Nobody in Austria wants girls who have not even reached puberty to wear Muslim headscarves: neither the government, nor the opposition, nor teachers, nor education experts, nor those imams who express their views in public. The Islamic Religious Authority in Austria (IGGÖ), recognized officially as the representative of Muslims in the country, is also clearly against it. But despite this extremely broad consensus, the issue has become a hot topic in Austria, a country that is admittedly always rather excitable. The internet is brimming with comments on the issue, and Austrian parliamentary debates have been marked by heated arguments from both sides.

All this hubbub says nothing about the social significance of the issue. Instead, it shows just how skilled Austria's right-wing government really is at manipulating public opinion.

On Thursday, the Austrian Parliament voted to ban girls in primary school from wearing Muslim headscarves. The Social Democrats (SPÖ) and liberal NEOS party voted against the law. Parents whose girls wear a headscarf could face a fine of up to €440 ($490). The law was passed despite the fact that there have been few actual cases of girls wearing headscarves at primary school in Austria. In the state of Tyrol, 19 such instances have been reported. So this entire political undertaking served only the purpose of stoking anti-Islam sentiment among government supporters, framing the opposition as spineless and polarizing the liberal public sphere.

Yarmulke, mitra or veil: religious head coverings across the globe Yarmulke European Jews started wearing the yarmulke, or kippa, in the 17th and 18th centuries, turning the skullcap into a religious symbol. Pious Jews are expected to cover their heads, but the fabric isn't that important, and a hat or scarf is acceptable, too. Jewish Halacha law requires men and boys to cover their head when they pray, visit a synagogue or a Jewish cemetery or study the religion.

Yarmulke, mitra or veil: religious head coverings across the globe Miter The miter is the ceremonial headdress worn by bishops, mainly in the Roman-Catholic Church. It goes back to the 11th century, with the tall, peaked hat deeply cleft on the sides and adorned with two ribbons at the back symbolizing the Old and the New Testaments.

Yarmulke, mitra or veil: religious head coverings across the globe Dastar Members of the Sikh faith, a monotheistic religion founded in India's northern Punjab region in the 15th century, wear a dastar. A dastar is usually worn by men, with orange being a popular color. Underneath the cloth headwear, which is re-knotted every morning, Sikh men let their hair grow freely.

Yarmulke, mitra or veil: religious head coverings across the globe Chador In Farsi, the word chador means "tent," and that is what this garment worn by observant Muslim women in some parts of the Middle East resembles. Usually black, it covers a woman from the head down, hiding the shape of the body, revealing only the face. The chador is worn over a woman's regular clothing.

Yarmulke, mitra or veil: religious head coverings across the globe Nun's veil Nuns almost always wear a distinctive veil to complete their religious garment, the habit. Novices' veils are white, while professed nuns usually wear a black veil, or one in their habit's color. Depending on the religious order, veils come in different sizes and shapes. Some are elaborate and cover the woman's entire head; others are simply pinned to the sister's hair.

Yarmulke, mitra or veil: religious head coverings across the globe Headscarf Is a woman's headscarf a religious headdress, or a symbol of oppression? In the West in particular, that continues to be a matter of heated debate. It is certainly the most well-known female head covering. Turkish women (as in this photo) tie headscarves differently from women in Arabic countries.

Yarmulke, mitra or veil: religious head coverings across the globe Sheitel The ultra-Orthodox Hasidic Jewish community in New York has strict rules for married women, who are required to shave their hair and wear a wig, the "sheitel." In her 2012 bestseller memoir "Unorthodox," US author Deborah Feldman describes growing up in the ultra-religious group.

Yarmulke, mitra or veil: religious head coverings across the globe Birett A bit of cloth, strips of cardboard and a tassel — voila, the birett, a head covering worn by Roman Catholic priests since the 13th century. In the Netherlands, Germany, Britain and France, the hat has four corners. In many other countries, it has three.

Yarmulke, mitra or veil: religious head coverings across the globe Birett A bit of cloth, strips of cardboard and a tassle — voila, the birett, a head covering worn by Roman Catholic priests since the 13th century. In the Netherlands, Germany, Britain and France, the hat has four corners. In many other countries, it has three. If you remember the character Don Camillo (played by French actor Fernandel in a series of films in the 1950s and '60s), you know the hat!

Yarmulke, mitra or veil: religious head coverings across the globe Tagelmust The cotton scarf that can be up to 15 meters long is worn by Tuareg Berber Muslim men throughout western Africa. The tagelmust covers the head and is pulled over the mouth and nose against wind-born sand in the desert. The turban-style headdress is worn by adult men only. When indigo blue, the tagelmust's dye can rub off on the skin, hence the Tuareg being called the "blue men of the desert."

Yarmulke, mitra or veil: religious head coverings across the globe Shtreimel The Jewish shtreimel hat is made of velvet and has a wide fur trim, usually sable. Married men wear the hat on Jewish holidays and for religious festivities. The eye-catching headgear originated in Hasidic communities in southeastern Europe, a tradition that became nearly extinct in Europe after the Holocaust.

Yarmulke, mitra or veil: religious head coverings across the globe Hats and bonnets The Amish are a conservative Christian group in North America that originated in the tradition of the Anabaptist movement in Switzerland and southern Germany. The first Amish fled to the US in the early 18th century to escape religious persecution. They live simple lives, and shun modern technology and conveniences. The women wear plain bonnets; the men wear straw or felt hats. Author: Klaus Krämer (db)



Taking aim at Islam, without mentioning it

Former Vice Chancellor Heinz-Christian Strache of the far-right Freedom Party of Austria (FPÖ), who initiated the law, and Chancellor Sebastian Kurz of the conservative Austrian People's Party (ÖVP) initially even wanted to amend the constitution. Under Austrian law, this would have meant that the new rule was in no danger of being overturned by the Constitutional Court. But the social democrats and liberals opposed this, and the constitutional amendment did not pass, as a two-thirds majority would have been needed. So what is now just a normal law will likely still give rise to further debates along the lines of the previous ones.

Norbert Mappes-Niedeck writes for many German-language newspapers

For the law to be legally valid, the word "Islam" could not be mentioned. So instead, it stipulates that the wearing of any "ideologically or religiously influenced clothing which is associated with the covering of the head" is banned. This phrasing allows the Jewish kippa to be worn, but not Sikh turbans. These latter were, however, expressly exempted from the ban on covering the head in a statement from the parliamentary committee in charge of the issue. A clever move: The court is not allowed to challenge the findings of such a committee.

However, the new law could be challenged by the European Court of Human Rights in Strasbourg, as its jurisdiction stipulates that headscarves may be banned by a state only if it upholds a "principle of neutrality" with regard to all religions. And this is far from being the case in Austria, where crucifixes are mandatory in classrooms.

Read more: Unveiling the history of the headscarf

Unconvincing arguments

After the law was made legally airtight for the time being, the way was cleared for attacks on critics from the liberal camp. The government argued that the headscarf led to "gender-based segregation." This is an unconvincing point to make in a country where rural children are still obliged by schools to wear traditional dirndl dresses and leather pants on special occasions – dirndls for girls and pants for boys, needless to say. ÖVP lawmaker Rudolf Taschner, a dyed-in-the-wool right-winger, called the headscarf a "symbol for the oppression of women and girls" and promised to "fight with all his power for enlightened principles."

The same lawmaker, incidentally, also wants denominational religion classes to be obligatory for all schoolchildren, even those who belong to no religion or denomination at all.

And Education Minister Heinz Fassmann, who tends to the rational rather than the ideological in his ideas, was once again put in the position of having to come up with liberal arguments to justify the government's "fight against political Islam."

How will the law affect schools?

So far, there is hardly any debate in Austria about how the new law will actually impact schools. They seem not to be that important in this matter. Critics have pointed out that young girls are not necessarily forced by fundamentalist fathers to wear the headscarf, but may simply be imitating their mothers or aunts. The fact that the law only applies at schools has also been criticized. This could have the effect of alienating children from this institution and instead lead them to retreat into the intimacy of the family, as happens with children in sects, the critics say.

Kenan Güngör, a German sociologist based in Vienna, argues that the ban could make conservative Muslim parents more receptive to radical Islamist groups. He also argues that children who do not differentiate between their parents' religious beliefs and their own identity could gain the impression that they are unwanted.

The Austrian government, which just cut back funds for integration measures by €80 million euro ($90 million), does not seem concerned by all this. On the contrary: As long as there seems to be a chance that its culture war in classrooms will end in victory, it wages it with majority support. Before his resignation, Vice Chancellor Strache had already announced plans to extend the headscarf ban to the age of 14.

Norbert Mappes-Niediek lives in Graz, Austria and is the southeastern Europe correspondent for numerous German-language newspapers.

Modern and modest: 'Contemporary Muslim Fashions' on show Modern yet modest Focusing on contemporary Muslim style, the exhibition "Contemporary Muslim Fashions" held at Frankfurt's Museum Angewandte Kunst was first shown in San Francisco. The show examines a branch of fashion that is often talked about, but which is rarely given a forum to present itself. Among the exhibits is this design made of silk and Swarovski crystals by Malaysian luxury designer Bernard Chandran.

Modern and modest: 'Contemporary Muslim Fashions' on show Political message The show also deals with Islamophobia: The First Amendment of the US Constitution is printed in Arabic on this bomber jacket. Among other things, the amendment lays out freedom of religion. The jacket was designed by Lebanese designer Celine Semaan Vernon. She came to Canada as a refugee with her parents at the end of the 1980s and then moved to the US.

Modern and modest: 'Contemporary Muslim Fashions' on show An answer to Trump's 'Muslim Ban' Celine Semaan repeatedly uses her designs to make political statements. In 2017, for example, she designed her "banned" scarves. Some of the scarves feature a satellite photograph of the countries affected by US President Trump's travel ban. The model in this photo is Iranian-American political fashion blogger Hoda Katebi.

Modern and modest: 'Contemporary Muslim Fashions' on show Sports fashion In addition to clothes, jackets and political scarves, the exhibition also deals with sports fashion. Among the exhibits are a Nike sports hijab and as well as this burkini designed by Shereen Sabet for her company Splashgear. The swimsuit has stirred controversy in different countries, especially in France where it was banned in some cities.

Modern and modest: 'Contemporary Muslim Fashions' on show Tempted by the hijab The Frankfurt exhibition includes pieces to demonstrate that modest fashion does not always mean women must cover. The young German-Turkish designer Feyza Baycelebi signed this creation, part of her collection "Die Lust an Verhüllung" — which translates as the desire or the pleasure to veil.

Modern and modest: 'Contemporary Muslim Fashions' on show 'Resist' Naomi Afia from Vienna is another designer promoting empowerment through modest fashion. Her collection "Our Bodies Our Business" demonstrates the variety of styles one can adopt as a Muslim. "I wanted to make a statement for self-determination, a statement against constraints on what people should wear or not, whether these constraints come from one side or the other," the designer said.

Modern and modest: 'Contemporary Muslim Fashions' on show Modest fashion made in Europe Austrian designer Imen Bousnina featured her debut collection at Modest Fashion Weeks in 2018. First initiated in Dubai, such fashion events are now held in Istanbul, London and Jakarta as well. Modest fashion in Europe is mostly imported from Islamic countries like Turkey; this is something Bousnina hopes to change by creating her own designs.

Modern and modest: 'Contemporary Muslim Fashions' on show High-fashion niqabs Photographer Wesaam Al-Badr, who was born in Iraq but fled to the US with his family during the Gulf War, wanted to comment on the Western perception of the niqab through his series "Al-Kouture," showing women wearing designer scarves by brands like Chanel, repurposed as high-fashion pieces. It was a form of "soft protest," he says. Would the French would more readily accept a niqab signed Hermès?

Modern and modest: 'Contemporary Muslim Fashions' on show Having fun despite restrictions This photo is part of the series "Occupied Pleasures," by Tanya Habjouqa. Her portraits shows how people occupy themselves in Israeli-occupied territories. Here girls play javelin right by the Israeli West Bank barrier. The photos won several awards, including a World Press Photo award in 2014.

Modern and modest: 'Contemporary Muslim Fashions' on show Social networks: Platforms for expression Countless bloggers, influencers and fashion magazines are dedicated to the Muslim fashion world. On Instagram, so-called "hijabistas" celebrate the traditional headscarf as a fashion must-have. This aspect is also addressed in the exhibition "Contemporary Muslim Fashions," which can be seen in Frankfurt until September 15. Author: Antje Binder, Elizabeth Grenier



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