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In this article, we experiment with triggers as a tool for keeping aggregated data consistent when using Active Record and your favorite SQL database. Instead of using sophisticated tools such as ElasticSearch for filtering and searching, we will demonstrate a simple approach that achieves the same result with some out-of-the-box database features. As a bonus, learn how to avoid nasty race conditions!

You can find all the examples in the gist.

Sometimes you need to sort and filter records in the database by some aggregated values. For instance, you might be building a paginated list of users in an admin panel, and you want to implement filtering by the number of orders and the total amount that users have spent on them. There are several tools like ElasticSearch, which are good at filtering by aggregates, but setting up a massive search engine and all required infrastructure to process a couple of columns sounds like an overkill. Let’s find a more straightforward way!

Trigger finger

We use PostgreSQL in all our examples.

Imagine the following data model:

ActiveRecord :: Schema . define do create_table "orders" , force: :cascade do | t | t . bigint "user_id" , null: false t . decimal "amount" t . datetime "created_at" , precision: 6 , null: false t . datetime "updated_at" , precision: 6 , null: false t . index [ "user_id" ], name: "index_orders_on_user_id" end create_table "users" , force: :cascade do | t | t . datetime "created_at" , precision: 6 , null: false t . datetime "updated_at" , precision: 6 , null: false end add_foreign_key "orders" , "users" end class User < ActiveRecord :: Base has_many :orders end class Order < ActiveRecord :: Base belongs_to :user end

Let’s see how we can filter and paginate users by their order total. We can easily achieve our goal with the vanilla SQL statement, but we will immediately run into performance issues. To demonstrate, let’s fill the database with 10,000 users and 100,000 orders and use explain:

User . insert_all ( 10_000 . times . map { { created_at: Time . now , updated_at: Time . now } }) Order . insert_all ( 10_000 . times . map do { user_id: rand ( 1 ... 1000 ), amount: rand ( 1000 ) / 10.0 , created_at: Time . now , updated_at: Time . now } end ) ActiveRecord :: Base . connection . execute <<~ SQL EXPLAIN ANALYZE SELECT users.id, SUM(orders.amount), COUNT(orders.id) FROM users JOIN orders ON orders.user_id = users.id GROUP BY users.id HAVING SUM(orders.amount) > 100 AND COUNT(orders.id) > 1 ORDER BY SUM(orders.amount) LIMIT 50 SQL

This is the result you might see:

Limit ( cost = 3206 . 16 .. 3206 . 29 rows = 50 width = 48 ) ( actual time = 59 . 737 .. 59 . 746 rows = 50 loops = 1 ) -> Sort ( cost = 3206 . 16 .. 3208 . 95 rows = 1116 width = 48 ) ( actual time = 59 . 736 .. 59 . 739 rows = 50 loops = 1 ) Sort Key : ( sum ( orders . amount )) Sort Method : top - N heapsort Memory : 31 kB -> HashAggregate ( cost = 2968 . 13 .. 3169 . 09 rows = 1116 width = 48 ) ( actual time = 59 . 103 .. 59 . 452 rows = 1000 loops = 1 ) Group Key : users . id Filter : (( sum ( orders . amount ) > '100' :: numeric ) AND ( count ( orders . id ) > 1 )) -> Hash Join ( cost = 290 . 08 .. 2050 . 73 rows = 73392 width = 48 ) ( actual time = 2 . 793 .. 37 . 022 rows = 100000 loops = 1 ) Hash Cond : ( orders . user_id = users . id ) -> Seq Scan on orders ( cost = 0 . 00 .. 1567 . 92 rows = 73392 width = 48 ) ( actual time = 0 . 011 .. 11 . 650 rows = 100000 loops = 1 ) -> Hash ( cost = 164 . 48 .. 164 . 48 rows = 10048 width = 8 ) ( actual time = 2 . 760 .. 2 . 760 rows = 10000 loops = 1 ) Buckets : 16384 Batches : 1 Memory Usage : 519 kB -> Seq Scan on users ( cost = 0 . 00 .. 164 . 48 rows = 10048 width = 8 ) ( actual time = 0 . 006 .. 1 . 220 rows = 10000 loops = 1 ) Planning Time : 0 . 237 ms Execution Time : 64 . 151 ms

You can find a single file implementation of the example above in this gist.

With a bigger database, it will take even more time! We need to find a better solution, the one that scales. Let’s denormalize our database and store orders_amount in the separate user_stats table:

class CreateUserStats < ActiveRecord :: Migration [ 6.0 ] def change create_table :user_stats do | t | t . integer :user_id , null: false , foreign_key: true t . decimal :orders_amount t . integer :orders_count t . index :user_id , unique: true end end end

Now we should decide how to keep orders_count and orders_amount in sync. ActiveRecord callbacks do not look like a proper place to handle such operations, because we want to have our stats updated even when data is changed with a plain SQL (e.g., in the migration). There is a built-in counter_cache option for the belongs_to association, but it cannot help us with orders_amount . Triggers to the rescue!

A trigger is a function that is automatically invoked when INSERT, UPDATE, or DELETE is performed on the table.

Heads up! There is a known hair_trigger issue with Rails 6 and Zeitwerk, if you face it–feel free to use my fork for now. Don’t forget to switch back when the fix is out!

To work with triggers from our Rails app, we can use gems like hair_trigger, fx, or even write them by hand. In this example, we use hair_trigger , which can generate migrations for trigger updates using only the latest version of the SQL procedure.

Let’s add our trigger to the Order model. We want to perform the UPSERT: if there is no row with the matching user_id in the user_stats table–we add a new row, otherwise–update the existing one (make sure there is a unique constraint on the user_id column):

class Order < ActiveRecord :: Base belongs_to :user trigger . after ( :insert ) do <<~ SQL INSERT INTO user_stats (user_id, orders_amount, orders_count) SELECT NEW.user_id as user_id, SUM(orders.amount) as orders_amount, COUNT(orders.id) as orders_count FROM orders WHERE orders.user_id = NEW.user_id ON CONFLICT (user_id) DO UPDATE SET orders_amount = EXCLUDED.orders_amount, orders_count = EXCLUDED.orders_count; SQL end end

Now we should generate the migration with rake db:generate_trigger_migration , run migrations with rails db:migrate , and run the application.

Off to the races

It might seem to be working, but what if we try to insert multiple orders in parallel? (you can run the following code as a rake task or check my implementation here)

user = User . create threads = [] 4 . times do threads << Thread . new ( user . id ) do | user_id | user = User . find ( user_id ) user . orders . create ( amount: rand ( 1000 ) / 10.0 ) end end threads . each ( & :join ) inconsistent_stats = UserStat . joins ( user: :orders ) . where ( user_id: user . id ) . having ( "user_stats.orders_amount <> SUM(orders.amount)" ) . group ( "user_stats.id" ) if inconsistent_stats . any? calculated_amount = UserStat . find_by ( user: user ). orders_amount real_amount = Order . where ( user: user ). sum ( :amount ). to_f puts puts "Race condition detected:" puts "calculated amount: #{ calculated_amount } " puts "real amount: #{ real_amount } ." else puts puts "Data is consistent." end

There is a huge chance that there will be a race condition, but why? The problem is that the trigger runs inside the current transaction, and the default isolation level is READ COMMITTED , which cannot handle race conditions.

PostgreSQL supports four levels of transaction isolation–READ UNCOMMITTED, READ COMMITTED, REPEATABLE READ and SERIALIZABLE

The obvious solution is to use a stricter SERIALIZABLE isolation level, but, unfortunately, an isolation level cannot be changed inside a running transaction. Creating a new explicit transaction every time we work with orders does not sound right either, so let’s try another approach for making sure our triggers are always executed in sequence–advisory locks.

The only thing we need to change is to add lock PERFORM pg_advisory_xact_lock(NEW.user_id); at the beginning of our procedure code:

class Order < ActiveRecord :: Base belongs_to :user trigger . after ( :insert ) do <<~ SQL PERFORM pg_advisory_xact_lock(NEW.user_id); INSERT INTO user_stats (user_id, orders_amount, orders_count) SELECT NEW.user_id as user_id, SUM(orders.amount) as orders_amount, COUNT(orders.id) as orders_count FROM orders WHERE orders.user_id = NEW.user_id ON CONFLICT (user_id) DO UPDATE SET orders_amount = EXCLUDED.orders_amount, orders_count = EXCLUDED.orders_count; SQL end end

It’s way faster! The updated version of the code is here, if you run it, you’ll see that race condition is gone, and the app can handle parallel requests. Let’s add the index to the orders_amount column in the user_stats table, change the query, and compare the performance:

EXPLAIN ANALYZE SELECT user_id , orders_amount , orders_count FROM user_stats WHERE orders_amount > 100 AND orders_count > 1 ORDER BY orders_amount LIMIT 50 Limit ( cost = 0 . 29 .. 22 . 99 rows = 50 width = 40 ) ( actual time = 0 . 059 .. 11 . 241 rows = 50 loops = 1 ) -> Index Scan using index_user_stats_on_orders_amount on user_stats ( cost = 0 . 29 .. 3438 . 69 rows = 7573 width = 40 ) ( actual time = 0 . 058 .. 11 . 2 rows = 50 loops = 1 ) Index Cond : ( orders_amount > '100' :: numeric ) Filter : ( orders_count > 1 ) Planning Time : 0 . 105 ms Execution Time : 11 . 272 ms

Lock-free alternative

There is a way (suggested by Sergey Ponomarev) to achieve the same result without locks and make it work faster—use deltas:

class Order < ActiveRecord :: Base belongs_to :user trigger . after ( :insert ) do <<~ SQL INSERT INTO user_stats (user_id, orders_amount, orders_count) SELECT NEW.user_id as user_id, NEW.amount as orders_amount, 1 as orders_count ON CONFLICT (user_id) DO UPDATE SET orders_amount = user_stats.orders_amount + EXCLUDED.orders_amount, orders_count = user_stats.orders_count + EXCLUDED.orders_count; SQL end end

You can find the full implementation here

The trick here is not to use any subqueries, so race conditions would not be possible. As a bonus, you’ll get better performance when inserting new records. This approach might come handy for simple cases like the one described in this article, but when you are dealing with more complex logic, you might want to resort to locks (imagine that orders have statuses, we need to cache counts of orders in each status and orders can be updated).

Loop instead of UPSERT

The example of a loop inside the trigger is here

In previous examples, we use UPSERT, which was introduced in PostgreSQL 9.5, but what if we use the older version? Let’s review how the trigger works again: it tries to insert a new row into the user_stats table and, if a conflict happens, it updates the existing row. In the real-world application there will be conflicts most of the time (to be precise–insert happens only once for each user). We can use this fact and rewrite our trigger in the following way:

class Order < ActiveRecord :: Base belongs_to :user trigger . after ( :insert ) do <<~ SQL <<insert_update>> LOOP UPDATE user_stats SET orders_count = orders_count + 1, orders_amount = orders_amount + NEW.amount WHERE user_id = NEW.user_id; EXIT insert_update WHEN FOUND; BEGIN INSERT INTO user_stats ( user_id, orders_amount, orders_count ) VALUES ( NEW.user_id, 1, NEW.amount ); EXIT insert_update; EXCEPTION WHEN UNIQUE_VIOLATION THEN -- do nothing END; END LOOP insert_update; SQL end end

In this case, we have inverted our logic: trigger tries to update the existing row, and if it misses—the new row gets inserted.

Working with aggregated data is hard: when you have a lot of counter (and other kinds of) caches, it makes sense to use a special tool for that. However, for simple cases, we can stay with good old database triggers: when configured properly, they are quite performant!