Research on the mechanisms that reproduce social class advantages in the United States focuses primarily on formal schooling and pays less attention to social class discrimination in labor markets. We conducted a résumé audit study to examine the effect of social class signals on entry into large U.S. law firms. We sent applications from fictitious students at selective but non-elite law schools to 316 law firm offices in 14 cities, randomly assigning signals of social class background and gender to otherwise identical résumés. Higher-class male applicants received significantly more callbacks than did higher-class women, lower-class women, and lower-class men. A survey experiment and interviews with lawyers at large firms suggest that, relative to lower-class applicants, higher-class candidates are seen as better fits with the elite culture and clientele of large law firms. But, although higher-class men receive a corresponding overall boost in evaluations, higher-class women do not, because they face a competing, negative stereotype that portrays them as less committed to full-time, intensive careers. This commitment penalty faced by higher-class women offsets class-based advantages these applicants may receive in evaluations. Consequently, signals of higher-class origin provide an advantage for men but not for women in this elite labor market.

References

Acker, Joan . 1990 . “Hierarchies, Jobs, Bodies: A Theory of Gendered Organizations.” Gender and Society 4(2): 139 – 58 .

Google Scholar SAGE Journals | ISI

Alexander, Karl L., Eckland, Bruce K. 1974 . “Sex Differences in the Educational Attainment Process.” American Sociological Review 39(5): 668 – 82 .

Google Scholar Crossref

Alon, Sigal . 2009 . “The Evolution of Class Inequality in Higher Education: Competition, Exclusion, and Adaptation.” American Sociological Review 74(5): 731 – 55 .

Google Scholar SAGE Journals | ISI

American Bar Association . 2014 . “A Current Glance at Women in the Law.” Chicago : American Bar Association . Retrieved April 13 , 2015 (http://www.americanbar.org/content/dam/aba/marketing/women/current_glance_statistics_july2014.authcheckdam.pdf).

Google Scholar

Argyle, Michael . 1994 . The Psychology of Social Class. New York : Routledge .

Google Scholar

Armstrong, Elizabeth A., Hamilton, Laura T. 2013 . Paying for the Party: How College Maintains Inequality. Cambridge, MA : Harvard University Press .

Google Scholar Crossref

Atkinson, Anthony B., Piketty, Thomas, Saez, Emmanuel. 2011 . “Top Incomes in the Long Run of History.” Journal of Economic Literature 49(1): 3 – 71 .

Google Scholar Crossref

Beckman, Christine M., Phillips, Damon J. 2005 . “Interorganizational Determinants of Promotion: Client Leadership and Promotion of Women Attorneys.” American Sociological Review 70(4): 678 – 701 .

Google Scholar SAGE Journals

Benard, Stephen, Correll, Shelley J. 2010 . “Normative Discrimination and the Motherhood Penalty.” Gender & Society 24(5): 616 – 46 .

Google Scholar SAGE Journals | ISI

Berger, Joseph, Cohen, Bernard, Zelditch, Morris 1966 . “Status Characteristics and Expectation States.” Pp. 29 – 46 in Sociological Theories in Progress, edited by Berger, J., Zelditch, M., Anderson, B. New York : Houghton Mifflin .

Google Scholar

Berger, Joseph, Fişek, H. Famit, Norman, Robert Z., Zelditch, Morris 1977 . Status Characteristics and Social Interaction: An Expectation States Approach. New York : Elsevier .

Google Scholar

Bertrand, Marianne, Mullainathan, Sendhil. 2004 . “Are Emily and Greg More Employable than Lakisha and Jamal? A Field Experiment on Labor Market Discrimination.” American Economic Review 94(4): 991 – 1013 .

Google Scholar Crossref | ISI

Bills, David B. 2003 . “Credentials, Signals, and Screens: Explaining the Relationship between Schooling and Job Assignment.” Review of Educational Research 73(4): 441 – 69 .

Google Scholar SAGE Journals

Blair-Loy, Mary . 2003 . Competing Devotions: Career and Family among Women Executives. Cambridge, MA : Harvard University Press .

Google Scholar

Blair-Loy, Mary, Wharton, Amy. 2004 . “Organizational Commitment and Constraints on Work-Family Policy Use: Corporate Flexibility Policies in a Global Firm.” Sociological Perspectives 47(3): 243 – 67 .

Google Scholar SAGE Journals

Blau, Peter M., Duncan, Otis. 1967 . The American Occupational Structure. New York : Wiley .

Google Scholar

Bourdieu, Pierre . 1984 . Distinction: A Social Critique of the Judgement of Taste. Cambridge, MA : Harvard University Press .

Google Scholar

Broad, David B. 1996 . “The Social Register: Directory of America’s Upper Class.” Sociological Spectrum 16(2): 173 – 81 .

Google Scholar Crossref

Bryson, Bethany . 1996 . “‘Anything but Heavy Metal’: Symbolic Exclusion and Musical Dislikes.” American Sociological Review 61(5): 884 – 99 .

Google Scholar Crossref | ISI

Calarco, Jessica McCrory . 2011 . “‘I Need Help!’ Social Class and Children’s Help-Seeking in Elementary School.” American Sociological Review 76(6): 862 – 82 .

Google Scholar SAGE Journals | ISI

Chen, Fang . 2007 . “Sensitivity of Goodness of Fit Indexes to Lack of Measurement Invariance.” Structural Equation Modeling: A Multidisciplinary Journal 14(3): 464 – 504 .

Google Scholar Crossref | ISI

Christin, Angèle . 2012 . “Gender and Highbrow Cultural Participation in the United States.” Poetics 40(5): 423 – 43 .

Google Scholar Crossref

Christin, Angèle . 2014 . “Snobs versus Omnivores? Musical Tastes in the United States and France .” CACPS working paper, Princeton University , Princeton, NJ .

Google Scholar

Clark, Gregory . 2014 . The Son Also Rises: Surnames and the History of Social Mobility. Princeton, NJ : Princeton University Press .

Google Scholar

Collins, Patricia Hill . 2000 . “Gender, Black Feminism, and Black Political Economy.” Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 568(1): 41 – 53 .

Google Scholar SAGE Journals

Correll, Shelley J., Benard, Stephen, Paik, In. 2007 . “Getting a Job: Is There a Motherhood Penalty?” American Journal of Sociology 112(5): 1297 – 1338 .

Google Scholar Crossref | ISI

Couch, Kenneth A., Dunn, Thomas A. 1997 . “Intergenerational Correlations in Labor Market Status: A Comparison of the United States and Germany.” Journal of Human Resources 32(1): 210 – 32 .

Google Scholar Crossref

Cuddy, Amy J. C., Fiske, Susan T., Glick, Peter. 2008 . “Warmth and Competence as Universal Dimensions of Social Perception: The Stereotype Content Model and the Bias Map.” Advances in Experimental Social Psychology 40: 61 – 149 .

Google Scholar Crossref | ISI

Damaske, Sarah . 2011 . For the Family? How Class and Gender Shape Women’s Work. New York : Oxford University Press .

Google Scholar

DiMaggio, Paul . 1982 . “Cultural Capital and School Success: The Impact of Status Culture Participation on the Grades of U.S. High School Students.” American Sociological Review 47(2): 189 – 201 .

Google Scholar Crossref | ISI

DiMaggio, Paul . 2012 . “Sociological Perspectives on the Face-to-Face Enactment of Class Distinction.” Pp. 15 – 38 in Facing Social Class: How Societal Rank Influences Interaction, edited by Fiske, S. T., Markus, H. R. New York : Russell Sage .

Google Scholar

Dinovitzer, Ronit, Garth, Bryant G. 2007 . “Lawyer Satisfaction in the Process of Structuring Legal Careers.” Law and Society Review 41(1): 1 – 50 .

Google Scholar Crossref

Dovidio, John F., Gaertner, Samuel. 2000 . “Aversive Racism and Selection Decisions: 1989 and 1999.” Psychological Science 11(4): 315 – 19 .

Google Scholar SAGE Journals | ISI

Dumais, Susan A. 2002 . “Cultural Capital, Gender, and School Success: The Role of Habitus.” Sociology of Education 75(1): 44 – 68 .

Google Scholar Crossref | ISI

Epstein, Cynthia Fuchs . 1981 . Women in the Law. New York : Basic Books .

Google Scholar

Erickson, Bonnie H. 1996 . “Culture, Class, and Connections.” American Journal of Sociology 102(1): 217 – 51 .

Google Scholar Crossref | ISI

Farkas, George . 1996 . Human Capital or Cultural Capital? Ethnicity and Poverty Groups in an Urban School District. New York : Aldine De Gruyter .

Google Scholar

Fernandez, Roberto M. 2014 . “Does Competition Drive Out Discrimination?” New Haven, CT : Presentation at Economy and Society @ Yale Conference .

Google Scholar

Fernandez-Mateo, Isabel, King, Zella. 2011 . “Anticipatory Sorting and Gender Segregation in Temporary Employment.” Management Science 57(6): 989 – 1008 .

Google Scholar Crossref

Firth, David . 1993 . “Bias Reduction of Maximum Likelihood Estimates.” Biometrika 80(1): 27 – 38 .

Google Scholar Crossref | ISI

Fischer, Claude S., Hout, Michael, Sánchez Jankowski, Martín S., Lucas, Samuel R., Swidler, Ann, Voss, Kim. 1996 . Inequality by Design: Cracking the Bell Curve Myth. Princeton, NJ : Princeton University Press .

Google Scholar

Fisher, Daniel . 2012 . “Poor Students Are the Real Victims of College Discrimination.” Forbes, May 2 . Retrieved November 29 , 2014 (http://www.forbes.com/sites/danielfisher/2012/05/02/poor-students-are-the-real-victims-of-college-discrimination).

Google Scholar

Fiske, Susan T., Cuddy, Amy J. C., Glick, Peter. 2006 . “Universal Dimensions of Social Cognition: Warmth and Competence.” TRENDS in Cognitive Sciences 11(2): 77 – 83 .

Google Scholar Crossref | Medline

Fiske, Susan T., Cuddy, Amy J. C., Glick, Peter, Xu, Jun. 2002 . “A Model of (Often Mixed) Stereotype Content: Competence and Warmth Respectively Follow from Perceived Status and Competition.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 82(6): 878 – 902 .

Google Scholar Crossref | Medline | ISI

Fiske, Susan T., Markus, Hazel Rose. 2012 . Facing Social Class: How Societal Rank Influences Interaction. New York : Russell Sage .

Google Scholar

Fiske, Susan T., Moya, Miguel, Russell, Ann Marie, Bearns, Courtney. 2012 . “The Secret Handshake: Trust in Cross-Class Encounters.” Pp. 234 – 52 in Facing Social Class: How Societal Rank Influences Interaction, edited by Fiske, S. T., Markus, H. R. New York : Russell Sage .

Google Scholar

Foschi, Martha, Lai, Larissa, Sigerson, Kirsten. 1994 . “Gender and Double Standards in the Assessment of Job Applicants.” Social Psychology Quarterly 57(4): 326 – 39 .

Google Scholar Crossref

Ginsburg, Tom, Wolf, Jeffrey A. 2004 . “The Market for Elite Law Firm Associates.” Florida State University Law Review 31: 909 – 963 .

Google Scholar

Goldthorpe, John H., Chan., Tak Wing 2007 . “Class and Status: The Conceptual Distinction and its Empirical Relevance.” American Sociological Review 72(4): 512 – 32 .

Google Scholar SAGE Journals

Gorman, Elizabeth H. 2005 . “Gender Stereotypes, Same-Gender Preferences, and Organizational Variation in the Hiring of Women: Evidence from Law Firms.” American Sociological Review 70(4): 702 – 728 .

Google Scholar SAGE Journals | ISI

Gorman, Elizabeth H. 2006 . “Work Uncertainty and the Promotion of Professional Women: The Case of Law Firm Partnership.” Social Forces 85(2): 865 – 90 .

Google Scholar Crossref | ISI

Gorman, Elizabeth H., Kmec, Julie A. 2009 . “Hierarchical Rank and Women’s Organizational Mobility: Glass Ceilings in Corporate Law Firms.” American Journal of Sociology 114(5): 1428 – 74 .

Google Scholar Crossref | Medline

Green, Ken . 2010 . Key Themes in Youth Sport. New York : Routledge .

Google Scholar Crossref

Grusky, David B., Weeden, Kim A. 2001 . “Decomposition without Death: A Research Agenda for the New Class Analysis.” Acta Sociologica 44(3): 203 – 218 .

Google Scholar SAGE Journals

Gursoy, Dogan, Chi, Christina Geng-Qing, Karadag, Ersem. 2013 . “Generational Differences in Work Values and Attitudes among Frontline and Service Contact Employees.” International Journal of Hospitality Management 32: 40 – 48 .

Google Scholar Crossref

Hays, Sharon . 1996 . The Cultural Contradictions of Motherhood. New Haven, CT : Yale University Press .

Google Scholar

Heilman, Madeline E. 2001 . “Description and Prescription: How Gender Stereotypes Prevent Women’s Ascent up the Organizational Ladder.” Journal of Social Issues 57(4): 657 – 74 .

Google Scholar Crossref | ISI

John P., Heinz, Nelson, Robert L., Sandefur, Rebecca L., Laumann, Edward O. 2005 . Urban Lawyers: The New Social Structure of the Bar. Chicago : University of Chicago Press .

Google Scholar

Hirsch, Paul . 1995 . “Tales from the Field: Learning from Researchers’ Accounts.” Pp. 72 – 80 in Studying Elites Using Qualitative Methods, edited by Hertz, R., Imber, J. Newbury Park, CA : Sage .

Google Scholar Crossref

Ho, Karen . 2009 . Liquidated: An Ethnography of Wall Street. Durham, NC : Duke University Press .

Google Scholar Crossref

Horwitz, Suzanne, Shutts, Kristin, Olson, Kristina R. 2014 . “Social Class Differences Produce Social Group Preferences.” Developmental Science 17(6): 991 – 1002 .

Google Scholar Crossref | Medline

Jackson, Michelle . 2009 . “Disadvantaged through Discrimination? The Role of Employers in Social Stratification.” British Journal of Sociology 60(4): 669 – 92 .

Google Scholar Crossref | Medline

Jencks, Christopher, Crouse, James, Mueser, Peter. 1983 . “The Wisconsin Model of Status Attainment: A National Replication with Improved Measures of Ability and Aspiration.” Sociology of Education 56(1): 3 – 19 .

Google Scholar Crossref

Kalev, Alexandra, Dobbin, Frank, Kelly, Erin. 2006 . “Best Practices or Best Guesses? Assessing the Efficacy of Corporate Affirmative Action and Diversity Policies.” American Sociological Review 71(4): 589 – 617 .

Google Scholar SAGE Journals | ISI

Kane, Danielle . 2003 . “Distinction Worldwide? Bourdieu’s Theory of Taste in International Context.” Poetics 31(5): 402 – 421 .

Google Scholar

Kang, Sonia K., DeCelles, Katherine A., Tilcsik, András, Jun, Sora. 2016 . “Whitened Résumés: Race and Self-Presentation in the Labor Market.” Administrative Science Quarterly 61: 469 – 502 .

Google Scholar SAGE Journals

Kanter, Rosabeth Moss . 1977 . Men and Women of the Corporation. New York : Basic Books .

Google Scholar

Karabel, Jerome . 2005 . The Chosen: The Hidden History of Admission and Exclusion at Harvard, Yale, and Princeton. Princeton, NJ : Princeton University Press .

Google Scholar

Karen, David . 2002 . “Changes in Access to Higher Education in the United States: 1980–1992.” Sociology of Education 75(3): 191 – 210 .

Google Scholar Crossref | ISI

Kennelly, Ivy . 1999 . “‘That Single Mother Element’: How White Employers Typify Black Women.” Gender and Society 13(2): 168 – 92 .

Google Scholar SAGE Journals

King, Elizabeth N., Ryan, Thomas P. 2002 . “A Preliminary Investigation of Maximum Likelihood Logistic Regression versus Exact Logistic Regression.” American Statistician 56: 163 – 70 .

Google Scholar Crossref

Lamont, Michèle . 2000 . The Dignity of Working Men: Morality and the Boundaries of Race, Class, and Immigration. Cambridge, MA : Harvard University Press .

Google Scholar

Lareau, Annette . 2003 . Unequal Childhoods: Class, Race, and Family Life. Berkeley : University of California Press .

Google Scholar

Lareau, Annette, Weininger, Elliot B. 2003 . “Cultural Capital in Educational Research: A Critical Assessment.” Theory and Society 32(5/6): 567 – 606 .

Google Scholar Crossref

Lehmann, Wolfgang . 2012 . “Extra-Credential Experiences and Social Closure: Working-Class Students at University.” British Education Research Journal 38(2): 203 – 218 .

Google Scholar Crossref

Leitgöb, Heinz . 2013 . “The Problem of Modeling Rare Events in ML-based Logistic Regression: Assessing Potential Remedies.” 5th Conference of the European Survey Research Association , Ljubljana, Slovenia .

Google Scholar

Lizardo, Omar . 2006 . “How Cultural Tastes Shape Personal Networks.” American Sociological Review 71(5): 778 – 807 .

Google Scholar SAGE Journals | ISI

Lizardo, Omar, Skiles, Sara. 2008 . “Cultural Consumption in the Fine and Popular Arts Realms.” Sociology Compass 2(2): 485 – 502 .

Google Scholar Crossref

McCall, Leslie . 2001 . Complex Inequality: Gender, Class, and Race in the New Economy. New York : Routledge .

Google Scholar

Mettler, Suzanne . 2014 . Degrees of Inequality: How the Politics of Higher Education Sabotaged the American Dream. New York : Basic Books .

Google Scholar

Munsch, Christin L., Ridgeway, Cecilia L., Williams, Joan C. 2014 . “Pluralistic Ignorance and the Flexibility Bias: Understanding and Mitigating Flextime and Flexplace Bias at Work.” Work and Occupations 41(1): 40 – 62 .

Google Scholar SAGE Journals

National Association for Law Placement (NALP) . 2014 . “Perspectives on Fall 2013 Law Student Recruiting.” Retrieved April 13 , 2015 (http://www.nalp.org/uploads/PerspectivesonFallRec2013.pdf).

Google Scholar

Neckerman, Kathryn M., Kirschenman, Joleen. 1991 . “Hiring Strategies, Racial Bias, and Inner-City Workers.” Social Problems 38(4): 433 – 47 .

Google Scholar Crossref | ISI

Ostrander, Susan A. 1993 . “Surely You’re Not in This Just to Be Helpful: Access, Rapport, and Interviews in Three Studies of Elites.” Journal of Contemporary Ethnography 22(1): 7 – 27 .

Google Scholar SAGE Journals

Pager, Devah . 2003 . “The Mark of a Criminal Record.” American Journal of Sociology 108(5): 937 – 75 .

Google Scholar Crossref | ISI

Pager, Devah . 2007 . “The Use of Field Experiments for Studies of Employment Discrimination: Contributions, Critiques, and Directions for the Future.” Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 609: 104 – 133 .

Google Scholar SAGE Journals

Pager, Devah, Shepherd, Hana. 2008 . “The Sociology of Discrimination: Racial Discrimination in Employment, Housing, Credit, and Consumer Markets.” Annual Review of Sociology 34: 181 – 208 .

Google Scholar Crossref | Medline | ISI

Pager, Devah, Western, Bruce, Bonikowski, Bart. 2009 . “Discrimination in a Low-Wage Labor Market: A Field Experiment.” American Sociological Review 74(5): 777 – 99 .

Google Scholar SAGE Journals | ISI

Pedulla, David S. 2014 . “The Positive Consequences of Negative Stereotypes: Race, Sexual Orientation, and the Job Application Process.” Social Psychology Quarterly 77(1): 75 – 94 .

Google Scholar SAGE Journals | ISI

Peterson, Richard A. 2004 . “The Production of Culture Perspective.” Annual Review of Sociology 30: 311 – 34 .

Google Scholar Crossref | ISI

Peterson, Richard A., Kern, Roger M. 1996 . “Changing Highbrow Taste: From Snob to Omnivore.” American Sociological Review 61(5): 900 – 907 .

Google Scholar Crossref | ISI

Pew Charitable Trusts . 2012 . Pursuing the American Dream: Economic Mobility across Generations. Washington, DC : Pew Charitable Trusts .

Google Scholar

Pew Charitable Trusts . 2013 . Moving on Up: Why Do Some Americans Leave the Bottom of the Economic Ladder, but Not Others? Washington, DC : Pew Charitable Trusts .

Google Scholar

Phillips, Damon J. 2005 . “Organizational Genealogies and the Persistence of Gender Inequality: The Case of Silicon Valley Law Firms.” Administrative Science Quarterly 50: 440 – 72 .

Google Scholar SAGE Journals | ISI

Ramsey, Patricia G. 1991 . “Young Children’s Awareness and Understanding of Social Class Differences.” Journal of Genetic Psychology 152(1): 71 – 82 .

Google Scholar Crossref

Rentfrow, Peter J., Gosling, Samuel D. 2007 . “The Content and Validity of Music-Genre Stereotypes among College Students.” Psychology of Music 35(2): 306 – 326 .

Google Scholar SAGE Journals

Rezvani, Selena . 2014 . “Large Law Firms are Failing Women Lawyers.” Washington Post, February 18 . Retrieved May 5 , 2016 (https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/on-leadership/wp/2014/02/18/large-law-firms-are-failing-women-lawyers/).

Google Scholar

Ridgeway, Cecilia L. 2006 . “Gender as an Organizing Force in Social Relations: Implications for the Future of Inequality.” Pp. 265 – 87 in The Declining Significance of Gender? edited by Blau, F. D., Brinton, M. C., Grusky, D. B. New York : Russell Sage .

Google Scholar

Ridgeway, Cecilia L., Fisk, Susan. 2012 . “Class Rules, Status Dynamics, and ‘Gateway’ Interactions.” Pp. 131 – 51 in Facing Social Class: How Societal Rank Influences Interaction, edited by Fiske, S. T., Markus, H. R. New York : Russell Sage .

Google Scholar

Rivera, Lauren A. 2010 . “Status Distinctions in Interaction: Social Selection and Exclusion at an Elite Nightclub.” Qualitative Sociology 33(3): 229 – 55 .

Google Scholar Crossref | ISI

Rivera, Lauren A. 2012 . “Hiring as Cultural Matching: The Case of Elite Professional Service Firms.” American Sociological Review 77(6): 999 – 1022 .

Google Scholar SAGE Journals | ISI

Rivera, Lauren A. 2015 . Pedigree: How Elite Students Get Elite Jobs. Princeton, NJ : Princeton University Press .

Google Scholar Crossref

Roth, Alvin E. 2010 . “Marketplace Institutions Related to the Timing of Transactions .” NBER Working Paper 6556.

Google Scholar

Rudman, Laurie A. 1998 . “Self-Promotion as a Risk Factor for Women: The Costs and Benefits of Counterstereotypical Impression Management.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 74(3): 629 – 45 .

Google Scholar Crossref | Medline | ISI

Sacks, Peter M. 2007 . Tearing Down the Gates: Confronting the Class Divide in American Education. Berkeley : University of California Press .

Google Scholar

Saez, Emmanuel . 2008 . “Striking it Richer: The Evolution of Top Incomes in the United States.” Pathways Magazine 6 – 7 . Stanford Center for the Study of Poverty and Inequality.

Google Scholar

Schumacker, Randall E., Lomax, Richard G. 2004 . A Beginner’s Guide to Structural Equation Modeling. Hillsdale, NJ : Lawrence Erlbaum Associates .

Google Scholar Crossref

Seron, Carroll, Munger, Frank. 1996 . “Law and Inequality: Race, Gender…and, of Course, Class.” Annual Review of Sociology 22: 187 – 212 .

Google Scholar Crossref

Sewell, William H., Hauser, Robert M. 1975 . Education, Occupation and Earnings: Achievement in the Early Career. New York : Academic Press .

Google Scholar

Sewell, William H., Hauser, Robert M., Wolf, Wendy C. 1980 . “Sex, Schooling, and Occupational Status.” American Journal of Sociology 86(3): 551 – 83 .

Google Scholar Crossref | ISI

Shulman, James L., Bowen, William G. 2001 . The Game of Life: College Sports and Educational Values. Princeton, NJ : Princeton University Press .

Google Scholar

Smigel, Erwin O. 1964 . The Wall Street Lawyer. New York : Free Press .

Google Scholar

Stempel, Carl . 2005 . “Adult Participation Sports as Cultural Capital: A Test of Bourdieu’s Theory of the Field of Sports.” International Review for the Sociology of Sport 40(4): 411 – 32 .

Google Scholar SAGE Journals

Stephens, Nicole M., Hamedani, MarYam G., Destin, Mesmin. 2014 . “Closing the Social Class Achievement Gap: A Diversity Education Intervention Improves First-Generation Students’ Academic Performance and All Students’ College Transition.” Psychological Science 25(4): 943 – 53 .

Google Scholar SAGE Journals

Stephens, Nicole M., Markus, Hazel Rose, Fryberg, Stephanie A. 2012 . “Social Class Disparities in Health and Education: Reducing Inequality by Applying a Sociocultural Self Model of Behavior.” Psychological Review 119(4): 723 – 44 .

Google Scholar Crossref | Medline

Stevens, Mitchell L. 2007 . Creating a Class: College Admissions and the Education of Elites. Cambridge, MA : Harvard University Press .

Google Scholar

Streib, Jessi . 2011 . “Class Reproduction by Four Year Olds.” Qualitative Sociology 34(2): 337 – 52 .

Google Scholar Crossref

Stuber, Jenny M. 2009 . “Class, Culture, and Participation in the Collegiate Extra-Curriculum.” Sociological Forum 24(4): 877 – 900 .

Google Scholar Crossref

Stuber, Jenny M. 2011 . Inside the College Gates: How Class and Culture Matter in Higher Education. Lanham, MD : Lexington Books .

Google Scholar

Ter Bogt, Tom F. M., Delsing, Marc J. M. H., van Zalk, Maarten, Christenson, Peter G., Meeus, Wim H. J. 2011 . “Intergenerational Continuity of Taste: Parental and Adolescent Music Preferences.” Social Forces 90(1): 297 – 319 .

Google Scholar Crossref

Thébaud, Sarah, Taylor, Catherine. 2015 . “‘The Women Always Fail Thing’: The Specter of Motherhood in the Careers of Young Scientists and Engineers.” Working paper, University of California-Santa Barbara and Indiana University .

Google Scholar

Tilcsik, András . 2011 . “Pride and Prejudice: Employment Discrimination against Openly Gay Men in the United States.” American Journal of Sociology 117(2): 586 – 626 .

Google Scholar Crossref | Medline

Toobin, Jeffrey . 2014 . “The Legal One Percent.” New Yorker, November 6 .

Google Scholar

Torche, Florencia . 2011 . “Is a College Degree Still the Great Equalizer? Intergenerational Mobility across Levels of Schooling in the United States.” American Journal of Sociology 117(3): 763 – 807 .

Google Scholar Crossref | ISI

Turco, Catherine J. 2010 . “Cultural Foundations of Tokenism: Evidence from the Leveraged Buyout Industry.” American Sociological Review 75(6): 894 – 913 .

Google Scholar SAGE Journals | ISI

U.S. Census Bureau . 2014 . “Frequently Occurring Surnames from the Census 2000 – File A: Top 1000 Surnames.” Retrieved November 7 , 2014 (https://www.census.gov/topics/population/genealogy/data/2000_surnames.html).

Google Scholar

Veblen, Thorstein . 1899 . The Theory of the Leisure Class. New York : Modern Library .

Google Scholar

Wagner, David G., Berger, Joseph. 1993 . “Status Characteristics Theory: The Growth of a Program.” Pp. 23 – 63 in Theoretical Research Programs: Studies in the Growth of Theory, edited by J. Berger and M. Zelditch. Stanford, CA : Stanford University Press .

Google Scholar

Warde, Alan, Wright, David, Gayo-Cal, Modesto. 2008 . “The Omnivorous Orientation in the UK.” Poetics 36(2/3): 148 – 65 .

Google Scholar Crossref

Weber, Max . 1958 . “Class, Status and Party.” Pp. 180 – 95 in From Max Weber: Essays in Sociology, edited by H. Gerth and C. Wright Mills. Oxford, UK : Oxford University Press .

Google Scholar

Weinberg, Jill D., Freese, Jeremy, McElhattan, David. 2014 . “Comparing Data Characteristics and Results of an Online Factorial Survey between a Population-Based and Crowdsource-Recruited Sample.” Sociological Science 1: 292 – 310 .

Google Scholar Crossref

Wheaton, Blair, Muthen, Bengt, Alwin, Duane F., Summers, Gene F. 1977 . “Assessing Reliability and Stability in Panel Models.” Sociological Methodology 8: 84 – 136 .

Google Scholar Crossref

Wilkins, Clara L., Chan, Joy F., Kaiser, Cheryl R. 2011 . “Racial Stereotypes and Interracial Attraction: Phenotypic Prototypicality and Perceived Attractiveness of Asians.” Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology 17(4): 427 – 31 .

Google Scholar Crossref | Medline

Williams, Joan C. 2010 . Reshaping the Work-Family Debate: Why Men and Class Matter. Cambridge, MA : Harvard University Press .

Google Scholar

Williams, Joan C., Blair-Loy, Mary, Berdahl, Jennifer L. 2013 . “Cultural Schemas, Social Class, and the Flexibility Stigma.” Journal of Social Issues 69(2): 209 – 234 .

Google Scholar Crossref | ISI

Wilson, Thomas C. 2002 . “The Paradox of Social Class and Sports Involvement: The Roles of Cultural and Economic Capital.” International Review for the Sociology of Sport 37(1): 5 – 16 .

Google Scholar SAGE Journals