This year’s WWDC was probably the most important one ever, at least as far as we - the Metal developers - are concerned. I can wholeheartedly say it was the best week of my life, for sure!

Let’s get to the Games and Graphics news. The most unexpected trophy goes to the renaming of Metal to Metal 2. It has the most significant additions and enhancements since it was first announced in 2014 , true, but let’s admit it: no one saw this one coming. The most anticipated trophy goes to the new ARKit framework. We are only a few weeks after the keynote and there are already numerous bold and funny Augmented Reality projects out there. ARKit integrates with Metal easily. Finally, the most influencing trophy goes to VR. It is because of Virtual Reality that we are now able to achieve lower latency, enhanced framerates, as well as more powerful internal and now also external GPUs.

New features were also added to the Model I/O , SpriteKit and SceneKit frameworks. Other interesting additions are the CoreML and Vision frameworks used for machine learning. This article is only focusing on what’s new in Metal :

1). MPS - the Metal Performance Shaders are now also available on macOS and the new additions to MPS include:

four new image processing primitives ( Image Keypoints , Bilinear Rescale , Image Statistics , Element-wise Arithmetic Operations ).

, , , ). new linear algebra objects such as MPSVector , MPSMatrix and MPSTemporaryMatrix , as well as BLAS-style matrix-matrix and matrix-vector multiplication and LAPACK-style triangular matrix factorization and linear solvers.

, and , as well as BLAS-style matrix-matrix and matrix-vector multiplication and LAPACK-style triangular matrix factorization and linear solvers. a dozen new CNN primitives.

primitives. the Binary , XNOR , Dilated , Sub-pixel and Transpose convolutions were added to the already existing Standard convolution primitive.

, , , and convolutions were added to the already existing convolution primitive. a new Neural Network Graph API was added which is useful for describing neural networks using filter and image nodes.

API was added which is useful for describing neural networks using filter and image nodes. the Recurrent Neural Networks are now coming to help the CNNs one-to-one limitation and implement one-to-many and many-to-many relationships.

2). Argument Buffers - likely the most important addition to the framework this year. In the traditional argument model, for each object we would call the various functions to set buffers, textures, samplers linearly and then at the end we would have our draw call for that object.

As you can imagine, the number of calls will increase drastically when multiplying the number of calls with the total number of objects and with the number of frames where all these objects need to be drawn. As a consequence this will limit the number of objects that will appear on the screen eventually.

Argument Buffers introduce an efficient new way of configuring how to use resources by adopting the indirect behavior that the constants have, and applying it to textures, samplers, states, pointers to other buffers, and so on. The argument buffer will now only have 2 API calls per object : set the argument buffer and then draw. With this approach many more objects can be drawn.

Using argument buffers is as easy as matching the shader data with the host data:

struct Material { float intensity ; texture2d < float > aTexture ; sampler aSampler ; } kernel void compute ( constant Material & material [[ buffer ( 0 ) ]]) { ... }

On the CPU , the argument buffers are created and used by an MTLArgumentEncoder object and they can be blit between CPU and GPU easily:

let function = library . makeFunction ( name : "compute" ) let encoder = function . makeIndirectArgumentEncoder ( bufferIndex : 0 ) encoder . setTexture ( myTexture , index : 0 ) encoder . constantData ( at : 1 ) . storeBytes ( of : myPosition , as : float4 )

But it can get even better using the dynamic indexing feature. A great use case is when rendering crowds. An array of argument buffers can pack the data together for all instances (characters). Then, instead of having two calls per object, now we can have only 2 API calls per frame : one to set the buffer and one to draw indexed primitives for a large instance count!

Then the GPU will process per-instance geometry and color. The shader will now take an array of argument buffers as input, dynamically pick the character for any instance index, and return the geometry for that object:

vertex Vertex instanced ( constant Character * crowd [[ buffer ( 0 ) ]], uint id [[ instance_id ]]) { constant Character & instance = crowd [ id ]; ... }

Another use case for argument buffers is when running particle simulations. For this we have the resource setting on the GPU feature which refers to having an array of argument buffers, one buffer for each particle (thread). All the particle properties (position, material, and so on) are created and stored in argument buffers on the GPU so when a particle needs a specific property, such as a material, it will copy it from the argument buffers instead of getting it from the CPU thus avoiding expensive copies between them.

A copying kernel is straightforward and lets you assign constant values, do partial or complete copies between a source and a destination object:

kernel void reuse ( constant Material & source [[ buffer ( 0 ) ]], device Material & destination [[ buffer ( 1 ) ]]) { destination . intensity = 0.5 f ; destination . aTexture = source . aTexture ; destination = source ; }

Finally, we also have the use case of referencing other argument buffers ( multiple indirections ). Imagine a structure to represent an instance (character) that will have a pointer to the Material structure such that many instances can point to the same material. Likewise, imagine another structure to represent a tree of nodes where each Node would have a pointer to the Instance structure which will act as an array of instances in the node:

struct Instance { float4 position ; device Material * material ; } struct Node { device Instance * instances ; }

Note: for now, only Tier 2 devices support all these argument buffer features. Starting with Metal 2 the GPU devices are now classified as either Tier 1 (integrated) or Tier 2 (discrete).

3). Raster Order Groups - a new fragment shader synchronization primitive that allows more granular control of the order in which fragment shaders access memory. As an example, when working with custom blending, most graphics APIs guarantee that blending happens in draw call order. However, the GPU thread parallelism needs a way to prevent race conditions. Raster Order Groups do that by providing us with an implicit Wait command.

In traditional blending mode race conditions are created:

fragment void blend ( texture2d < float , access :: read_write > out [[ texture ( 0 ) ]]) { float4 newColor = 0.5 f ; // non-atomic memory access without any synchronization float4 oldColor = out . read ( position ); float4 blended = someCustomBlendingFunction ( newColor , oldColor ); out . write ( blended , position ); }

All that is needed is adding the Raster Order Groups attribute to the texture (or resource) with conflicting accesses:

fragment void blend ( texture2d < float , access :: read_write > out [[ texture ( 0 ), raster_order_group ( 0 )]]) { float4 newColor = 0.5 f ; // the GPU now waits on first access to raster ordered memory float4 oldColor = out . read ( position ); float4 blended = someCustomBlendingFunction ( newColor , oldColor ); out . write ( blended , position ); }

4). ProMotion - only for iPad Pro displays currently. Without ProMotion the typical framerate is 60 FPS ( 16.6 ms/frame):

With ProMotion the framerate goes up to 120 FPS ( 8.3 ms/frame) which is really useful for user input such as touch gestures or pencil using:

ProMotion also gives us flexibility in when to refresh the display image so we do not need to have a fixed framerate. Without ProMotion there is inconsistency in image refreshing which does not bode well for the user experience. Developers usually trade away their peak framerate to constrain all of them to 30 FPS rather than the targeted 48 FPS ( 20.83 ms/frame), to achieve consistency:

With ProMotion we now have a refresh point every 4 ms rather than every 16 ms (the vertical white lines):

ProMotion is also helping in cases of dropped frames. Without ProMotion we could have a frame that missed the deadline by taking too long to display:

ProMotion fixes this too by only extending the frame with only 4 more ms instead of a whole frame ( 16.6 ms):

UIKit animations use ProMotion automatically but to use ProMotion with Metal views you need to opt in by disabling the minimum frame duration in the project’s Info.plist file. Then you can use one of the 3 presentation APIs . The traditional present(drawable:) will present the image immediately after the GPU has finished rendering the frame ( 16.6 ms on fixed framerate displays and 4 ms on ProMotion displays). The second API is present(drawable, afterMinimumDuration:) and provides maximum consistency from frame to frame on fixed framerate displays. The third API is present(drawable, atTime:) and is useful when building custom animation loops or when trying to sync the display image with other outputs such as audio. Here is an example of how to implement it:

let targetTime = 0.1 let drawable = metalLayer . nextDrawable () commandBuffer . present ( drawable , atTime : targetTime ) // after 1-2 frames let presentationDelay = drawable . presentedTime - targetTime

First, set a time when you want to display the drawable, then render the scene into a command buffer, then wait for the next frame(s) and finally examine the delay so you can adjust the next frame time.

5). Direct to Display - is the new way to send content from the renderer directly to external displays (eg. head mounted devices used in VR ) with the least amount of latency. There are two paths an image takes after the GPU finished rendering it and before it ends on the display. The first one is the typical UI scenario when the system is compositing it with other views and layers for a final image:

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When building a full screen application that does not require blending, scaling or other views/layers, the second path is allowing the display direct access to the memory where we rendered to, thus saving a lot of system resources and avoiding a lot of overhead:

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However, this only happens when certain conditions are met:

the layer is opaque

there is no masking or rounded corners

full screen, or with opaque black bars and background

the rendered size is at most as large as the display size

color space and pixel format is compatible with display

The colorspace requirements makes it easier to know when Direct to Display mode will work. For example, it is easy to detect if you are using a P3 display and disable the P3 mode when trying to use the Direct to Display mode.

6). Other Features - include but are not limited to:

memory usage queries - there are now new APIs to query memory use per allocation, as well as total GPU memory allocated by the device:

MTLResource . allocatedSize MTLHeap . currentAllocatedSize MTLDevice . currentAllocatedSize

SIMDGroup scoped functions - allow data sharing between SIMD groups directly in the registers by avoiding load/store operations: ￼

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non-uniform threadgroup sizes - help us not waste GPU cycles and avoid working on edge/bound cases: ￼

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Viewport Arrays on macOS now support up to 16 viewports for the vertex function to choose from when rendering, and is useful for VR when combined with instancing.

on now support up to viewports for the vertex function to choose from when rendering, and is useful for when combined with instancing. Multisample Pattern Control - allows selecting where within a pixel the MSAA sample patters are located and it’s useful for custom anti-aliasing.

- allows selecting where within a pixel the sample patters are located and it’s useful for custom anti-aliasing. Resource Heaps are now also available on macOS . It allows controlling the time of memory allocation, fast reallocation, aliasing of resources and group related resources for faster binding.

are now also available on . It allows controlling the time of memory allocation, fast reallocation, aliasing of resources and group related resources for faster binding. other features include:

Feature Description Linear Textures Create textures from a MTLBuffer without copying. Function Constant for Argument Indexes Specialize bytecodes to change the binding index for shader arguments. Additional Vertex Array Formats Add some 1-/2-component vertex formats and a BGRA8 vertex format. IOSurface Textures Create MTLTextures from IOSurfaces on iOS . Dual Source Blending Additional blending modes with two source parameters.

I made a table with the most important new features, which states whether the feature is new in the latest version of the operating system or not. ￼

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Finally, here are a few lines I wrote to test the differences between my integrated and discrete GPUs : ￼

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All images were taken from WWDC presentations and the source code is posted on Github as usual.

Until next time!