1. Bottke, W. F. et al. Stochastic late accretion to Earth, the Moon, and Mars. Science 330, 1527–1530 (2010).

2. Schlichting, H. E., Warren, P. H. & Yin, Q.-Z. The last stages of terrestrial planet formation: dynamical friction and the late veneer. Astrophys. J. 752, 8–16 (2012).

3. Morbidelli, A. et al. A sawtooth-like timeline for the first billion years of lunar bombardment. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 355-356, 144–151 (2012).

4. Neukum, G., Ivanov, B. A. & Hartmann, W. K. Cratering records in the inner solar system in relation to the lunar reference system. Space Sci. Rev. 96, 55–86 (2001).

5. Day, J. M. D. & Walker, R. J. Highly siderophile element depletion in the Moon. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 423, 114–124 (2015).

6. Day, J. M. D. et al. Osmium isotope and highly siderophile element systematics of the lunar crust. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 289, 595–605 (2010).

7. Elkins-Tanton, L., Burgess, S. & Yin, Q. Z. The lunar magma ocean: reconciling the solidification process with lunar petrology and geochronology. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 304, 326–336 (2011).

8. Borg, L. E. et al. Chronological evidence that the Moon is either young or did not have a global magma ocean. Nature 477, 70–72 (2011).

9. Morbidelli, A. et al. The timeline of the lunar bombardment: revisited. Icarus 305, 262–276 (2018).

10. Canup, R. M. Forming a Moon with an Earth-like composition via a giant impact. Science 338, 1052–1055 (2012).

11. Cuk, M. & Stewart S. T. Making the Moon from a fast-spinning Earth: a giant impact followed by resonant despinning. Science 338, 1047–1052 (2012).

12. Jones, J. H. & Drake, M. J. Core formation and Earth’s late accretionary history. Nature 323, 470–471 (1986).

13. Morgan, J. W., Walker, R. J., Brandon, A. D. & Horan, M. F. Siderophile elements in Earth’s upper mantle and lunar breccias: data synthesis suggests manifestations of the same late influx. Meteorit. Planet. Sci. 36, 1257–1275 (2001).

14. Walker, R. J. Highly siderophile elements in the Earth, Moon and Mars: update and implications for planetary accretion and differentiation. Chem. Erde Geochem. 69, 101–125 (2009).

15. Warren, P. H., Jerde, E. A. & Kallemeyn, G. W. Prisitine Moon rocks: Apollo 17 anorthosites. Proc. Lunar Planet. Sci. Conf. 21, 51–61 (1991).

16. Ryder, G. Mass flux in the ancient Earth-Moon system and benign implications for the origin of life on Earth. J. Geophys. Res. 107 (E4), 5022 (2002).

17. Kraus, R. G. et al. Impact vaporization of planetesimal cores in the late stages of planet formation. Nat. Geosci. 8, 269–272 (2015).

18. Artemieva, N. A. & Shuvalov, V. V. Numerical simulation of high-velocity impact ejecta following falls of comets and asteroids onto the Moon. Sol. Syst. Res. 42, 329–334 (2008).

19. Elbeshausen D. et al. The transition from circular to elliptical impact crater. J. Geophys. Res. 118, 2295–2309 (2013).

20. Le Feuvre, M. & Wieczorek, M. A. Nonuniform cratering of the Moon and a revised crater chronology of the inner solar system. Icarus 214, 1–20 (2011).

21. Shoemaker, E. M. in Physics and Astronomy of the Moon (ed. Kopal, Z.) 283–359 (Academic, 1962).

22. Holsapple, K. A. & Housen, K. R. A crater and its ejecta: an interpretation of deep impact. Icarus 191, 586–597 (2007).

23. Wieczorek, M. A. et al. The crust of the Moon as seen by GRAIL. Science 339, 671–675 (2013).

24. Norman, M. D. et al. Chronology, geochemistry, and petrology of a ferroan noritic anorthosite clast from Descartes breccia 67215: clues to the age, origin, structure, and impact history of the lunar crust. Meteorit. Planet. Sci. 38, 645–661 (2003).

25. Kleine, T. et al. Hf-W chronology of the accretion and early evolution of asteroids and terrestrial planets. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 73, 5150–5188 (2009).

26. Borg, L. E. et al. A review of lunar chronology revealing a preponderance of 4.34–4.37 Ga ages. Meteorit. Planet. Sci. 50, 715–732 (2015).

27. Nemchin, A. et al. Timing of crystallization of the lunar magma ocean constrained by the oldest ziron. Nat. Geosci. 2, 133–136 (2009).

28. Rubie, D. C. et al. Highly siderophile elements were stripped from Earth’s mantle by iron sulfide segregation. Science 353, 1141–1144 (2016).

29. Miljković, K. et al. Excavation of the lunar mantle by basin-forming impact events on the Moon. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 409, 243–251 (2015).

30. Neumann, G. A. et al. Lunar impact basins revealed by Gravity Recovery and Interior Laboratory measurements. Sci. Adv. 1, e1500852 (2015).

31. Frey, H. in Recent Advances and Current Research Issues in Lunar Stratigraphy Vol. 477 (eds Ambrose, W. A. & Williams, D. A.) 53–75 (Geological Society of America, 2011).

32. Kamata, S. et al. The relative timing of lunar magma ocean solidification and the late heavy bombardment inferred from highly degraded impact basin structures. Icarus 250, 492–503 (2015).

33. Elkins-Tanton, L. Linked magma ocean solidification and atmospheric growth for Earth and Mars. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 271, 181–191 (2008).

34. Day, J. M. D., Pearson, D. G. & Taylor, L. A. Highly siderophile element constraints on accretion and differentiation of the Earth-Moon system. Science 315, 217–219 (2007).

35. Day, J. M. D., Brandon, A. D. & Walker, R. J. Highly siderophile elements in Earth, Mars, the Moon, and Asteroids. Rev. Mineral. Geochem. 81, 161–238 (2016).

36. Day, J. M. D. Geochemical constraints on residual metal and sulfide in the sources of lunar mare basalts. Am. Mineral. 103, 1734–1740 (2018).

37. Walker, R. J., Horan, M. F., Shearer, C. K. & Papike, J. J. Low abundances of highly siderophile elements in the lunar mantle: evidence for prolonged late accretion. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 224, 399–413 (2004).

38. Taylor, G. J. & Wieczorek, M. A. Lunar bulk chemical composition: a post-Gravity recovery and Interior Laboratory reassessment. Phil. Trans. A 372, 20130242 (2014).

39. Morgan, J. W., Gros, J., Takahashi, H. & Hertogen, H. Lunar breccia 73215: siderophile and volatile elements. Proc. Lunar Sci. Conf. 7, 2189–2199 (1976).

40. Gros, J., Tahahashi, H., Hertogen, J. Morgan, J. W. & Anders, E. Composition of the projectiles that bombarded the lunar highlands. Proc. Lunar Sci. Conf. 7, 2403–2425 (1976).

41. Norman, M. D., Bennett, V. C. & Ryder, G. Targeting the impactors: siderophile element signatures of lunar impact melts from Serenatatis. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 202, 217–228 (2002).

42. Puchtel, I. S. et al. Osmium isotope and highly siderophile element systematics of lunar impact melt breccias: implications for the late accretion history of the Moon and Earth. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 72, 3022–3042 (2008).

43. Gleißner, P. & Becker, H. Formation of Apollo 16 impactites and the composition of late accreted material: constraints from Os isotopes, highly siderophile elements and sulfur abundances. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 200, 1–24 (2017).

44. Schultz, P. H. & Gault, D. E. Prolonged global catastrophes from oblique impacts. Spec. Pap. Geol. Soc. Am. 247, 239–262 (1990).

45. Daly, R. T. & Shultz, P. H. Predictions for impactor contamination on Ceres based on hypervelocity impact experiments. Geophys. Res. Lett. 42, 7890–7898 (2015).

46. Daly, R. T. & Shultz, P. H. Delivering a projectile component to the vestan regolith. Icarus 264, 9–19 (2016).

47. Daly, R. T. & Schultz, P. H. Projectile preservation during oblique hypervelocity impacts. Meteorit. Planet. Sci. 54, 1364–1390 (2018).

48. Thompson, S. L. & Lauson, H. S. Improvements in the CHART D Radiation- Hydrodynamic Code III: Revised Analytic Equations of State. Report SC-RR-71 0714 (Sandia National Laboratory, 1972).

49. Benz, W. et al. The origin of the Moon and the single-impact hypothesis III. Icarus 81, 113–131 (1989).

50. Lee, D.-C. & Halliday, A. N. Core formation on Mars and differentiated asteroids. Nature 388, 854–857 (1997).

51. Davison, T. M. et al. Numerical modeling of oblique hypervelocity impacts on strong ductile targets. Meteorit. Planet. Sci. 46, 1510–1524 (2011).

52. Potter, R. W. et al. in Large Meteorite Impacts and Planetary Evolution V (eds Osinski, G. R. & Kring, D. A.) 99–113 (Lunar and Planetary Institute, 2015).

53. Marchi, S. et al. A new chronology for the Moon and Mercury. Astron. J. 137, 4936–4948 (2009).

54. Collins, G. S., Melosh, H. J. & Ivanov, B. A. Modeling damage and deformation in impact simulations. Meteorit. Planet. Sci. 39, 217–231 (2004).

55. Ahrens, T. J. & O’Keefe, J. D. Shock melting and vaporization of lunar rocks and minerals. Moon 4, 214–249 (1972).

56. Pierazzo, E., Vickery, A. M. & Melosh, H. J. A reevaluation of impact melt product. Icarus 127, 408–423 (1997).

57. Pierazzo, E. & Melosh, H. J. Hydrocode modeling of oblique impacts: the fate of the projectile. Meteorit. Planet. Sci. 35, 117–130 (2000).

58. Marchi, S. et al. Widespread mixing and burial of Earth’s hadean crust by asteroid impacts. Nature 511, 578–582 (2014).

59. Schultz, P. H. & Sugita, S. Fate of the Chicxulub impactor. In 28th Annu. Lunar Planet. Sci. Conf. 1261–1262 (1997).

60. Collins, G. S., Miljkovic, K. & Davison, T. M. The effect of planetary curvature on impact crater ellipticity. EPSC Abstr. 8, EPSC2013-989 (2013).

61. Bottke, W. F. et al. Dating the Moon-forming impact event with asteroidal meteorites. Science 348, 321–323 (2015).

62. Laneuville, M., Wieczorek, M., and Breuer, D. Asymmetric thermal evolution of the Moon. J. Geophys. Res. Planets 118, 1435–1452 (2013).

63. Ivanov, B. A. & Artemieva, N. A. in Catastrophic Events and Mass Extinctions: Impacts and Beyond Vol. 356 (eds Koeberl, C. & MacLeod, K. G.) 619–630 (Geological Society of America, 2002).

64. Miljkovic, K. et al. Asymmetric distribution of lunar impact basins caused by variations in target properties. Science 342, 724–726 (2013).

65. Freed, A. M. et al. The formation of lunar mascon basins from impact to contemporary form. J. Geophys. Res. 119, 2378–2397 (2014).

66. Potter, R. W. K. et al. Constraining the size of the South Pole-Aitken basin impact. Icarus 220, 730–743 (2012).

67. Zhu, M. -H. et al. Numerical modeling of the ejecta distribution and formation of the Orientale basin. J. Geophys. Res. 120, 2118–2134 (2015).

68. Melosh, H. J. Impact Cratering: A Geological Process (Oxford Univ. Press, 1989).

69. Joy, K. H. et al. Direct detection of projectile relics from the end of the lunar basin-forming epoch. Science 336, 1426–1429 (2012).

70. Liu, J. G. et al. Diverse impactors in Apollo 15 and 16 impact melt rocks: evidence from osmium isotopes and highly siderophile elements. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 155, 122–153 (2015).

71. Croft, S. K. The scaling of complex craters. Proc. Lunar Planet. Sci. Conf. 16, 828–842 (1985).

72. McKinnon, W. B. & Schenk, P. M. Ejecta blanket scaling on the Moon and Mercury and interferences for projectile populations. Lunar Planet. Sci. XVI, 544–545 (1985).

73. Wilhelms, D. E. The Geologic History of the Moon. USGS Professional Paper 1348 (US Geological Survey, 1987).

74. Miljkovic, K. et al. Elusive formation of impact basins on the young Moon. In Proc. 48th Lunar Planetary Science Conference 1361 (2017).

75. Gault, D. E. & Wedekind, J. A. Experimental studies of oblique impact. In Proc. 9th Lunar Planetary Science Conference 3843–3875 (1978).

76. Pierazzo, E. & Melosh, H. J. Melt production in oblique impacts. Icarus 145, 252–261 (2000).

77. Pierazzo, E. & Melosh, H. J. Understanding oblique impacts from experiments, observations and modeling. Annu. Rev. Earth Planet. Sci. 28, 141–167 (2000).

78. Jones, A. P. et al. Impact induced melting and the development of large igneous provinces. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 202, 551–561 (2002).

79. Kendall, J. D. & Melosh, H. J. Differentiated planetesimals impacts into a terrestrial magma ocean: fate of the iron core. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 448, 24–33 (2016).