "distributor of swords, king, lord" (also "warrior"), þjóðkongungr "nation's king", gullvörpuðr "distributor of gold, king", dróttnari "ruler, king", hringbroti "river-giver, king" (lit. "breaker of rings"), fólkrekr "chief, ruler", gramr "wroth one, king, lord", sjóli "chief, king", skyli "prince, king", yngvi "king, chief", valdandi "ruler, king", baugbroti "distributor of rings, king" (lit."breaker of rings"), fólkstjóri "commander in battle, king", skjöldungr "king, earl", skilfingr "chief, prince, king", sækonungr "sea-king", þjóðkonungr "king of the nation", konungmaðr "royal man, king", deilir aldar "ruler of men, king, prince".

OE : cyning "king", cyng "king", hêah-cyning "high-king", þêodcyning "king of the nation", folccyning "king of the people", bregoweard "protector of princes, king", frêa "king, lord", healdend "ruler, king", wealdend "wielder, king", rîca "ruler, king", rîcsere "ruler, king", hyrde "shepherd, king, guardian", hlêo "defender, king", helm "protector, king", eodor "king, prince", landfruma "foremost of the nation, king", lêodfruma "foremost of the people, king", folces weard "guardian of the people, king", rîces weard "guardian of the realm, king", ierfeweard "guardian of heritage, king", dryhtenweard "guardian of earls, king", gumena weard "defender of men, king", eorla hlêo "defender of earls, king", folces hierde "shepherd of the people, king", goldgifa "gold-giver, king", goldes brytta "distributor of gold, king", hordweard "guardian of the (gold) hoard, king", bêaga brytta "distributor of rings, king", sinca bealdor "guardian of treasure, king", bealdor "prince, king", lêodcyning "king of the people", gumfrêa "lord of men, king", gûðweard "battle-ward, king".

OS : aldor "king, lord", kuning "king", landes hirdi "shepherd of the nation, king", bôggeðo "ring-giver, king", bôgwini "ring-friend, king", fólkkuning "folk-king", thiod-kuning "folk-king, king of the nation", medgêðo "treasure-giver, king", aðal-kuning "noble king", thiodan "king, prince, lord", landwîsa "lord, king", druhting "lord, leader".



b) Prince

ON : ræsir "chief, prince", þengill "prince", fylkir "prince", hilmir "helm, prince", jaðarr "prince, lord", jöfurr "prince, lord", þjóðar þengill "prince of the nation", konungbarn "king's son, prince", konungssonr "king's son, prince", skyli "prince, king", fólks-jaðarr "prince of the people", skilfingr "chief, prince, king", hildingr "king, chief, , prince, hero", deilir dróttar "ruler of the war-band, prince, chief", deilir aldar "ruler of men, king, prince", konungsefni "kingly material, prince", aldar þundr "Odin of men, prince, chief".

OE : æðeling "noble one, prince", bealdor "prince, lord", þêoden "prince, lord", ræswa "prince, king", brego "prince, lord", fengel "prince", frêareccere "prince", þêodfruma "foremost among the nation, prince, lord", eodor "prince, king".

OS : thiodan "prince, king, lord", mêðomgiðo "treasure-giver, prince", medgêðo "treasure-giver, prince".



c) Lord, Earl, Chief, General/Commander

ON : dróttinn "chief, king", vísir "one who guides, leader", jaðarr " prince, lord ", jöfurr " prince, lord ", herbaldr "war-leader", baugbroti "ring-giver, lord", hringdrifi "giver of rings, lord", fólkrekr "chief, lord", valdsherra "lord, ruler", hringbroti "ring-giver, lord", gullvörpuðr "gold-giver, lord", höfðingi "lord, chief", jarl "earl", gramr "wroth one, king, lord" sjóli "chief, king", yngvi "king, chief", heiðfrömuðr "promoter of wealth, lord", fólkvörðr "folk-ward, lord", hershöfðingi "commander of the army", liðbaldr "lord of the army, chief", hersir "chief, king", herstefnandi and herstefnir "chief, commander of the host", auðskati "governor of the wealth, lord", skjöldungr "earl, lord, king", oddviti "leader, chief", stefnir "ruler", fólkvaldi "ruler of the army, leader", rögnir "ruler", skilfingr "chief, prince, king", deilir dróttar "ruler of the war-band, prince, chief", valdr and valdi "wielder, king, chief", aldar þundr "Odin of men, prince, chief", lávarðr "loaf-ward, lord" (a prose loan from OE hlâford), freyr "lord", herra "lord, master" (a loan from Middle Low German).

OE : dryhten "lord", þêoden "lord, prince", eodor "lord, prince", eorl "earl, nobleman", werodes ealdor "lord of the host", rinca bealdor "ruler of the army", wigena bealdor "ruler of the army", herewîsa "leader in battle, chief", wigena hlêo "defender of warriors, lord", goldwine "gold-friend, lord", bêahgifa "ring-giver, lord", sincgifa "treasure-giver, lord", hlâford "loaf-ward" (i.e. lord), frêa "lord, king", folcfrêa "lord of the people", bealdor "lord", ealdor "lord, prince", hearra "lord", mondryhten "lord of men", hlâfording "lord", frêadryhten "lord", frêawine "lord-friend", hlêodryhten "lord", êþelweard "guardian of the homeland, lord, ruler", landfruma "land-leader, lord", hildefruma "leader in battle, chief", folctoga "leader of the host, chief, lord", hereræswa "battle-lord", wîgfruma "leader in battle, chief", landhlâford "lord of the land", wîsa "leader", heretoga "chief, general", hringafengel "ring-lord", goldwine gumena "gold-friend of men, lord", goldgiefa "gold-giver, lord", hildewîsa "leader of the host, chief", campealdor "lord of the battle, chief", ræswa "prince, lord", frumgâr "commander, lord", gûðcyning "war-king, chief", ealdorwîsa "lord, ruler", fruma "one who is foremost, superlative", winedryht "lord-friend, protector", bêaga brytta "breaker of rings, lord" (i.e. distributor), mægenwîsa "main-leader" (i.e. lord of the host), fierdwîsa "levy-lord, commander", lêodfruma "folk-leader, ruler", sigedryhten "victorious lord", mâðmgifa "giver of treasure, lord", selerædend "hall-ruler, lord", gumdryhten "lord to men, lord", gûðfrêa "war-lord, chief, commander", êadfruma "author of prosperity, lord", êadgifa "giver of wealth, lord".

OS : aldor "lord, king", burgesward "guardian of the borough, nobleman, lord", mêdgeðo "treasure-giver, lord", mêðomgiðo "treasure-giver, lord", thiodan "lord, king, prince", bôgwini "ring-friend, lord", heritogo "leader in battle, lord", mandrohtin "lord", hêrro "lord", frôho, frôjo "lord", drohtin, druhtin "lord", erl "nobleman", wîso "leader, lord", waldand "ruler, lord", ward "protector, lord", folk-togo "leader of the host, lord", thiod-gumo "nobleman, earl", waldo "ruler", hirdi "lord".



d) Queen

ON : dís "goddess, queen", dróttning "queen, princess".

OE : cwên "queen", hlæfdige "lady, queen", frioðuwebbe "weaver of peace, queen".

OS : quena "lady, queen; wife".



e) Man, Mankind, People, Nation

ON : aldir "men", firar "men", fólk "people", gumi "man, adult male", lið "folk, troop, people", mengi "crowd", alda börn "the children of men, human beings", megir Heimdallar "the offspring of Heimdallr, human beings", herrafólk "manfolk", þjóð "nation", ljóð "people", ljóðmegir "men", dróttmegir "people, men", fjörvar "men".

OE : fîras "men", menn "men", weras "menfolk", reordberend "bearer of speech, human being", feorhberend "bearer of life, human being", woroldwûniend "earthly dweller, human", eardbûend "dweller on the earth, human being", foldbûend "dweller on the earth, human being", gumena bearn "the children of men, humans", ielda bearn "the children of men, humans", wera bearn "the children of men, humans", manncynn "mankind", menniscnes "mankind, humanity", þêod "nation", lêod "people", folc "folk, people", eormencynn "earth-kin, mankind", eorðbûend "earth-dweller, human being", sâwolberende "soul-bearer, human being", folcweras "men, people", gumrinc "man", gumþegn "man", gâstberende "soul-bearer, human being", wæpnedman "man, adult male", guma "man, warrior".

OS : eldi "men", firihôs "men", folk "people", mannisk "human being", wer "adult male", eldi barn "the children of men, humans", manno barn "the children of men, humans", gumono barn "the children of men, humans", gumonokunni "mankind, humankind", mannokunni "mankind, humankind", eldêo barn "the children of men, humans", menniskôno barn "the children of men, humans", firihô barn "the children of men, humans", liudi "people", thioda "people, nation", gumo "man, warrior", liud-folk "people, subjects", liudi barn "the children of men, humans", erð-bûandi "dweller on earth, human being, man", thiod "folk, people, nation", folkskepi "people", werod "folk, people, troop, host", heri "people, folk", heriskepi "people, folk", rîki "realm, people".

f) Man, Hero, Warrior - (note the remark made by Portengen:

"De beteekenissen van man, krijgsman en dapper man loopen dikwijls in elkaar en kunnen niet streng geschieden worden." (p.14)).

ON : drengr "brave young man", halr "man", kappi "hero", rekkr "man, warrior", karl "man", karlmaðr "man", seggr "man", gautr, gauti "man" (poetical), jöfurr "boar, warrior", baldriði "brave horseman", berserkr "bear-sark, fearless warrior", gunnhvati "brave in war", geirnjörðr "skillful with the spear", hermaðr "warrior", hermögr "battle-youth, warrior", börr skjaldar "shield-tree, warrior", hildimeiðr "battle-tree, warrior", dólgviðr "battle-tree, warrior", vápna hlynr "weapon-tree, warrior", hróttameiðr "sword-tree, warrior", járnskjöldr "iron-shield, warrior", sverðberari "sword-wielder, warrior", fetrjóðr Hugins "reddener of the claws of Huginn, warrior" (Huginn (literally "thought") was a raven of Odin), gunnvala bræðir "feeder of battle-hawks, warrior", munnrjóðr Hugins "reddener of the bill of Huginn, warrior", úlfs tannlituður "one who reddens the tooth of the wolf, warrior", hrafngrennir "raven-feeder, warrior", kappsmaðr "warrior-hero", geirmimir "spear-Mimir, warrior", geirnjörðr "spear-Njörðr, warrior", orrostamaðr "warrior", stríðsmaðr "warrior", vígamaðr "warrior", hjördrífr "sword-driver, warrior", herbaldr "warrior", dólgrögnir "ruler of the strife, warrior", hjálmstafr "helm-stave" (i.e. one who is capped by a helmet, a warrior), skjöldsveinn "shield-bearer, warrior", liðsmaðr "member of the troop, warrior, man", liði "member of the troop, warrior, man", vallrjóðandi "reddener of the ground, warrior", valtívi "slaughter-god, warrior", hjördrótt "noble sword-bearer, warrior", vígálfr "war-elf, warrior", vígfreyr "lord of battle, warrior", vígfrömuðr "advocate of war, warrior", víghlynr "(maple)tree of battle, warrior", víglundr "battle-tree, warrior", vígmiðlungr "dealer in war, warrior", vígnjörðr "battle-Njörðr, warrior", fólkhagi "one skilful in battle, warrior", herglötuðr "destroyer in war, warrior", hildingr "warrior", dólgs runnr "bush of the battle, warrior", gunn-nárungr "war-man, warrior", gunn-stærandi "advocate of battle, warrior", böðnjörðr "battle-Njörðr, warrior", böðstyrkir "help in battle, warrior", egglitaðr "dyer of edges (i.e. with blood), warrior", sverðrjóðr "reddener of swords, warrior", sverðrögnir "wielder of swords, warrior", sverðfreyr "lord of swords, warrior", geirkundr "son of the spear, warrior", brynjumeiðr "armoured-tree, warrior", brynjálfr "armoured elf, warrior", hjálmdrótt "noble helmet bearer, warrior", hjálmnjótr "user of a helmet, warrior", hjálmrækjandi "helmetted doer or agent, warrior", hjálmþollr "helmet-tree, warrior", skjalda álmr "man of shields, warrior", skjaldhlynr "shield-(maple)tree, warrior", spjóta hlynr "(maple)tree of spears, man, warrior", spjóta njótr "user of spears, man, warrior", spjóta sveigir "bender of spears, man, warrior", úlfgrennir "one who feeds the wolf, man, warrior", hrafnfæðir "feeder of the raven, warrior", sigrviðr "victory-tree, warrior", sigfreyr "victory-lord, warrior", signjörðr "victory-Njörðr, man, warrior", sigreynir "victory-(rowan)tree, man, warrior", sigrunnr "victory-bush, man, warrior", valsæfandi "offerer of slaughter, warrior", hringberandi "ring-bearer, man", hringdrifi "one who wields a sword, man", hringþollr "sword-tree, man", álmr "man", skati "man", sverðabaldr "lord of swords, warrior, man", sverðálfr "sword-elf, man, warrior", sverðgautr "sword-god, warrior, man", brodda rjóðr "reddener of points, warrior".

OE : cempa "warrior", ôretta "warrior", ôretmecg "battle-man, warrior", wîga "warrior", hererinc "battle-warrior", hildemecg "battle-man, warrior", hilderinc "battle-warrior", gûðbeorn "war-hero, man", gûðfreca "wolf of war, warrior", gûðrinc "battle-warrior", gûðwiga "battle-warrior", hæleð "hero", lindhæbbende "shield-bearer, warrior", randhæbbende "shield-bearer, warrior", bordhæbbende "shield-bearer, warrior", searohæbbende "one who wears armour, warrior", helmberende "helmeted one, warrior", æscberende "ash-spear-bearer, warrior", scildfreca "shield-wolf, warrior", sweordfreca "sword-wolf, warrior", wîgfreca "wolf of war, warrior", gûðfreca "wolf of war, warrior", hildfreca "wolf of war, warrior", hildewulf "wolf of war, warrior", herewulf "wolf of war, warrior", heorowulf "wolf of war, warrior", scêotend "one who shoots, shooter of arrows or darts, archer", wæpen and gewæde beran "bear arms and armour", hyrsta beran "bear war-gear", hringnet beran "wear a corslet", scieldas beran "carry shields", gârberende "spear-bearer, warrior", rinc "warrior", wîgend "warrior", byrnwîga "armoured warrior", scyldwîga "shield-warrior", heaþorinc "battle-warrior", heremæcg "war-hero, man", secg "man, warrior", dreng "young man, warrior" (a loan from Old Danish), beorn "man, hero", freca "warrior, hero" (lit. "wolf"), heremann "warrior", beadurinc "battle-warrior", fierdmann "member of the levy", fierdrinc "levy-warrior", folcwîga "warrior of the nation", wîgbora "war-bearer", wîgsmiþ "war-smith", byrnwîgend "armoured warrior", hildstapa "battle-stepper, warrior", beornwîga "man-warrior", lindwîga "lind-wood shield warrior", lindwîgend "lind-wood shield warrior", randwîga "shield-warrior", randwîgend "shield-warrior", gârwîga "spear-warrior", gârwîgend "spear-warrior", æscbora "ash-spear bearer, warrior", æscwîga "ash-spear warrior", þrymma "warrior", wæpnedmann "armed man, male", herewæþa "warrior", herewôsa "warrior", sigecempa "victorious warrior", wîgfruma "warrior", wælwulf "slaughter-wolf, warrior", heoruwearh "sword-wolf, warrior", hildeþrymma "warrior", wæpenwîga "beweaponed warrior", gûðfruma "warrior", gûðmaga "warrior", sweordberende "sword-bearer, warrior", sweordwîgend "sword-warrior", dryhtguma "retainer; warrior", gûðmæcga "warrior".

OS : segg "man", heri-rink "warrior", helmberand "helmet-bearer, warrior", helm-gitrôsteo "one equipped with a helmet, warrior", hildiskalk "warrior", wâpan-berand "weapon-bearer, warrior", swerdthegan "swordsman", gumo "man", thegan "man, warrior", rink "warrior", wîgman "war-man, warrior", wîgand "fighter, warrior", helið "man, hero", gi-trosteo "warrior, Gefolgsmann", swerddrago "sword-bearer, warrior".

g) Army, Troop, Comitatus/Gefolgsmenn

ON : drótt "(royal) body-guard", vígdrótt "war-troop", víglið "war-troop", fólkdrótt "battle-troop", liðsmen "followers, warriors", liðsafli "troops, forces", liðskostr "force", liðsfjöldi "great host", herr "army, troops", herferð "host", herflokkr "war-flock", herfólk "war-host", herlið "war-band", hermegir "war-men, warriors", hernaðar-fólk "forayers", hernaðar-menn "forayers", hjálmdrótt "helmeted troop", dróttmegir "men", fólk "host, army", skírviðir "shield-trees, host of warriors", geir-Niflungar "spear-Nifelungs, warriors, troop", vígdrótt "war-host, warriors".

OE : here "army, foraying force", fierd "levies, army", folc "army, troop", getruma "troop", campwerod "battle-host, army", gûðhere "war-troop", landfierd "national army, levies", fierdwerod "levy-host", herefolc "army", heremægen "army, troop", beaduþrêat "battle-host, army", þêodhere "folk-army", folcmægen "folk-main" (i.e. armed force), þrêat "troop", wîghêap "war-heap, throng of warriors", flocc "troop" (lit. "flock"), werod "host, troop", gedryht "troop of proven warriors", lêodmægen "folk-main" (i.e. armed force), gesîðræden "comitatus-band, troop of followers", gesîðmægen "comitatus-main" (i.e. troop of armed comrades), gârgetruma "spear-troop", eorlmægen "earl-main, troop of noble warriors", eorlwerod "earl-troop", dryht "host of proven warriors, comitatus, troop of retainers", þegnas "thanes, comitatus", werod "comitatus", fletwerod "hall-troop", aþelingas "(troop of) noblemen", heorðgenêatas "hearth-companions, comitatus", healsittende "hall-sitters, comitatus", þêod "folk, men (of the nation)", lêode "folk, people, men", þegnscolu "troop of retainers", herefolc "war-band, troops", hereþrêat "war-host", heorðwerod "hearth-troop", þegnwerod "troop of retainers", fierdgetrum "war-band", æðelduguð "noble troop, retinue", lêodweras "nation's men, men on active service", lindwerod "shield-troop", æschere "ship-army", wælhere "murderous army", dryhtfolc "troop of chosen men", dryhtweras "troop of chosen men", folcgesîðas "companions, members of the royal troop", folcgetrum "folk-troop", gûðþrêat "war-throng", îsenþrêat "armed troop", îsenhere "armed host".

OS : heri "army, troop", heriskepi "host, troop", folk "host, troop, men", gi-trost "comitatus, Gefolgsmenn", megin-folk "main-folk, army, host", werod "proven troop of warriors", druht-folk "host, throng", heru-thrum "sword-troop, army of warriors", megin "throng, host", megin-kraft "throng, host", gi-siðli "host, troop, entourage".

h) Woman, Girl

ON : dís "goddess, maid; princess", fljóð "woman", feima "girl", kona "woman, wife", kván "wife", mær "girl, maiden", víf "wife, woman", genta "girl", menskögul "valkyrie, woman", hörgefn "goddess of the flesh", hringskögul "sword-valkyrie, woman", víngefn "goddess of wine, woman", gulls eik "gold or jewellery of the oak, woman", mjöð-nanna "mead-woman, woman", hringa sól "sun of rings, woman", gulls sól "sun of gold, woman", stúlka "girl, lass", vörð "woman", púsa "woman, wife", freyja "lady".

OE : cwên "queen, woman", mæg "woman, kinswoman", wîf "woman, wife", wîfmann "woman, wife", mâge "kinswoman", mæden "maid, girl", mægþ "maiden, young woman", mægdencild "girl".

OS : quena "lady, woman", wîf "wife, woman", magað "girl, maiden; woman", qûan "wife".

i) Son, Inheritor

ON : arfi "inheritor", arfþegi "inheritor", erfingi "inheritor", erfivörðr "guardian of inheritance, son", barn "child", niðr "son, relative", sonr "son", hefnir "avenger, son", hefnandi "avenger, son", askr ættar "tree of the kin, son, descendant", áttniðjungr "descendant", arfnyti "user of inheritance, son, inheritor", arftakari "taker of inheritance, son", arfvörðr "guardian of inheritance, son", arftökumaðr "taker of an inheritance, inheritor", mögr "son".

OE : bearn "child", eafora "inheritor", magu "son", sunu "son", ierfenuma "inheritance-taker, heir", ierfeweard "guardian of the inheritance, heir".

OS : sunu "son", magu "son, youth", barn "child, son", erðiward "guardian of inheritance, son".

j) Servant, Steward, Retainer, Retainers

ON : hjón "servant", sveinar "servant", bekkrekkr "retainer, steward", þjónn "thrall, servant", þjónanarmaðr "servant", salkona "female servant, slave", þjónustumaðr "servant", þjónustukona "female servant", þjónustumær "serving wench", þjónustusveinn "boy servant", þerna "maid servant", dróttsetti "high-steward", saldrótt "hall-folk, retainers", salþjóð "hall-people, retainers", heimmaðr "home-man, servant", fylgð "retainers, servants, retinue", fylgðarmaðr "retainer", hirðmaðr "member of the household, retainer", hirðmær "maidservant", hirðfólk "retainers", hirð "servants, household staff", þý "bondwoman, female slave", ambátt "serving wench, female retainer".

OE : ðêow "servant, slave", selesceg "hall-man, retainer", scealc "servant", þegn "retainer", þegnhyse "retainer", ðêowling "slave", þêowa "servant, slave", þêowen "female slave", þegnungmann "servant, retainer", geongra "servant", healþegn "hall-retainer", selesecg "hall-steward", seleþegn "chamberlain", magoþegn "young retainer", þêowling "slave", þegnyse "attendant", þegnscipe "retainers", heorðgenêatas "hearth-companions, retainers", heorðcniht "hearth-knight, retainer", heorðcnihtas "retainers", seleweard "hall-ward, steward", dryhtguma "retainer; warrior", hagosteald "servant, youth, warrior", wealh "slave, serf, Welshman", cnapa "servant", ambeht "servant", ambehtmecg "servant, retainer", ambehtscealc "servant, retainer", ambehtþegn "servant, retainer", cniht "retainer, servant", hîred "body of retainers, retinue, household".

OS : thiorna "maid servant", thiu "maid", thiwa "female servant", hagastald "servant", skalk "servant", thionostman "servant, retainer", druhting "retainer, follower", ambahtman "servant".

k) Poet, Singer

ON : skáld "poet, court-poet", skáldmaðr "poet", skáldkona "poetess", skáldfífl "poetaster", skáldmær "poetess", óðflýtir "deliverer of songs, poet", óðmæringr "court-poet".

OE : sangere "singer", scop "poet", glêoman "glee-man, poet, minstel", hleahtorsmið "laughter-smith, poet", wôðbora "song-bearer, poet, minstrel", sangestre "singer", lêoþwyrhta "song-smith, poet".

l) Body

ON : lík "body; corpse", líkamr "body", kroppr "body".

OE : lîc "body", lîchama (cf. Dutch lichaam), bâncofa "bone-chamber, body", bânfæt "bone-vessel, body", bânhûs "bone-house, body", bânloca "bone-fortress, body", gæstes hûs "housing of the spirit, body", sâwolhûs "housing of the soul, body", feorhbold "life-house, body", feorhhûs "life-house, body", lîcfæt "bodily vessel", sâwolhord "soul-hoard, body", bânsele "bone-hall, body", feorhbold "life-dwelling, body".

OS : lík "body, corpse", lîkhamo "body".

m) Breast, Chest, Heart

ON : brjóst "breast", hugborg "stronghold of the heart, chest", óðborg "stronghold of the feeling, chest", hugtún "homestead of the heart, chest", munvangr "plain of the spirit, chest", hyggjustaðr "dwelling of the thoughts, mind", minnisknörr "ship of the memory, chest", minnisvé "house of the memory, chest", viljabyrgi "enclosure of the will, chest", hjarta "heart", móðakarn "mood-acorn, heart", fjörsegi "life-muscle, heart", hugsteinn "stone of consciousness, heart", hús hugar "house of the spirit, heart", jörð hugar "realm of the spirit, heart", geðsteinn "stone of the reason, heart", hnot brjósts "nut of the breast, heart", epli hugar "apple of the spirit, heart", hugarskip "ship of the spirit, heart", hugströnd "shore of the heart, chest", hugar korn "corn of the spirit, heart", móðfjall "mood-hill, breast", geðknör "ship of the reason, breast", geðvangr "plain of the reason, breast", lífs höll "the hall of life, breast", fjörbraut "life-road, breast", fjörrann "the hall of life, breast".

OE : brêost "breast", hreðer "heart", gewitloca "locker of the mind, heart", ferhðloca "spirit-enclosure, chest", rûncofa "coffer of secrets, heart, mind", feorhhord "treasury of life, soul", heorte "heart", môd "heart", sefa "heart, mind", môdgeþonc "heart, mind", môdsefa "heart", feorhloca "life-locker, breast", gâstcofa "coffer of the spirit, breast", brêostcofa "coffer of the breast, heart", brêosthord "treasury of the breast, heart".

OS : briost "breast, chest", briosthugi "heart, mind", herta "heart", seðo "heart, mind", môd "heart, mind", môdgithâht "thought, heart", môdseðo "heart, mind".

n) Arm

ON : armr "arm", öln "forearm", ermvangr "the sleeve's plain, forearm", viðr axla "tree of the shoulders, arm", baugvangr "plain of armlets, forearm", handleggr "leg of the hand, arm", hönd "arm and hand".

OE : earm "arm".

OS : arm "arm".

o) Head

ON : höfuð "head", herða klettr "rock of the shoulders, head", hjálmstofn "helmet-stem, head", borg heila "stronghold of the brain, skull", land hárs "land of the hair, head", brávöllr "plain of the brow, forehead", hjálmsetr "the helmet's residence, head".

OE : hafela "head", heafod "head".

OS : hôðid "head".

p) Ear(s), Mouth, Teeth, Tounge

ON : eyru "ears", hlertjöld "tents of listening, ears", hlust "ear", heyrnar skjöldr "shield of hearing, ear", munnr "mouth", hús tungu "house of the tongue, mouth", skip orða "ship of words, mouth", orðhof "temple of words, mouth", röddklief "cliff of the voice, mouth", bragartún "homestead of poetry, mouth", tönn "tooth", sker munns "skerries of the mouth, teeth", grjót munns "stones of the mouth, teeth", tunga "tounge", málþorn "thorn of speech, tongue", óðar ár "river of poems, tongue".

OE : êaran "ears"; mûð "mouth", têð "teeth", tunge "tongue".

OS : mûð "mouth", tunga "tongue", ôra "ear".

q) Beard

ON : skegg "beard", kinnskógr "forest of the cheeks, beard".

OE : beard "beard".

r) Eye, Eyes

ON : auga "eye", ennimáni "moon of the forehead, eye", ennitungl "luminary of the forehead, eye", brámáni "moon of the brow, eye", brátungl "moon of the brow, eye", ljós brá "light of the brow, eye", hvarma skjöldr "shield of the eyelids, eye",

OE : êage "eye", hêafodgim "gem of the head, eye", hêofodes sigel "sun of the head, eye", heafodsîen "head-vision, eye".

OS : ôga "eye".

s) Tears

ON : tár "tear", harmdögg "dew of sorrow", brádögg "dew of the brow", kinna él "rain of the cheeks", augna él "rain of the eyes", bráregn "rain of the brow", dropar augna "drops of the eyes".

OE : têar "tear", hlêordropa "drop of the cheeks, tear", wægdropa "wave-drop, tear", wôpdropa "lamentation-drop, tear", wôpeshring "ring of weeping, tear".

2) Objects and Abstract

a) Fire

ON : eldr "fire", funi "flame", fúrr "fire", logi "flame", freki "the greedy one, fire", hripuðr "the quick, fire", forbrennir "burner", herr alls viðar "lord of all wood, fire", lindar bani "lind-wood's bane, fire", sviga lævi "destroyer of boughs, fire", aldrnari "preserver of life, fire", fasti "fire", hyrr "fire", geiri "fire", foldar vargr "wolf of the earth, fire", ægis bróðir "brother of Ægir, fire".

OE : bæl "fire, pyre", brond "fire", bryne "fire", fýr "fire, flame", lîg "flame", lîgbryne "fire", lîgfýr "fire, flame", æled "fire".

OS : fiur "fire", lôgna "flame", êld "fire".

b) Riches, Gold, Treasure, Silver

ON : auðr "riches", auðigleikar "riches, treasures", auglegð "riches, wealth", eyrir "coinage", eign "property", fé "money, property", gull "gold", gullauðr "riches in gold", hnoss "valuable", hodd "treasure", meiðmar "treasure", aurglasir "sheen of water, gold treasure", lindar logi "spring of flame, gold treasure", Rínar málmr "metal of the Rhine, gold", ormbeðr "dragon's bed, gold-hoard", eldr ormbeðs "fiery bed of the dragon, gold-hoard", linnvengi "serpent's plain, gold", haddr Sifjar "Sif's hair, silver", Fáfnis dýna "Fáfnir's bed, silver", silfr "silver", fönn arms "snow of the arm, silver bracelet", auð-æfi "riches", liðfasti "fire of the hall-thanes, gold", liðbál "fire of the hall-thanes, gold", liðbrandr "firebrand of the hall-thanes, gold", ormbekkr "bench of the dragon, gold-hoard", ormból "couch of the dragon, gold-hoard", ormland "land of the dragon, gold-hoard", ormreitr "domain of the dragon, gold-hoard", ormsetr "residence of the dragon, gold-hoard", ormtorg "square of the dragon, gold-hoard", ormvangr "the dragon's plain, gold-hoard", ægis sól "the sun of Ægir, gold", ægis bál "the fire of Ægir, gold", ægis máni "the moon of Ægir, gold", jötna-mál "inlaid ornaments of the giants, gold", jötna-rómr "voice of the giants, gold", jötna-söngr "lay of the giants, gold", hafljómi "gleam of the ocean, gold", haflogi "flame of the ocean, gold", hafröðull "radiance of the ocean, gold", ríkdómr "riches", freyju tör "tears of Freya, gold".

OE : gestrêon "treasure", goldhord "gold-hoard", mâðm "treasure", frætwa "costly things", mâðmæht "precious thing, treasure", mâðmhord "treasure-hoard", mâðmgestrêon "treasure", mâðmwela "treasure, riches", sinc "treasure", sincmâðm "treasure", sincgestrêon "treasure", goldmâðm "gold-hoard", firngestrêon "ancient treasure", wyrmhord "treasure guarded by a dragon", eorlgestrêon "noble treasure", dryhtgestrêon "noble treasure", dryhtmâðm "noble treasure", folcgestrêon "public treasure", bêaghord "ring-hoard, treasure", goldæht "wealth in gold, riches", goldfrætwe "gold ornaments", gold "gold", hordmâðm "treasure hoard", hordgestrêon "hoard of treasure", êad "wealth", êadwela "riches, wealth", æhtgestrêon "riches, treasure", æhtwela "wealth", wela "wealth, riches, prosperity", hord "treasure-hoard".

OS : sink "treasure", mêðom "treasure", mêðomhord "treasure hoard", fratah "treasure, valuable things", goldwelo "wealth in gold", siluðar "silver", fehu-skatt "gold, treasure", siluðarskat "silver coin", gold "gold", hord "hoard, treasure", welo "wealth, riches".

c) House, Hall

ON : bú "farm, homestead", hús "house", salr "hall", höll "hall", rann "large house, hall", mjöðrann "mead-hall".

OE : flôr "hall, court", heall "hall", reced "hall", sele "hall", ærn "hall, large house", heallærn "hall", heallreced "hall", hâm "home", hûs "house", meduærn "mead-hall", meduheall "mead-hall", bêorsele "beer-hall", mâðmsele "treasure-hall", healreced "splendid hall, palace", wînærn "wine-hall", dryhtsele "noble hall", hringsele "ring-hall, hall where rings are distributed", bêagsele "ring-hall, hall where rings are distributed", goldsele "gold-hall", gûðsele "war-hall, hall of warriors", hordærn "treasure-hall", flet "hall, house, dwelling", hof "dwelling, house, farm", eardwîc "dwelling".

OS : halla "hall", rukud "dwelling, hall; temple", seli "hall", hêm "home, house", hûs "house", tresur-hûs "treasure hall, treasury", seliða "dwelling, house", seli-hûs "dwelling, house annexed to a hall", flett "house, room", hof "farm, dwelling; courtyard", gard "dwelling, house".

d) Bench :

ON : bekkr "bench", sessmeiðr "sitting-beam, bench".

OE : benc "bench", scamol "bench", medubenc "mead-bench", medusetl "mead-bench", bêorsetl "beer-bench", ealobenc "ale-bench".

OS : bank "bench".

e) Ale, Beer, Mead

ON : öl "ale", öldr "ale", bjór "beer", hreinlögr "the pure liquid, ale", kerstraumr "stream of the goblet, ale", mjöð "mead", vín "wine".

OE : ealu "ale", eoloð "ale", bêor "beer", medu "mead", medudrinc "mead", wîn "wine".

OS : alo "ale", medu "mead", wîn "wine".

f) Gallows

ON : galgi "gallows", vargtré "thief's tree, gallows", galgtré "gallows-tree", Sigars jór "Sigar's horse, gallows", meiðr "tree, beam", gálgviðr "gallows-tree", hörva Sleipnir "the bowstrings of Sleipnir".

OE : gealga "gallows", gealgatrêow "gallows-tree".

OS : galgo "gallows".

g) Carrion, the Slain, Corpses

ON : hræ "carrion", beita úlfs "wolf-bait, carrion", krásir úlfs "wolf-delicacies, carrion", barr úlfa "food of wolves, carrion", hugins barr "raven's food, carrion", valr "the slain", lík "corpse", nár "corpse".

OE : æs "carrion", hræw "carrion, the slain", wæl "the slain", wælsleaht "slaughter, corpses", lîc "corpse, body".

OS : hrêo "corpse", wal "the slain, corpses".

h) Sickness, Disease

ON : sótt "sickness", aldrtregi "life-long sorrow, sickness", sjúkleiki "sickness, illness", sjúkdómr "sickness, illness", sjúknaðr "sickness, disease".

OE : sêocness "sickness", leger "illness, disease", âdl "disease", broc "disease", brocung "disease", unhælu "un-hale, ill-health", suht "illness".

OS : legar "illness, sickness", suht "illness".

i) Sleep, Dreaming

ON : svefn "sleep", draumþing "assembly of dreams, sleep", svefnfarir "sleep-journey, dream(ing)", draumr "dream".

OE : ræst "rest", slæp "sleep", slûma "slumber", sweofot "sleep", swefn "dream", mæting "dream".

OS : sweðan "dream", slâp "sleep", resta "rest".

j) Night, Darkness, Dusk

ON : nótt "night", njól "darkness", gríma "night", óljós "un-light", svefngaman "dream-joy", draumnjörun "dream-weaver".

OE : niht "night", dimnes "night, darkness", genip "darkness", heolstor "darkness, concealment", heolstorsceado "the shadow of darkness, night", ðêostru "darkness", nihthelm "shades of night, cover of darkness", nihtglôm "darkness of night", deorcnes "darkness".

OS : naht "night", thiustru "darkness".

k) Grave

ON : kumbl "grave-mounument", gröf "grave", haugr "burial-mound", gröftr "grave, tomb".

OE : græf "gave", hlæw "mound", foldærn "earth-chamber, tomb", êorðgrâp "earth-grip", heolstorcofa "chest of darkness, grave", hrûsan heolstor "house of darkness, grave", grêotes fæðm "in the grasp of earth", sandhof "sand-dwelling, grave", dêaðreced "death-hall, tomb, grave", moldstôw "earth-place, grave", moldærn "earth-hall, grave", moldgræf "earth-grave", foldgræf "earth-hall, grave", byrgen "tomb, grave".

OS : graf "grave", hlêo "burial-mound", erðgraf "earth-grave", stên-graf "grave in a cliffside".

l) Death, (the) Dead, Die, Kill

ON : dauði "death", aldrlag "life's-end, death", aldrlok "life's end, death", aldrtili "loss of life, death", fjörlag "life's end, death", andlát "cessation of breathing, death", bana "slay", deyða "kill", drepa "kill", slá "kill, slay, strike", vega "kill", nema aldri "deprive of life, kill", nema fjörvi "deprive of life, kill", rjóða sverð "redden one's sword, kill", rjóða mæki "redden one's sword, kill", rjóða járn "redden one's iron (i.e. weapon), kill", deyja "die", svelta "die", andask "breathe one's last, die", sofa "sleep, die", ganga til heljar "go to Hel, die", helveg troða "tread the path to Hel, die", til moldar hníga "sink to the earth, die", leggja aldr "give up one's life, die", lúka aldri "bring one's life to an end, die", hverfa af lífi "vanish from life, die", verða nár "become a corpse, die", fjörlöstr "life-fault, death", fjörbann "life-divorce, death", banadagr "death-day", aldrslit "life-breach, death", dauðstund "hour of death", bani "death, bane", dauðdagr "day of one's death", aldrlauss "life-less, dead", fjörlöt "hindering of life, death", fjörrán "robbery of life, death", fjörspell "life-flaw, harm to life, death".

OE : dêað "death", cwealm "death", swylt "death", forðsîð "journey forth, death", forðweg "journey forth, death", hingang "departure, death", feorhgedâl "separation from life, death", lîfgedâl "separation from life, death", ealdorgedâl "separation from life, death", feorhbealu "life-injury, death", ealdorbealu "life-injury, death", cwalu "death", forðfôr "departure, journeying forth", unlîf "un-life", swyltcwalu "violent death", swyltdêaþ "death", morþ "death, murder", gâstgedâl "separation from spirit, death", sweltan "die", cwelan "die", gewîtan "depart", heonan gangan "go from hence, die", worold ofgifan "leave the world, die", lîf oflætan "depart from life, die", feorh âlecgan "give up one's life, die", feorh gesellan "give up one's spirit, die", sâwolgedâl "separation from spirit, death", wælcwealm "violent death", wældêaþ "violent death", gûðdêaþ "death in battle", nîðcwealm "violent death, murderous end", dêaþcwalu "slaughter, death", dêaþgedâl "death, passing away", feorhcwalu "quelling of life, death", feorh aletan "give up one's life, die", heonongang "going hence, death", nîedfaru "enforced journey, death", diegan "die".

OS : dôð "death", forðweg "journey forth, death", forðgang "journey forth, death", hinfard "journey hence, death", aslâpan "sleep" (i.e. pass away), ferah farlâtan "give up one's life, die", lîf ageban "give up one's life, die", hinan hwerban "go hence, die", faran "travel, depart", dag endion "end the day(s), die", thit lioht afgeban "renounce the light, die", orlag-hwîla "fated hour, time of death", quelan "suffer a violent death, die", quellian "kill", quelmian "kill", slahan "kill, slay", wal-dôð "murder, violent death", bano "murder, violent killing", ferah-quala "violent death", dôd "dead", dôdan dôn "kill, slay", sweltan "die, perish", dôian "die", qualm "violent death, murder", wîtnon "punish, kill".

m) (to) Travel, Go, Depart

ON : ganga "walk, go", líða "travel, glide", fara "go, fare", stefna "to travel in a certain direction".

OE : gangan "walk, go", gewîtan "depart", lîðan "travel", faran "fare", fêran "fare", steppan "step, tread", gehweorfan "go, depart; turn", sîðian "travel, depart", wadan "wade, step", wendan "turn, go".

OS : gangan "walk, go", giwîtan "depart", lîðan "travel", faran "fare, go", stapan "step, tread", sîðon "go", hwerðian "walk, go; turn", wendian "turn".

n) (to) Speak

ON : segja "say, speak", kveða "say, speak", mæla "speak, say", tala "speak, talk", ræða "speak".

OE : cweþan "say", sprecan "speak", secgan "say", reordian "use one's voice, speak", maþelian "make a sound, make a speech, utter words", giddian "utter words", wordhord onlûcan "unlock one's store of words, speak", lætan word ûtfaran "express in words", wordlocan onspannan "open up one's word-hoard, speak", gemælan "speak".

OS : sprekan "speak", seggian "say", queðan "speak, say", queddian "speak to, address", mahlian "speak, talk".

3) Weapons and Warfare

a) War, Strife, Battle

ON : böð "battle", hildr "battle", orrosta "battle", róma "battle", stríð "strife, war", víg "war", naddél "shower of arrows", eggleikr "edge-play, battle", hjörleikr "sword-play, battle", hjörþing "assembly of swords, battle", brynþing "assembly of mailshirts, battle", dólga dynr "clash of hostilities, battle", Hugins jól "feast of Huginn (one of Odin's ravens), battle", Freys leikr "the sport of Frey, battle", sverðleikr or sverðaleikr "sword-play, battle", gunnr "war", orrostaslag "battle", hjörgráð "sword-greed, battle", hildarleikar "war-playing, battle", fólkbardagi "folk-battle, great battle", fólkorrosta "large battle", geirþruful "spear-fumbling, battle", höð "war, strife", geirahöð "spear-strife, war", valstefna "slaughter-meeting, battle", hjörstefna "meeting of swords, battle", geirþriful "war" (a valkyrie name), skögul "war, battle" (a valkyrie name), sköglar verk "work of the valkyries, war", sköglar söngur "lay of the valkyries, battle", valfasta veðr "wind of swords, battle", vígafar "war-journey, strife", fólk "battle" (in kennings especially), fólkvíg "great battle", vápnabrak "clash of arms, battle", vápnamót "meeting of weapons, battle", vápnastefna "meeting of weapons, battle", vápnaþing "assembly of weapons, battle", vápnasamankváma "meeting of weapons, battle", vápnasöngr "lay of clashing arms, battle", dólg "direful emnity, war", valþing "slaughter-meeting, battle", hjördynr "clash of swords, battle", hjördrífa "clattering of swords, battle", hjörgaldr "the singing of swords, battle", hjörgöll "clashing of edges, battle", hjörrödd "voice of swords" (i.e. the sound of battle), hjörþeyr "sword-gust, storm of swords, battle", hjörþrá "sword-defiance, opposition with swords, battle", vígþeyr "slaying-gust, storm of slaughter, battle", hringskúr "shower of swords, battle", herstefna "war-assembly, battle", hervíg "battle", vápneiðr "weapon-protection (lit. "cursing"), battle", vápnglymr "clatter of arms, battle", vápnhríð "storm of arms, battle", vápnþrima "clash of arms, battle", vápnþruma "thunderous clashing of arms, battle", járnleikr "iron-play, battle", járnrödd "iron-voice, the ringing out of iron weapons, battle", járnsveimr "iron-tumult, the clash of iron weapons, battle", gunnél "war-shower, the raining down of missiles in battle", gunnþing "war-assembly, battle", Óðins veðr "Odin's weather, battle", egghríð "storm of edges, battle", eggmót "meeting of edges, battle", eggroð "reddener of edges, battle", eggtog "the pulling of edges, battle", eggþing "meeting of edges, battle", sverðél or sverðaél "sword-shower, battle", sverðahríð "sword-storm, battle", sverðaþröng "throng of swords, battle", sverðdynr "the din of swords, battle", sverðregn "sword-rain, the raining down of edges", sverðtog "the pulling of swords, battle", sverðþing "meeting of swords, battle", geirhríð "storm of spears, battle", geirleikr "spear-play, battle", geirveðr "spear-weather, battle", geirþeyr "spear-gust, storm of spears, battle", geirþing "assembly of spears, battle", hjálmdrifa "bearer of a helmet, warrior", hjálmrödd "voice of helmets, battle", hjálmþruma "thunderous clashing of helmets, battle", skjaldar él "storm of shields, battle", skjaldar gnýr "clashing of shields, battle", skjaldbrak "crash of shields, battle", skjaldveðr "shield-weather, battle", benregn "wound-rain" or "rain of weapons, battle", benrögn "wound-rain" or "rain of weapons, battle", spjóta jag "harping on spears, battle", spjóta dynr "din of spears, battle", jara "battle", fólkjara "great battle", sig "battle", sigrleikr "victory-play, battle", styrjöld "war", bardagi "battle", Jalfaðs él "snowstorm of Odin, battle".

OE : gûð "war", hild "war", wîg "war", gewinn "strife", geslieht "slaying", gefeoht "battle", camp "war", nîð "hostility", beado "war", orlege "war", ecgplega "edge-play, battle", æscplega "spear-play, battle", ecga gelâc "sword-play, battle", sweordplega "sword-play, battle", sweorda gelâc "sword-play, battle", lindplega "shield-play, battle", wæpenþracu "clashing of arms, battle", æscþracu "clashing of spear-shafts, battle", handgemôt "hand-to-hand engagement", wælræs "rush of slaughter", cumbolgehnâst "crash of banners, battle", wæpngewrîxl "exchange of weapons, battle", borda gebræc "clashing of shields, battle", billa brôga "terror of swords", ecghete "edge-hate, war", heaþowigræden "war", lâc "battle", wîgræden "war", gûðplega "war-play, battle", gûðgewinn "war-strife, battle", beadulâc "battle-play", wîgplega "war-play, battle", gârgewinn "spear-strife, battle", wîgþracu "war-violence, battle", ôret "war", hildeþracu "battle-violence", heaþolâc "war-play, battle", campwîg "war", secgplega "warrior-play, battle", ecgþracu "clashing of swords, battle", gârræs "flurry of spears, spear-rush", lêodgewinn "folk-strife", wîgbealo "war", wælnîþ "violence, war", lindgelâc "shield-play, battle", beaduræs "onslaught, rush of battle", campræden "war, state of war", wælnîð "murderous emnity, edge-hatred", folcgewinn "great strife, national strife", hilderæs "onslaught, rush of battle", hildescûr "shower of missiles", wæpengewrixle "exchange of weapons, engagement", wæpenhete "weapon-hate, war", wæpenþracu "clashing of weapons, engagement", gûðgemôt "war-meeting, battle", gûðþracu "violence, clashing in battle", gûðræs "onslaught, rush of battle", bilhete "sword-hate, war", bilgeslyht "sword-slaughter", secgplega "sword-play, battle", nîðplega "playing out of hostilities, battle", ecgwæl "edge-slaughter, battle", sweordlêoma "flashing of swords, battle", sweordræs "sword-rush, onslaught, battle", gârcwealm "spear-slaughter", gârnîð "spear-emnity, battle", gârþracu "clashing of spears, battle", scyldhete "shield-hate, battle".

OS : fehta "war, strife", hild "war", orlag "war", strîd "strife, war", urlagi "war", wîg "war", giwin "strife", gûth "war", wâpno spil "weapon-play, battle", wâpno nîð "emnity of weapons", gêrheti "spear-hate, war", wîgsaka "strife, emnity", nîð-skepi "emnity, strife", hildia "battle", gûðia "battle, war", nîð "emnity".

b) War-gear, Armour, Mailshirt, Helmet

ON : brynja "mailshirt", hringskyrta "ring-shirt", böðserkr "war-shirt, corslet", hringserkr "ring-shirt, corslet", hjálmr "helmet", jöfurr "boar (hemlet)", hildigöltr "war-boar, boar-helmet", hildisvín "boar-helmet", fjörnir "life-defender, helmet", herbúnaðr "war-gear", herklæðnaðr "battle-dress, corslet", herfæri "war-gear", herskapsbúnaðr "war-gear", blóðísungr "blood head-cloth, helmet", valhrímnir "slaughter-boar, boar-helmet", valgöltr "slaughter-boar, boar-helmet", fólkvápn "arms, weapons", herneskja "armour", herskaparfæri "implement of war, weapon", herklæði "battle-dress, armour", hervápn "arms, weapons", vápnföt "weapon-garb, armour", vápnabúnaðr "war-gear, arms", brynstakkr "mailshirt", hringa-brynja "ring-mail shirt", hildigríma "battle-mask, helmet", böðkufl "battle-cowl, corslet", sigtól "implement of war, weapon", hervoð "battle-cloth, mailshirt".

OE : wîggetâwe "war-gear", heregeatu "war-gear", gûðsearo "battle-armour", gûðgetâma "war-gear", gûðgeatwe "war-gear, armour", fierdgeatwe "levy-gear, arms", byrne "mailshirt", sierce "sark, mailshirt", searo "armour", herepâd "war-cloak, corslet", heresceorp "war-dress, armour", herewæde "war-dress, armour", beaduhrægl "war-dress, corslet", beaduscrûd "war-shroud, corslet", fierdhrægl "levy-dress, corslet", heaðowæde "battle-dress, corslet", hêaðorêaf "battle-dress, armour", hildegeatwe "war-gear", herenett "mailshirt", hringnett "mailshirt", brêostnet "mailshirt", brêostgewæde "corslet", hringloca "mailshirt", rêaf "armour", heresierce "war-sark, corslet", heaþobyrne "war-corslet", gûðbyrne "war-corslet", gûðrêað "battle-armour", herebyrne "war-corselt", byrnhâm "mailshirt home", îrenbyrne "iron mailshirt", fierdsearo "levy-armour", beadusearo "battle-armour", helm "helmet", beadugrîma "battle-mask, helmet", heregrîma "battle-mask, helmet", wîgheafola "war-head, helmet", gûðhelm "battle-helmet", grîma "mask, helmet", heaþohelm "battle-helmet", grîmhelm "visored helmet", heafodsegn "head-banner, helmet", heafodborg "head-protection, helmet", fierdhâm "corslet", fierdsceorp "levy-dress, armour", wîghyrsta "war-gear", beadusierce "battle-sark, corslet", beaduwæpen "arm, weapon, implement of war", campwæpen "arm, weapon, implement of war", heoru sierce "sword-sark, corslet", hildesierce "battle-sark, corslet", hildesceorp "battle-dress, armour", gûðgewæde "war-gear, armour", gûðscrûd "battle-shroud, corslet", îsenbyrne "steel corslet", hildewæpen "arm, weapon, implement of war", heorusceorp "sword-dress, armour, corslet".

OS : helm "helmet", grîmo "mask, helmet", sarrok "wound-shirt, corslet", giwâpni "war-gear".

c) Shield

ON : skjöldr "shield", lind "lind-wood shield", rönd "roundel, shield", gunnborð "war-board, shield", geirvangr "spear-plain, shield", land fleina "plain of spears, shield", geirnet "spear-net, shield", hlébarðr "shelter-rim, shield", hlíf "protection, cover, shield", skögulborð "war-board, shield", herskjöldr "war-shield", valgrind "slaughter-fence, shield", valbrik "slaughter-board, shield", vígbölkr "war-baulk, shield", víggarðr "war-fence, shield", vígský "war-cloud, shield", vígtjald "war-tent, shield", fólkstafn "battle-stem, shield", fólkstjald "tent of battle, shield", hringa Ullar "rings of Ull", hergarðr "war-fence, shield", gunnhörgr "battle-cairn, shield", gunnmáni "battle-moon, shield", hræmáni "carrion-moon, shield", hræstorð "carrion-wood, shield", böðmáni "battle-moon, shield", böðský "battle-cloud, shield", geirbrik "spear-board, shield", geirfit "spear-paddle, shield", borði "shield", víga ský "cloud of battles, shield", hildar ský "cloud of battles, shield", oddský "spear-cloud, shield", sigmáni "victory-moon, shield", sigrborð "victory-board, shield", hjörvangr "plain of swords, shield", hjörþilja "sword-plank, shield", skír "shield".

OE : scield "shield", lind "lind-wood shield", bord "board, shield", rand "roundel, shield", heaþolind "war lind-wood, shield", hilderand "battle-roundel, shield", bânhelm "bone-protector, shield", hildefrôfor "war-comfort, shield", lindwudu "lind-wood, shield", bordwudu "board-wood, shield", hildebord "battle-board, shield", campwudu "battle-wood, shield", gûðbord "war-board, shield", wîgbord "war-board, shield", bordrand "roundel-board, shield".

OS : skild "shield", bord "shield".

d) Sword, Spear, Axe, Arrow

ON : hjörr "sword", mækir "sword", sverð "sword", narr "sword", logi "sword" (lit. "flame"), naðr "adder, snake" (i.e. sword), brimir "sword", unnr "sword" (lit. "wave"), egg "edge, sword", benlogi "wound-flame, sword", blóðormr "blood-snake, sword", sárvöndr "wand of wounds, sword", rógþorn "war-thorn, sword", beneldr "wound-flame, sword", sáreldr "wound-flame, sword", dverga smíði "work of the dwarves, sword", skíðijárn "sheath-iron, sword", valteinn "slaughter-stick, sword", gunnlogi "flame of war, sword", beneldi "wound-flame, sword", benstörr "wound-sedge, sword", benvöndr "wound-wand, sword", hirðir "that which goes hard, sword", dólgár "war-oar, sword or spear", hræ-frakki "carrion-point, sword", vitnir "wolf, sword", geirr "spear", spjót "spear", frakka "spear", darr "spear, dart", darraðr "spear, dart", askr "ash-spear", sáraþorn "wound-thorn, spear", bengeirr "wound-spear", naddr "point, spear", sváf "spear", sax-knífr "dagger", valfasti "fire of slaughter, sword", vígvölr "battle-stick, sword or spear", herör "war-arrow", brynju-bítr "mail-biter, sword", bryn-knífr "mail-knife, dagger", valnaðr "slaughter-adder, sword", valskóð "weapon of slaughter, sword", blóðís "freezer or congealer of the blood, sword", blóðvöndr "blood-wand, sword", vígeldr "flame of war, sword", vígleiftr "flash of battle, sword", vígnaðr "war-adder, sword", þrimarr "sword", hildarvöndr "wand of battle, sword", dólglímr "battle-limb, sword", járnsveins hyrr "sword", gunnblik "gleam of battle, sword", gunneldr "flame of battle, sword", gunnsproti "war-stick, spear", hrægagarr "dog of carrion, sword, spear", hrækyndill "candle of carrion, sword, spear", hræleiftr "torch of carrion, sword, spear", hrælinnr "serpent of carrion, sword, spear", hrænaðr "adder of carrion, sword, spear", hræskóð "weapon of carrion, sword, spear", fjörsváfnir "that which puts life to sleep, sword", brynglóð "corslet-embers, sword", brynja vöndr "wand of mailshirts, sword", hjálmangr "distress of helmets, sword", hjálmeldr "helm-fire, sword", hjálmgrand "harm of helmets, sword", hjálmröðull "helmet-sun, sword" (meaning appears to be obscure), hjálmsproti "helm-stick, sword", skjaldar leygr "flame of shields, sword", skjaldreyr "shield-snake, that which burrows into shields, sword", benlinnr "wound-serpent, sword", benmáni "wound-moon (i.e. that which gleams and wounds?), sword", bensól "wound-sun, sword", benteinn "wound-stick, sword", sárþísl "wound cart-pole, sword, spear", sárís "freezer or congealer of wound blood, sword", sárklungr "wound-bramble, sword", sárlax "wound-salmon, sword", sárlímr "wound-limb, sword", sárlogi "wound-flame, sword", sárteinn "wound-stick, sword", sárviti "wound-beacon, sword", undavöndr "wand of wounds, sword", undfleinn "wound-shaft, sword", undglóð "wound-embers, sword", undleggr "wound-leg, sword", undlímr "wound-limb, sword", undskíð "wound-ski, sword", dólgrá "battle-oar, spear", brynflagð "ogress of the mailshirt, battle-axe", bryngagl "corslet-goose, arrow", bensíld "wound-herring, spear, arrow", bengríðr "giantess of wounding, battle-axe", sárgagl "wound-goose, arrow, spear", undvargr "wound-wolf, battle-axe", vigr "spear", ör "arrow", spjör "spear", barða "axe", fleinn "arrow, dart", vígglóðr "axe", skjaldlinnr "shield-snake, that which burrows into shields, sword", veigarr "sword".

OE : sweord "sword", bill "sword", heoro "sword", mêce "sword", ecg "edge, sword", îren "iron, sword", lâf hamera "the legacy of hammers, sword", lâf fêla "the legacy of files, sword", handweorc smiða "work of smiths, sword", beadulêoma "light of war, sword", hildelêoma "light of war, sword", gûðwine "war-friend, sword", hildebill "battle-sword", beadumêce "war-sword", gûðbill "war-sword", gûðsweord "war-sword", wîgbill "war-sword", secg "sword", gâr "spear", spere "spear", daroð "spear, dart", pîl "spear, javelin", flân "spear, dart", stræl "arrow", ord "point, spear", æsc "ash-spear", æscholt "ash-wood spear", heresceaft "war-shaft, spear", wælsceaft "slaughter-shaft, spear", wælsteng "slaughter-stick, spear", gûðwudu "war-wood, spear, javelin", campwudu "war-wood, spear", hildenædre "war-snake, arrow", franca "javelin", wîgspere "battle-spear", wælspere "slaughter-spear", mægenwudu "wood of might, spear", wælgâr "slaughter-spear", wîggâr "war-spear", gârholt "spear", gârwudu "spear", wælseax "deadly dagger", wælpîl "deadly arrow", hildemêce "war-sword", hildepîl "battle-arrow", gûðflân "battle-spear, javelin, arrow", bangâr "bane-spear, deadly shaft", earh and earg "arrow".

OS : swerd "sword", bil "sword", mâki "sword", eggja "edge, sword", îsarn "iron, sword", gêr "spear", skaft "shaft, spear", heru- "sword" (in compounds).

e) Wound, Blood

ON : ben "wound", sár "sore", und "wound", dólgspor "war-mark, wound", blóð "blood", dreyri "gore", hlaut "blood", roðra "the red, blood", sveiti "sweat, blood", valdögg "corpse-dew, blood", sárdropi "wound-drop, blood", fleina flóð "arrows' flood, blood", mækis straumr "stream of the sword, blood", mækis á "river of the sword, blood", hræsær "corpse-sea, blood", Hugins vörr "sea of Huginn, blood", Hugins drekka "drink of Huginn, blood", oddlá "spear-water, blood", hjörlögr "sword-water, blood", valblöð "blood of the slain", blóðdrif "flowing of blood", blóðfors "gush of blood" (fors = "waterfall"), blóðbogi "gush of blood", vápnabit "the bite of weapons, wound", vápnastaðr "weapon-mark, wound", banasár "fatal wound", sárlögr "wound-water, blood", dauðdreyri "deadly wounding, gore", valbjór "slaughter-beer, blood", valdreyri "gore of the slain", hjörregn "sword-rain, blood", vápnboði "billow of weapons, blood", vápndögg "weapon-dew, blood", vápnröst "weapon-stream, blood", hrædögg "corpse-dew, blood", hræflóð "corpse-flood, blood", hrælækr "corpse-brook, blood", eggjaspor "mark of edges, wound", benfoss "wound-waterfall, blood", bensnær "wound-snow, blood", benjalögr "water of wounds, blood", sárflóð "wound-flood, blood", undasveiti "sweat of wounds, blood", undbára "wound-wave, blood", undlögr "wound-water, blood", úlfvín "wine of wolves, blood", hrafnvín "wine of ravens, blood".

OE : benn "wound", dolh "wound", wund "wound", sâr "sore, wound", bilswaðu "sword-mark, wound", sweordes bite "sword-bite, wound", billes bite "sword-bite, wound", wælbenn "dire wound", blôd "blood", drêor "gore", heolfor "gore", swât "sweat, blood", heaðoswât "war-sweat, blood", heorodrync "drink of swords, blood", dolgbenn "dire wound", sârbenn "dire wound", wundel "wound", wældrêor "deadly gore, blood", heorudolg "sword-wound", heorudrêor "sword-gore, blood", dolgwund "dire wound", hildeswât "battle-sweat, blood", feorhbenn "fatal wound", feorhdolg "fatal wound", feorhwund "fatal wound", sweordwund "sword-wound".

OS : wunda "wound", thes billes biti "sword-bite, wound", beni-wunda "dire wound, fatal wound", lîk-wunda "bodily wound", blôd "blood", drôr "gore, blood", swêt "sweat, blood".

4) Sea and Seafaring

a) Sea, Wave

ON : brim "surf, sea", haf "sea", marr "mere", sær "sea", víðir "sea", ægir "sea" (name of the sea-god Ægir), álheimr "dwelling of eels, sea", land skipa "plain of ships, sea", sæfugla land "plain of sea-birds, sea", otrheimr "dwelling of otters, sea", land Ránar "Rán's country, ocean", Ýmis blôd "Ýmir's blood, sea, ocean", sund "sound", alda "wave", unnr and uðr "wave", breki "breaker", márfjall "flood-mountain, wave", Ægis dóttir "daughter of Ægir, wave", Ránar dóttir "daughter of Ránir, wave", sjóvarbylja "sea-wave", bylja "wave, billow", bára "wave, billow", hafbára "sea-wave", hafsmegin "high sea, ocean", borðgrund "land of boards (i.e. ships), the sea", borðvöllr "plain of boards (i.e. ships), sea", lögr "sea, water", foldar hringar "the plains of rings (i.e. waves), sea", Leifa land "land of Leifi (a sea-king), the ocean", Leifnis grund "plain of Leifnir (a sea-king), the ocean", brimleið "way of the surf, sea", ægisjór "sea of Ægir, the ocean", ægisheimr "dwelling of Ægir, the ocean", kjölslóð "keel-trail, the sea", hafalda "sea-wave, billow", jötundreyri "giant's blood, the ocean", vágr "wave".

OE : brim "sea, flood", flot "float, sea", gârsecg "spear-man (a reference to Neptune), ocean", hæf "sea", holm "flood, sea", mere "mere", sæ "sea", sund "sound, flood", hwæles êðel "whale's homeland, sea", mæwes êðel "seagull's homeland, sea", fîfelstrêam "sea-monster's channel, sea, flood", ganotes bæð "gannet's bath, sea", fisces bæð "fish's bath, sea", bæðweg "bath-way, sea", hranrâd "whale's road, sea", swanrâd "swan's road, sea", seglrâd "path of sails, ocean", ýðegelâd "path of waves, sea", ýða ful "vessel of waves, sea", wæges wielm "the wave's surging, sea", flôdes wielm "surging of the flood, sea", ýða gelâc "play of waves, sea", sealtstrêamas "salt-streams, waves", wylm "surging, boiling, flood", geofon "ocean, flood", lagu "sea, flood", mereflôd "sea-flood", seolhbæð "seal's bath, sea", hêahsæ "high-sea", sæholm "sea", sæweg "sea", brimflôd "sea-flood", brimrâd "path of the sea", flotweg "sea", laguflôd "sea-flood", lagustrêam "sea-streams", wægholm "wave-flood, sea", sæflôd "sea-flood", ýþmere "wave-mere", geofonflôd "ocean-flood", ýð "wave", firnstrêamas "the ancient streams, the ocean", sæýð "sea-wave, billow", sæwæg "sea-wave, billow", holmweall "sea-wall, wave", holmmægen "flood-main, ocean", wægþrêat "wave-throng, flood", ýðmere "wave-mere, sea", hwælmere "whale's mere, sea", hwælweg "the whale's way, sea", windgeard "the wind's enclosure, ocean", sæweall "sea-wall, wave", sæwang "plain of the sea, ocean", lagustræt "sea-road, sea", seolhpæð "the seal's path, sea", fisces êðel "the fish's homeland, sea".

OS : flôd "flood", merî "mere, sea", sê, sêo "sea", lagu "sea, flood", sêo-strôm "sea-streams", lagu-strôm "sea-streams", ûðia "wave", meristrôm "sea-stream", wâg "wave; flood", sundia "sound", fluti "river, stream", strôm "flood, stream".

b) Seaman, Sailor

ON : kjölrennir "keel-runner, sailor", sundvörðr "flood-ward, seaman", kjölfari "keel-farer, sailor", sjómaðr "seaman", sjóvíkingr "pirate", skipamaðr "sailor, seaman", skipari "sailor, seaman", siglingamaðr "sailor".

OE : merefara "mere-traveller, seaman", brimlîðend "flood-goer, seaman", merelîðend "mere-goer, seaman", sælîðend "sea-goer, sailor", sæmann "seaman", særinc "sea-warrior", faroðrîðend "water-rider, sailor", sundbûend "flood-dweller, seaman", scipfêrend "ship-farer, sailor", scipweard "ship-ward, seaman", sælida "sea-farer, sailor", scipflota "seafarer", sægenga "sea-goer, sailor", lidmann "ship-man, seaman", scipmann "ship-man, seaman", flotmann "sea-man", flota "sailor", lidweard "ship-ward, sailor", brimgiest "guest of the sea, sailor", brimmann "sea-man, sailor", sundlida "sailor of the sound, seaman", wæglîðend "wave-goer, sailor", wîcing "viking, pirate".

OS : lagu-lîðandi "sea-farer, sailor", sêo-lîðandi "sea-farer, sailor", askman "ash-wood-ship man, sailor", wâg-lîðand "one who travels the waves, sea-farer".

c) Ship, Boat

ON : bátr "boat", beit "boat", fley "swift ship", kjöll "keel, ship", knörr "ship", lið "ship", skip "ship", far "vessel", eik, eikir, eikja "oak-wood, ship", sætré "sea-tree, ship", sæskíð "sea-wood, ship", vágmarr "wave-horse, ship", seglmarr "sail-horse, ship", hestr unnr "horse of the waves, ship", brimdýr "flood-beast, ship", brimsvín "flood-swine, ship", ráfákr "row-horse, ship", jór Ægis "Ægir's steed, ship", bátskip "boat", hafskip "ocean-going ship", haffærandi "ocean traverser, ship", sævar hlynr "treasure of the sea, ship", langskip "longship, war galley", herskip "war-ship", seglvigg "sail-steed, ship", vígskip "war-ship, galley", borðhestr "board-horse, ship", haffaxi "sea-horse, ship", hafraukn "steed of the sea, ship", hafreið "sea-vehicle, ship", hafskíð "sea-ski, ship", brimskíð "flood-ski, ship", sigluborg "sailing-mound, ship", siglamarr "sail-steed, ship", siglagammr "sail-vulture, ship", nökkvi "boat, ship".

OE : scip "ship", bât "boat", cnear "small ship", cêol "keel, ship", fær "vessel", flota "floater, ship, vessel", æsc "ash-wood, ship", naca "boat, ship", âc "oak-wood, ship", brimhengest "flood-horse, ship", merehengest "mere-horse, ship", sundhengest "flood-horse, ship", sæhengest "sea-horse, ship", faroðhengest "water-horse, ship", wæghengest "horse of the waves, ship", ýðhengest "horse of the waves, ship", lagumearh "flood-horse, ship", sæmearh "sea-horse, ship", ýðmearh "horse of the waves, ship", sægenga "sea-goer, ship", ýðliða "wave-goer, ship", brimwudu "flood-wood, ship", sæwudu "sea-wood, ship", sundwudu "flood-wood, ship", nægled bord "nailed board, ship", wægbord "board of the waves, ship", ýðhof "wave-house, ship", merehûs "house of the mere, ship", geofonhûs "house of the sea, ship", sundreced "flood-hall, ship", wundenstefna "twisted-prow, ship", hringedstefna "ringed-prow, ship", wægþel "wave-plank, ship", þelfæsten "plank-fortress, ship", lid "ship", brimþisa "ship", holmærn "sea-hall, ship", flotscip "sea-ship", ýþbord "wave-board, ship", ýðlid "wave-ship", wægflota "wave-ship", ýþnaca "wave-boat", cêolþelu "keel-plank, ship", sæbât "sea-boat", sæflota "sea-floater, ship", sænaca "ship", hringnaca "ring-prowed ship", merebât "flood-boat", mereþisa "ship", merehûs "ark, large ship", holmwudu "flood-wood, ship", wægbora "wave-traverser, ship", lagumearh "horse of the flood, ship".

OS : skip "ship", nako "boat, ship".

5) The Animal Kingdom

a) Wolf, Fox

ON : úlfr "wolf", vargr "wolf", geri "ravener, the greedy one, wolf" (Geri was one of Odin's two wolves), freki "the greedy one, wolf" (Freki was the other of Odin's two wolves), heiðingi "heath dweller, wolf", hreingálkn "rein-troll, wolf", valdýr "corpse-beast, wolf", gránstóð "grey stud, wolf", gríðar "wolf", hrægífr "corpse-hag, wolf", Viðris grey "Odin's dog, wolf", vitnir "wolf", hlébarðr "wolf", faxi járnsöxu "horse of the troll-woman, wolf", hergaupr "battle-lynx, wolf", refr "fox", skolli "fox", langstaat "long-tail, fox", grenbúi "den-dweller, fox", melrakki "arctic fox", fóa "she-fox".

OE : wulf "wolf", wearg "wolf", græghama "grey-coat, wolf", hâr hædstapa "hoary heath-stepper, wolf", mearcweard "border-guardian, wolf", freca "wolf", fox "fox”.

OS : wulf "wolf".

b) Ox, Goat, Hart, Horse

ON : uxi "ox", okhreinn "reindeer of the yoke, ox", okbjörn "yoke-bear, ox", hriðr "ox", viggi "ox", griðungr "ox", gullinhorni "gold-horn, ox", geit "goat", hafr "he-goat", bukkr "buck", drasill "horse", hestr "horse", hross "horse", jór "steed", marr "mare", viggr and vigg "horse", söðudýr "saddled-beast, horse", hjörtr reiðar "hart of harnesses, horse", faxi "maned one, horse".

OE : hrîðer "ox", oxa "ox", stêor "ox, steer", gât "goat", bucca "he-goat", hæfer "he-goat", heorot "hart", hæðstapa "heath-stepper, hart", bucc "buck, male deer", mearh "mare", wicg "horse", hors "horse", êoh "steed", hengest "horse".

OS : gêt "goat", wigg "horse", hros "horse", hers "horse".

c) Snake, Serpent, Dragon

ON : dreki "serpent, dragon", drákón "dragon", naðr and naðra "snake", ormr "snake, reptile", yrmlingr "wormling, little snake", lyngfiskr "ling-fish, snake", viðfiskr "forest-fish, snake", fiskr foldar "fish of the land, snake", eitrfiskr "venom-fish, poisonous snake", linnormr "serpent", linnr "serpent", lyngál "ling-eel, snake", lyngölunn "ling-fish, snake", heimr "snake", grafvitnir "grave-wolf, worm", heiðbúi "heath-dweller, snake", vallbaugr "earth-ring, that which coils on the ground, snake", gullbúi "dweller with the gold, dragon", fold-sili "earth-ribbon, snake", fold væringi "Varangian of the earth, snake", snákr "snake", maðkr "worm".

OE : draca "serpent, dragon", nædre "snake", wyrm "snake, reptile", ûhtsceaða "enemy of the dawn, dragon", âttorsceaða "venomous enemy, serpent", ferhðgenîðla "life-enemy, dragon, serpent", ealdorgewinna "deadly foe, dragon", lîgdraca "fiery-dragon", snaca "snake", nîðdraca "hostile dragon", gûðfloga "war-like flier, dragon", eorðdraca "earth-dragon, serpent", sædraca "sea-dragon, sea serpent", goldweard "gold-ward, dragon", bansnaca "bane-snake, venomous serpent", ûhtfloga "flier by dawn, dragon".

OS : wurm "snake, serpent", nadara "viper, adder".

d) Raven(s), Eagle, Cuckoo, Hen

ON : hrafn "raven", dólgskári "gull of war, raven", hræskurðr "corpse-shearer, raven", hræ-fugl "corpse-bird, raven", hrægammr "corpse-vulture, raven", benskári "gull of wounds, raven", haukr gunnr "battle-hawk, raven", haukr hræs "hawk of the slain, raven", undgagl "wound-bird, raven", valgagl "bird of death, raven", huginn "the sensible, the concious; thought" (name of one of Odin's ravens), sveita svanr "blood-swan, raven", blóðgagl "blood-goose, raven", benþiðurr "wound-goose, raven", geira hríðar gjóðr "osprey of the spear-storm, raven", dólgsvala "battle-swallow, raven", nágagl "corpse-goose, raven", hræva gaukr "corpse-cuckoo, raven", Yggar már "Yggr's seagull, raven" (Yggr is a name for Odin), Yggs svanr "Yggr's swan, raven", Gauts gaukr "Gautr's cuckoo, raven" (Gautr is a name for Odin), hjaldrs trani "crane of battle, raven", átfrekir Óðins haukar "Odin's greedy hawks, ravens", blóðhelsingi "blood-goose, raven", valgjóðr "vulture of the slain, raven", blóðvalr "blood-hawk, raven", vígstari "battle-starling, raven", fólkstari "battle-starling, raven", gunnmár "war-gull, raven", gunnvalr "battle-hawk, raven", hræskúfr "corpse-skua, raven", benmár "wound-gull, raven", sárgagl "wound-goose, raven", undgjóðr "wound-vulture, raven", bergir blóðs "drinker of blood, raven", Jalfaðs svanr "swan of Odin, raven", ari "eagle", örn "eagle", valfugl "bird of the slain, eagle", hræsvelgr "chooser of the slain, eagle", haukr hjörleiks "hawk of the sword-play, eagle", valr unda "hawk of wounds, eagle", hergammr "war-vulture, eagle", sármútari "wound-hawk, eagle", hani "hen", salgaukr "hall-cuckoo, hen, chicken", gullinkambi "golden-crest" (a hen of the Æsir).

OE : hræfn "raven", hremm "raven", lyftscaða "air-pirate, raven", wælcêasiga "chooser of the slain, raven", nihthrôc "night-rook, raven", earn "eagle", gûðfugol "war-bird, eagle", gûðhafoc "war-hawk, eagle", gêac "cuckoo", sumeres weard "guardian of summer, cuckoo", hænn "hen", henfugol "hen, chicken".

e) Fish, Whale

ON : fiskr "fish", hvalr "whale", sjófang "burden of the sea, fish".

OE : fisc "fish", brimhlæst "burden of the sea, fish", holmes læst "burden of the sea, fish", laguswimmend "flood-swimmer, fish", wægdêor "beast of the waves, fish", merefisc "sea-fish", sæfisc "sea-fish", hwæl "whale", hran "whale", hranfisc "whale", mereweard "guardian of the flood, whale", gârsecges gâst "guest of the sea, whale", fyrnstrêama geflota "floater of the ancient sea-streams, whale", wæterþisa "water-traverser, whale".

OS : fisk "fish".

6) Other Natural Phenomena

a) The Earth, World

ON : fold "earth, land", grund "earth", jörð "earth", land "land", mold "soil, land", heimr "world", miðgarðr "the middle enclosure" (i.e. the world of men, as opposed to Ásgarðr, the dwelling of the gods), jörmungrund "huge-ground, the world", heimstöð "homestead, the world", aurvangr "mud-plain, the earth", alda vé "dwelling of men, the world", ígrøn "the ever-green, the earth", gróandi "the growing, the earth", ljóðheimr "the world of men", Ýmis hold "the flesh of Ýmir, the earth", heimskringla "the orb of the earth", foldvegr "earth", Óðins kvon "lady of Odin, the earth", salar steinar "the hall of stones, the earth", fjörgyn "plain of the gods, the earth" (from *fjörg-vin), foldvegr "earth", aldaheimr "the world of men", veröld "the world".

OE : eorðe "earth", folde "earth, soil", hrûse "earth, ground", molde "soil, earth", grund "ground, the earth", middangeard "the middle enclosure, the world", þêodland "folksland, the world of people, the earth", gumena rîce "kingdom of men, the world", ymbhwyrft "world, circuit", se wlitebeorhta wang "the beautiful plain, the earth", eardgeard "earth-yard",