As some of you are probably aware, on the nightly Rust builds, we currently offer a feature called specialization, which was defined in RFC 1210. The idea of specialization is to improve Rust’s existing coherence rules to allow for overlap between impls, so long as one of the overlapping impls can be considered more specific. Specialization is hotly desired because it can enable powerful optimizations, but also because it is an important component for modeling object-oriented designs.

The current specialization design, while powerful, is also limited in a few ways. I am going to work on a series of articles that explore some of those limitations as well as possible solutions.

This particular posts serves two purposes: it describes the running example I want to consder, and it describes one possible solution: intersection impls (more commonly called “lattice impls”). We’ll see that intersection impls are a powerful feature, but they don’t completely solve the problem I am aiming to solve and they also intoduce other complications. My conclusion is that they may be a part of the final solution, but are not sufficient on their own.

Running example: interconverting between Copy and Clone

I’m going to structure my posts around a detailed look at the Copy and Clone traits, and in particular about how we could use specialization to bridge between the two. These two traits are used in Rust to define how values can be duplicated. The idea is roughly like this:

A type is Copy if it can be copied from one place to another just by copying bytes (i.e., with memcpy ). This is basically types that consist purely of scalar values (e.g., u32 , [u32; 4] , etc).

if it can be copied from one place to another just by copying bytes (i.e., with ). This is basically types that consist purely of scalar values (e.g., , , etc). The Clone trait expands upon Copy to include all types that can be copied at all, even if requires executing custom code or allocating memory (for example, a String or Vec<u32> ).

These two traits are clearly related. In fact, Clone is a supertrait of Copy , which means that every type that is copyable must also be cloneable.

For better or worse, supertraits in Rust work a bit differently than superclasses from OO languages. In particular, the two traits are still independent from one another. This means that if you want to declare a type to be Copy , you must also supply a Clone impl. Most of the time, we do that with a #[derive] annotation, which auto-generates the impls for you:

# [ derive ( Copy , Clone , ... )] struct Point { x : u32 , y : u32 , }

That derive annotation will expand out to two impls looking roughly like this:

struct Point { x : u32 , y : u32 , } impl Copy for Point { // Copy has no methods; it can also be seen as a "marker" // that indicates that a cloneable type can also be // memcopy'd. } impl Clone for Point { fn clone ( & self ) -> Point { * self // this will just do a memcpy } }

The second impl (the one implementing the Clone trait) seems a bit odd. After all, that impl is written for Point , but in principle it could be used any Copy type. It would be nice if we could add a blanket impl that converts from Copy to Clone that applies to all Copy types:

// Hypothetical addition to the standard library: impl < T : Copy > Clone for T { fn clone ( & self ) -> Point { * self } }

If we had such an impl, then there would be no need for Point above to implement Clone explicitly, since it implements Copy , and the blanket impl can be used to supkply the Clone impl. (In other words, you could just write #[derive(Copy)] .) As you have probably surmised, though, it’s not that simple. Adding a blanket impl like this has a few complications we’d have to overcome first. This is still true with the specialization system described in [RFC 1210][].

There are a number of examples where these kinds of blanket impls might be useful. Some examples: implementing PartialOrd in terms of Ord , implementing PartialEq in terms of Eq , and implementing Debug in terms of Display .

Coherence and backwards compatibility

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Hi! I’m the language feature coherence! You may remember me from previous essays like Little Orphan Impls or RFC 1023.

Let’s take a step back and just think about the language as it is now, without specialization. With today’s Rust, adding a blanket impl<T:Copy> Clone for T would be massively backwards incompatible. This is because of the coherence rules, which aim to prevent there from being more than one trait applicable to any type (or, for generic traits, set of types).

So, if we tried to add the blanket impl now, without specialization, it would mean that every type annotated with #[derive(Copy, Clone)] would stop compiling, because we would now have two clone impls: one from derive and the blanket impl we are adding. Obviously not feasible.

Why didn’t we add this blanket impl already then?

You might then wonder why we didn’t add this blanket impl converting from Copy to Clone in the “wild west” days, when we broke every existing Rust crate on a regular basis. We certainly considered it. The answer is that, if you have such an impl, the coherence rules mean that it would not work well with generic types.

To see what problems arise, consider the type Option :

# [ derive ( Copy , Clone )] enum Option < T > { Some ( T ), None , }

You can see that Option<T> derives Copy and Clone . But because Option is generic for T , those impls have a slightly different look to them once we expand them out:

impl < T : Copy > Copy for Option < T > { } impl < T : Clone > Clone for Option < T > { fn clone ( & self ) -> Option < T > { match * self { Some ( ref v ) => Some ( v .clone ()), None => None , } } }

Before, the Clone impl for Point was just *self . But for Option<T> , we have to do something more complicated, which actually calls clone on the contained value (in the case of a Some ). To see why, imagine a type like Option<Rc<u32>> – this is clearly cloneable, but it is not Copy . So the impl is rewritten so that it only assumes that T: Clone , not T: Copy .

The problem is that types like Option<T> are sometimes Copy and sometimes not. So if we had the blanket impl that converts all Copy types to Clone , and we have the impl above that impl Clone for Option<T> if T: Clone , then we can easily wind up in a situation where there are two applicable impls. For example, consider Option<u32> : it is Copy , and hence we could use the blanket impl that just returns *self . But it is also fits the Clone -based impl I showed above. This is a coherence violation, because now the compiler has to pick which impl to use. Obviously, in the case of the trait Clone , it shouldn’t matter too much which one it chooses, since they both have the same effect, but the compiler doesn’t know that.

Enter specialization

OK, all of that prior discussion was assuming the Rust of today. So what if we adopted the existing specialization RFC? After all, its whole purpose is to improve coherence so that it is possible to have multiple impls of a trait for the same type, so long as one of those implementations is more specific. Maybe that applies here?

In fact, the RFC as written today does not. The reason is that the RFC defines rules that say an impl A is more specific than another impl B if impl A applies to a strict subset of the types which impl B applies to. Let’s consider some arbitrary trait Foo . Imagine that we have an impl of Foo that applies to any Option<T> :

impl < T > Foo for Option < T > { .. }

The “more specific” rule would then allow a second impl for Option<i32> ; this impl would specialize the more generic one:

impl Foo for Option < i32 > { .. }

Here, the second impl is more specific than the first, because while the first impl can be used for Option<i32> , it can also be used for lots of other types, like Option<u32> , Option<i64> , etc. So that means that these two impls would be accepted under RFC #1210. If the compiler ever had to choose between them, it would prefer the impl that is specific to Option<i32> over the generic one that works for all T .

But if we try to apply that rule to our two Clone impls, we run into a problem. First, we have the blanket impl:

impl < T : Copy > Clone for T { .. }

and then we have an impl tailored to Option<T> where T: Clone :

impl < T : Clone > Clone for Option < T > { .. }

Now, you might think that the second impl is more specific than the blanket impl. After all, it can be used for any type, whereas the second impl can only be used Option<T> . Unfortunately, this isn’t quite right. After all, the blanket impl cannot be used for any type T : it can only be used for Copy types. And we already saw that there are lots of types for which the second impl can be used where the first impl is inapplicable. In other words, neither impl is a subset of one another – rather, they both cover two distinct, but overlapping, sets of types.

To see what I mean, let’s look at some examples:

| Type | Blanket impl | `Option` impl | | ---- | ------------ | ------------- | | i32 | APPLIES | inapplicable | | Box<i32> | inapplicable | inapplicable | | Option<i32> | APPLIES | APPLIES | | Option<Box<i32>> | inapplicable | APPLIES |

Note in particular the first and fourth rows. The first row shows that the blanket impl is not a subset of the Option impl. The last row shows that the Option impl is not a subset of the blanket impl either. That means that these two impls would be rejected by RFC #1210 and hence adding a blanket impl now would still be a breaking change. Boo!

To see the problem from another angle, consider this Venn digram, which indicates, for every impl, the sets of types that it matches. As you can see, there is overlap between our two impls, but neither is a strict subset of one another:

+-----------------------------------------+ |[impl<T:Copy> Clone for T] | | | | Example: i32 | | +---------------------------------------+-----+ | | | | | | Example: Option<i32> | | | | | | +-+---------------------------------------+ | | | | Example: Option<Box<i32>> | | | | [impl<T:Clone> Clone for Option<T>]| +---------------------------------------------+

Enter intersection impls

One of the first ideas proposed for solving this is the so-called “lattice” specialization rule, which I will call “intersection” impls, since I think that captures the spirit better. The intuition is pretty simple: if you have two impls that have a partial intersection, but which don’t strictly subset one another, then you can add a third impl that covers precisely that intersection, and hence which subsets both of them. So now, for any type, there is always a “most specific” impl to choose. To get the idea, it may help to consider this “ASCII Art” Venn diagram. Note the difference from above: there is now an impl (indicating with = lines and . shading) covering precisely the intersection of the other two.

+-----------------------------------------+ |[impl<T:Copy> Clone for T] | | | | Example: i32 | | +=======================================+-----+ | |[impl<T:Copy> Clone for Option<T>].....| | | |.......................................| | | |.Example: Option<i32>..................| | | |.......................................| | +-+=======================================+ | | | | Example: Option<Box<i32>> | | | | [impl<T:Clone> Clone for Option<T>]| +---------------------------------------------+

Intersection impls have some nice properties. For one thing, it’s a kind of minimal extension of the existing rule. In particular, if you are just looking at any two impls, the rules for deciding which is more specific are unchanged: the only difference when adding in intersection impls is that coherence permits overlap when it otherwise wouldn’t.

They also give us a good opportunity to recover some optimization. Consider the two impls in this case: the “blanket” impl that applies to any T: Copy simply copies some bytes around, which is very fast. The impl that is tailed to Option<T> , however, does more work: it matches the impl and then recursively calls clone . This work is necessary if T: Copy does not hold, but otherwise it’s wasted work. With an intersection impl, we can recover the full performance:

// intersection impl: impl < T : Copy > Clone for Option < T > { fn clone ( & self ) -> Option < T > { * self // since T: Copy, we can do this here } }

A note on compiler messages

I’m about to pivot and discuss the shortcomings of intersection impls. But before I do so, I want to talk a bit about the compiler messages here. I think that the core idea of specialization – that you want to pick the impl that applies to the most specific set of types – is fairly intuitive. But working it out in practice can be kind of confusing, especially at first. So whenever we propose any extension, we have to think carefully about the error messages that might result.

In this particular case, I think that we could give a rather nice error message. Imagine that the user had written these two impls:

impl < T : Copy > Clone for T { // impl A fn clone ( & self ) -> T { ... } } impl < T : Clone > Clone for Option < T > { // impl B fn clone ( & self ) -> Option < T > { ... } }

As we’ve seen, these two impls overlap but neither specializes the other. One might imagine an error message that says as much, and which also suggests the intersection impl that must be added:

error: two impls overlap, but neither specializes the other | 2 | impl<T: Copy> Clone for T {...} | ---- | 4 | impl<T: Clone> Clone for Option<T> {...} | | note: both impls apply to a type like `Option<T>` where `T: Copy`; | to specify the behavior in this case, add the following intersection impl: | `impl<T: Copy> Clone for Option<T>`

Note the message at the end. The wording could no doubt be improved, but the key point is that we should be to actually tell you exactly what impl is still needed.

Intersection impls do not solve the cross-crate problem

Unfortunately, intersection impls don’t give us the backwards compatibility that we want, at least not by themselves. The problem is, if we add the blanket impl, we also have to add the intersection impl. Within the same crate, this might be ok. But if this means that downstream crates have to add an intersection impl too, that’s a big problem.

Intersection impls may force you to predict the future

There is one other problem with intersection impls that arises in cross-crate situations, which nrc described on the tracking issue: sometimes there is a theoretical intersection between impls, but that intersection is empty in practice, and hence you may not be able to write the code you wanted to write. Let me give you an example. This problem doesn’t show up with the Copy / Clone trait, so we’ll switch briefly to another example.

Imagine that we are adding a RichDisplay trait to our project. This is much like the existing Display trait, except that it can support richer formatting like ANSI codes or a GUI. For convenience, we want any type that implements Display to also implement RichDisplay (but without any fancy formatting). So we add a trait and blanket impl like this one (let’s call it impl A):

trait RichDisplay { /* elided */ } impl < D : Display > RichDisplay for D { /* elided */ } // impl A

Now, imagine that we are also using some other crate widget that contains various types, including Widget<T> . This Widget<T> type does not implement Display . But we would like to be able to render a widget, so we implement RichDisplay for this Widget<T> type. Even though we didn’t define Widget<T> , we can implement a trait for it because we defined the trait:

impl < T : RichDisplay > RichDisplay for Widget < T > { ... } // impl B

Well, now we have a problem! You see, according to the rules from RFC 1023, impls A and B are considered to potentially overlap, and hence we will get an error. This might surprise you: after all, impl A only applies to types that implement Display , and we said that Widget<T> does not. The problem has to do with semver: because Widget<T> was defined in another crate, it is outside of our control. In this case, the other crate is allowed to implement Display for Widget<T> at some later time, and that should not be a breaking change. But imagine that this other crate added an impl like this one (which we can call impl C):

impl < T : Display > Display for Widget < T > { ... } // impl C

Such an impl would cause impls A and B to overlap. Therefore, coherence considers these to be overlapping – however, specialization does not consider impl B to be a specialization of impl A, because, at the moment, there is no subset relationship between them. So there is a kind of catch-22 here: because the impl may exist in the future, we can’t consider the two impls disjoint, but because it doesn’t exist right now, we can’t consider them to be specializations.

Clearly, intersection impls don’t help to address this issue, as the set of intersecting types is empty. You might imagine having some alternative extension to coherence that permits impl B on the logic of “if impl C were added in the future, that’d be fine, because impl B would be a specialization of impl A”.

This logic is pretty dubious, though! For example, impl C might have been written another way (we’ll call this alternative version of impl C “impl C2”):

impl < T : WidgetDisplay > Display for Widget < T > { ... } // impl C2 // ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ changed this bound

Note that instead of working for any T: Display , there is now some other trait T: WidgetDisplay in use. Let’s say it’s only implemented for optional 32-bit integers right now (for some reason or another):

trait WidgetDisplay { ... } impl WidgetDisplay for Option < i32 > { ... }

So now if we had impls A, B, and C2, we would have a different problem. Now impls A and B would overlap for Widget<Option<i32>> , but they would not overlap for Widget<String> . The reason here is that Option<i32>: WidgetDisplay , and hence impl A applies. But String: RichDisplay (because String: Display ) and hence impl B applies. Now we are back in the territory where intersection impls come into play. So, again, if we had impls A, B, and C2, one could imagine writing an intersection impl to cover this situation:

impl < T : RichDisplay + WidgetDisplay > RichDisplay for Widget < T > { ... } // impl D

But, of course, impl C2 has yet to be written, so we can’t really write this intersection impl now, in advance. We have to wait until the conflict arises before we can write it.

You may have noticed that I was careful to specify that both the Display trait and Widget type were defined outside of the current crate. This is because RFC 1023 permits the use of “negative reasoning” if either the trait or the type is under local control. That is, if the RichDisplay and the Widget type were defined in the same crate, then impls A and B could co-exist, because we are allowed to rely on the fact that Widget does not implement Display . The idea here is that the only way that Widget could implement Display is if I modify the crate where Widget is defined, and once I am modifying things, I can also make any other repairs (such as adding an intersection impl) that are necessary.

Conclusion

Today we looked at a particular potential use for specialization: adding a blanket impl that implements Clone for any Copy type. We saw that the current “subset-only” logic for specialization isn’t enough to permit adding such an impl. We then looked at one proposed fix for this, intersection impls (often called lattice impls).

Intersection impls are appealing because they increase expressiveness while keeping the general feel of the “subset-only” logic. They also have an “explicit” nature that appeals to me, at least in principle. That is, if you have two impls that partially overlap, the compiler doesn’t select which one should win: instead, you write an impl to cover precisely that intersection, and hence specify it yourself. Of course, that explicit nature can also be verbose and irritating sometimes, particularly since you will often want the “intersection impl” to behave the same as one of the other two (rather than doing some third, different thing).

Moreover, the explicit nature of interseciton impls causes problems across crates:

they don’t allow you to add a blanket impl in a backwards compatible fashion;

they interact poorly with semver, and specifically the limitations on negative logic imposed by RFC 1023.

My conclusion then is that intersection impls may well be part of the solution we want, but we will need additional mechanisms. Stay tuned for additional posts.

As is my wont, I am going to close this post for comments. If you would like to leave a comment, please go to this thread on Rust’s internals forum instead.