The report traces these practices back to mid-19th century “early sexuality science”, Freudian concepts, and theories attributing homosexuality to “arrested pschosexual development”.

In the 1970s, as sexuality was declassified as “mental disorder” by medical associations in several countries, organised “ex-gay” movements emerged in the US, Canada, and Australia.

At this time new organisations were set up like Love in Action, Exodus International, and Restoration Ministries that promoted conversion therapy. By 2002, Exodus International had 250 ‘local ministries’ in North America, and more than 150 affiliates around the world.

Today many conversion therapy groups have rebranded their activities, notes the report, using scientific and human rights language in their public materials for example. New technology including social media apps have made it easier to target young LGBTIQ people, it adds.

One example is a group called 3:16 Church that promotes conversion therapy online. Its TrueLove.Is website is “bathed in rainbow colors and soothing language" inviting browsers to “come out and come home”.

In Africa, Bishop points to the role of European colonisation in the 19th and 20th centuries in fostering anti-LGBTIQ attitudes – and legislation.

More recently, she said that “as the religious right loses ground” in fights against LGBTIQ people in Europe, North America and Australia, including on same-sex marriage equality, they “have turned increasingly to countries where they believe their agenda will resonate”.

Zambian scholar and Anglican priest Kapya Kaoma has identified a 1998 conference hosted by the Archbishop of Canterbury in the UK – where he said “African bishops and other leaders were told that homosexuality could be cured” – as a key moment in the spread of these practices.

Sjödin says “there are definitely elements of US presence” in conversion therapy across the world. However, she says, these activities “require further investigation” and are “not entirely driven by American churches”.

The White Garment churches in Nigeria, for example, appear to be expanding and exporting conversion therapy tactics to the rest of Africa, says Bishop. The report also reflects seemingly widespread conversion therapy in China, unconnected to US influence and religious groups.

In China, these practices have occurred in at least 134 places, including hospitals, clinics, psychiatric wards and public health facilities, according to a study by LGBT Rights Advocacy Group China earlier this year. Meanwhile researchers expect true figures to be much higher.

Outright’s report says all Chinese respondents to its survey attributed their “treatment” to family and social pressure, rather than religion.

It suggests that the country’s one-child policy, combined with parents’ intense pressure for their children to marry, fuel these practices – along with sexual orientation’s continued classification as a “disorder” in the clinical guide used by doctors to diagnose mental health issues.

While Taiwan’s legislators passed a bill in May that endorsed same-sex marriage, this week a Chinese parliamentary spokesperson said the law only allowed for marriage between a man and a woman, which “suits our country’s national condition and historical and cultural traditions”.