A heterosexual community can be analyzed as a marketplace in which men seek to acquire sex from women by offering other resources in exchange. Societies will therefore define gender roles as if women are sellers and men buyers of sex. Societies will endow female sexuality, but not male sexuality, with value (as in virginity, fidelity, chastity). The sexual activities of different couples are loosely interrelated by a marketplace, instead of being fully separate or private, and each couple's decisions may be influenced by market conditions. Economic principles suggest that the price of sex will depend on supply and demand, competition among sellers, variations in product, collusion among sellers, and other factors. Research findings show gender asymmetries (reflecting the complementary economic roles) in prostitution, courtship, infidelity and divorce, female competition, the sexual revolution and changing norms, unequal status between partners, cultural suppression of female sexulity, abusive relationships, rape, and sexual attitudes.

Akerlof, G. A. , Yellen, J. L. , & Katz, M. L. ( 1997 ). An analysis of out-of-wedlock childbearing in the United States . The Quarterly Journal of Economics, 111, 277 - 317 .

Google Scholar Crossref | ISI

Anderson, P. B. , & Struckman-Johnson, C. (Eds.). ( 1998 ). Sexualls aggressive women: Current perspectives and controversies. New York : Guilford .

Google Scholar

Archer, J. ( 2000 ). Sex differences in aggression between heterosexual partners: A meta-analytic review . Psychological Bulletin, 126, 651 - 680 .

Google Scholar Crossref | Medline | ISI

Atchison, C. , Fraser, L. , & Lowman, J. ( 1998 ). Men who buy sex: Preliminary findings of an exploratory study . In J. Elias , V. Bullough , V. Elias . & G. Brewer (Eds.), Prostitution (pp. 172 - 203 ). Amherst, NY : Prometheus .

Google Scholar

Barber, N. ( 1999 ). Women's dress fashions as a function of reproductive strategy . Sex Roles, 40, 459 - 471 .

Google Scholar Crossref | ISI

Barber, N. ( 2000 ). On the relationship between country sex ratios and teen pregnancy rates: A replication . Cross-Cultural Research, 34, 26 - 37 .

Google Scholar SAGE Journals | ISI

Barber, R. N. ( 1969 ). Prostitution and the increasing number of convictions for rape in Queensland . Australian band New Zealand Journal of Criminology, 2, 169 - 174 .

Google Scholar SAGE Journals | ISI

Bauman, K. E. , & Wilson, R. R. ( 1974 ). Sexual behavior of unmarried university students in 1968 and 1972 . Journal of Sex Research, 10, 327 - 333 .

Google Scholar Crossref | Medline | ISI

Baumeister, R. F. ( 1988 ). Gender differences in masochistic scripts . Journal of Sex Research, 25, 478 - 499 .

Google Scholar Crossref | ISI

Baumeister, R. F. , Catanese, K. R. , & Vohs, K. D. ( 2001 ). Is there a gender difference in strength of sex drive? Theoretical views, conceptual distinctions, and a review of relevant evidence . Personality and Social Psychology' Review 5, 242 - 273 .

Google Scholar SAGE Journals | ISI

Baumeister, R. F. , Catanese, K. R. , & Wallace, H. M. ( 2002 ). Conquest by force: A narcissistic reactance theory of rape and sexual coercion . Review of General Psychology. 6, 92 - 135 .

Google Scholar SAGE Journals | ISI

Baumeister, R. F. , & Tice, D. M. ( 2000 ). The social dimension of sex. New York : Allyn & Bacon .

Google Scholar

Baumeister, R. F. , & Twenge, J. M. ( 2002 ). Cultural suppression of female sexuality . Review of General Psychology. 6, 166 - 213 .

Google Scholar SAGE Journals | ISI

Baumeister, R. F. , & Wotman, S. R. ( 1992 ). Breaking hearts: The two sides of unrequited love. New York : Guilford .

Google Scholar

Becker, G. S. ( 1976 ). The economic approach to human behavior Chicago : University of Chicago Press .

Google Scholar Crossref

Bernard, J. ( 1982 ). The future of marriage. New Haven, CT : Yale University Press .

Google Scholar

Betzig, L. ( 1989 ). Causes of conjugal dissolution: A cross-cultural study . Current Anthropology, 30, 654 - 676 .

Google Scholar Crossref | ISI

Blau, P. N. ( 1964 ). Exchange and power in social life. New York : Wiley .

Google Scholar

Bleske, A. L. , & Buss, D. M. ( 2000 ). Can men and women be just friends? Personal Relationships, 7, 131 - 151 .

Google Scholar Crossref | ISI

Blumstein, P. W. , & Schwartz, P. ( 1983 ). American Couples. New York : Simon & Schuster .

Google Scholar

Boddy, J. ( 1989 ). Wombs and alien spirits: Women, men and the Zarcult in northern Sudan. Madison : University of Wisconsin Press .

Google Scholar

Braun, V. , & Kitzinger, C. ( 2001 ). “Snatch,” “hole” or “honey-pot”? Semantic categories and the problem of nonspecificity in female genital slang . Journal of Sex Research, 38, 146 - 159 .

Google Scholar Crossref | ISI

Brown, N. R. , & Sinclair, R. C. ( 1999 ). Estimating number of lifetime sexual partners: Men and women do it differently . Journal of Sex Research, 36, 292 - 297 .

Google Scholar Crossref | ISI

Brownmiller, S. ( 1975 ). Against our will: Men women, and rape. New York : Simon & Schuster .

Google Scholar

Bullough, B. , & Bullough, V. L. ( 1998 ). Introduction: Female prostitution: Current research and changing interpretations . In J. E. Elias , V. L. Bullough , V. Elias , & G. Brewer (Eds.), Prostitution: On whores, hustlers, and johns. Buffalo, NY : Prometheus .

Google Scholar

Bullough, V. L. , & Brundage, J. ( 1982 ). Sexual practices and the medieval church. Buffalo, NY : Prometheus .

Google Scholar

Bushman, B. J. , Bonacci, A. M. , Van Dijk, M. , & Baumeister, R. F. ( 2003 ). Narcissism, sexual refusal, and sexual aggression: Testing a narcissistic reactance model of sexual coercion . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 84, 1027 - 1040 .

Google Scholar Crossref | Medline | ISI

Buss, D. M. ( 1989 ). Conflict between the sexes: Strategic interference and the evocation of anger and upset . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 56, 735 - 747 .

Google Scholar Crossref | Medline | ISI

Buss, D. M. ( 1994 ). The evolution of desire. New York : Basic .

Google Scholar

Buss, D. M. , Larsen, R. S. , Westen, D. , & Semmelroth, J. ( 1992 ). Sex differences in jealousy: Evolution, physiology, and psychology . Psychological Science, 3, 251 - 255 .

Google Scholar SAGE Journals | ISI

Buunk, B. P. , Angleitner, A. , Oubaid, V. , & Buss, D. M. ( 1996 ). Sex differences in jealousy in evolutionary and cultural perspective: Tests from the Netherlands, Germany, and the United States . Psychological Science, 7, 359 - 363 .

Google Scholar SAGE Journals | ISI

Buunk, B. P. , & Van Driel, B. ( 1989 ). Variant lifestyles and relationships. Newbury Park, CA : Sage .

Google Scholar

Byers, E. S. , & Lewis, K. ( 1988 ). Dating couples' disagreements over the desired level of sexual intimacy . Journal of Sex Research, 24, 15 - 29 .

Google Scholar Crossref | Medline

Campbell, A. ( 1995 ). A few good men: Evolutionary psychology and female adolescent aggression . Ethology and Sociobiology. 16. 99 - 123 .

Google Scholar Crossref | ISI

Campbell, A. , Muncer, S. , & Bibel, D. ( 1998 ). Female-female criminal assault: An evolutionary perspective . Journal of Research in Crimne and Delinquency, 35, 413 - 428 .

Google Scholar SAGE Journals | ISI

Carpenter, L. M. ( 2001 ). The ambiguity of “having sex”: The subjective experience of virginity loss in the United States . Journal of Sex Research, 38, 127 - 140 .

Google Scholar Crossref | ISI

Clark, R. D. , & Hatfield, E. ( 1989 ). Gender differences in receptivity to sexual offers . Journal of Psychology and Human Sexuality, 2. 39 - 55 .

Google Scholar Crossref

Cohen, L. L. , & Shotland, R. L. ( 1996 ). Timing of first sexual intercourse in a relationship: Expectations, experiences, and perceptions of others . Journal of Sex Research, 33, 291 - 299 .

Google Scholar Crossref | ISI

Cott, N. F. ( 1979 ). Passionlessness: An interpretation of Victorian sexual ideology, 1790-1850 . In N. Cott & E. Pleck (Eds.). A heritage of her own (pp. 162 - 181 ). New York : Simon & Schuster .

Google Scholar

Croake, J. W. , & James, B. ( 1973 ). A four year comparison of premarital sexual attitudes . Journal of Sex Research, 9, 91 - 96 .

Google Scholar Crossref | Medline | ISI

DeMaris, A. ( 1997 ). Elevated sexual activity in violent marriages: Hypersexuality or sexual extortion? Journal of Sex Research, 34, 367 - 373 .

Google Scholar Crossref | ISI

D'Emilio, J. D. , & Freedman, E. B. ( 1997 ). Intimate matters: A history) of sexuality in America. Chicago : University of Chicago Press .

Google Scholar

Des Barres, P. ( 1987 ). I'm with the band: Confessions of a groupie. New York : Jove .

Google Scholar

DeSteno, D. , Bartlett, M. Y. , Braverman, J. , & Salovey, P. ( 2002 ). Sex differences in jealousy: Evolutionary mechanism or artifact of measurement? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 83, 1103 - 1116 .

Google Scholar Crossref | Medline | ISI

Federal Bureau of Investigation . ( 1998 ). Crime in the United States. Washington, DC : U.S. Government Printing Office .

Google Scholar

Flynn, C. P. ( 1976 ). Sexuality and insult behavior . Journal of Sex Research, 12, 1 - 13 .

Google Scholar Crossref | ISI

Ford, C. S. , & Beach, F. A. ( 1951 ). Studies in psychology of sex (Vol. 1). New York : Random House .

Google Scholar

Friedman, L. M. ( 2002 ). Law in America: A short history. New York : Modern Library .

Google Scholar

Guttentag, M. , & Secord, P. F. ( 1983 ). Too many women? The sex ratio question. Beverly Hills, CA : Sage .

Google Scholar

Harris, C. R. ( 2000 ). Psychophysiological responses to imagined infidelity: The specific innate modular view of jealousy reconsidered . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 78, 1082 - 1091 .

Google Scholar Crossref | Medline | ISI

Herold, E. S. ( ). Female tourists and beach boys in the Dominican Republic: Romance or sex tourism? Paper presented to the Society for the Scientific Study of Sex , Orlando, FL .

Google Scholar

Homans, G. C. ( 1950 ). The human group. New York : Harcourt, Brace, & World .

Google Scholar

Homans, G. C. ( 1961 ). Social behavior. Its elementary forms. New York : Harcourt, Brace, & World .

Google Scholar

Hughes, R. ( 1988 ). The fatal shore. New York : Knopf .

Google Scholar

Janus, S. S. , & Janus, C. L. ( 1993 ). The Janus report on sexual behavior. New York : Wiley .

Google Scholar

Jensen, A. ( 1978 ). Genetic and behavioral effects of nonrandom mating . In R. Osborne , C. Noble , & N. Weyl (Eds.), Human variation: Biogenetics of age, race, and sex. New York : Academic .

Google Scholar

Jones, E. E. , & Wortman, C. ( 1973 ). Ingratiation: An attributional approach. Morristown, NJ : General Learning Press .

Google Scholar

Kanin, E. J. ( 1985 ). Date rapists: Differential sexual socialization and relative deprivation . Archives of Sexual Behavior, 14, 219 - 231 .

Google Scholar Crossref | Medline | ISI

Kenrick, D. T. , Li, N. P. , & Butner, J. ( 2003 ). Dynamical evolutionary psychology: Individual decision rules and emergent social norms . Psychological Review, 110, 3 - 28 .

Google Scholar Crossref | Medline | ISI

Klassen, A. D. , Williams, C. J. , & Levitt, E. E. ( 1989 ). Sex and morality in the U.S.: An empirical enquiry under the aspices of the Kinsey Institute. Middletown, CT : Wesleyan University Press .

Google Scholar

Laumann, E. O. , Gagnon, J. H. , Michael, R. T. , & Michaels, S. ( 1994 ). The social organization of sexuality: Sexual practices in the United States. Chicago : University of Chicago Press .

Google Scholar

Loebner, H. G. ( 1998 ). Being a john . In J. Elias , V. Bullough , V. Elias , & G. Brewer (Eds.), Prostitution: On whores, hustlers, and johns (pp. 221 - 225 ). Amherst, NY : Prometheus .

Google Scholar

Loewenstein, G. ( 1987 ). Anticipation and the valuation of delayed consumption . The Economic Journal, 97, 666 - 684 .

Google Scholar Crossref | ISI

Lottes, I. , Weinberg, M. , & Weller, I. ( 1993 ). Reactions to pornography on a college campus: For or against? Sex Roles: A Journal of Research, 29, 69 - 90 .

Google Scholar Crossref | ISI

McCabe, M. P. ( 1987 ). Desired and experienced levels of premarital affection and sexual intercourse during dating . Journal of Sex Research, 23. 23 - 33 .

Google Scholar Crossref

McClosky, H. B. , & Brill, A. ( 1983 ). Dimensions of tolerance: What Americans believe about civil liberties. New York : Russell Sage .

Google Scholar

Miller, J. ( 1998 ). Gender and victimization risk among young women in gangs . Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 35, 429 - 453 .

Google Scholar SAGE Journals | ISI

Miller, L. C. , Putcha, A. , & Pederson, W. C. ( 2002 ). Men's and women's mating preferences: Distinct evolutionary mechanisms? Currentt Directions in Psychological Science. 11, 83 - 93 .

Google Scholar ISI

Millhausen, R. R. , & Herold, E. S. ( 1999 ). Does the sexual double standard still exist? Perceptions of university women . Journal of Sex Research, 36, 361 - 368 .

Google Scholar Crossref | ISI

Mongeau, P. A. , Hale, J. L. , & Alles, M. ( 1994 ). An experimental investigation of accounts and attributions following sexual infidelity . Communication Monographs. 61, 326 - 344 .

Google Scholar Crossref | ISI

Murstein, B. I. , & Christy, P. ( 1976 ). Physical attractiveness and marriage adjustment in middle-aged couples . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 34, 537 - 542 ,

Google Scholar Crossref | ISI

Newsweek. ( 2001, April 30 ). Perspectives . Atlantic Ed. , p. 13 - 13 .

Google Scholar

Oliver, M. B. , & Hyde, J. S. ( 1993 ). Gender differences in sexuality: A meta-analysis . Psychological Bulletin, 114, 29 - 51 .

Google Scholar Crossref | Medline | ISI

Playing the field: Sports and sex. ( 2000 ). Home Box Office Cable television , December 26.

Google Scholar

Prasad, M. ( 1999 ). The morality of market exchange: Love, money, and contractual justice . Sociological Perspectives, 42, 181 - 214 .

Google Scholar SAGE Journals | ISI

Regan, P. C. , & Dreyer, C. S. ( 1999 ). Lust? Love? Status? Young adults' motives for engaging in casual sex . Journal of Psychology and Human Sexuality 11, 1 - 24 .

Google Scholar Crossref

Reiss, I. L. ( 1986 ). Journey into sexuality: An exploratory voyage. New York : Prentice Hall .

Google Scholar

Robinson, I. F. , Balkwell, J. W. , & Ward, D. M. ( 1980 ). Meaning and behavior: An empirical study in sociolinguistics . Social Psychology Quarterly, 43, 253 - 258 .

Google Scholar Crossref | ISI

Rubin, L. ( 1990 ). Erotic wars: What happened to the sexual revolution? New York : Farrar, Straus, & Giroux .

Google Scholar

Sanders, S. A. , & Reinisch, J. M. ( 1999 ). Would you say you “had sex” if...? Journal of the American Medical Association, 281, 275 - 277 .

Google Scholar Crossref | ISI

Schlegel, A. , & Barry, H. ( 1986 ). The cultural consequences of female contribution to sustenance . American Anthropologist, 88, 142 - 150 .

Google Scholar Crossref | ISI

Schmitt, D. P. , & Buss, D. M. ( 2001 ). Human mate poaching: Tactics and temptations for infiltrating existing mateships . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 80, 894 - 917 .

Google Scholar Crossref | Medline | ISI

Scott, G. G. ( 1983 ). Erotic power: An exploration of dominance and submission. Secaucus, NJ : Citadel .

Google Scholar

Sedikides, C. , Oliver, M. B. , & Campbell, W. K. ( 1994 ). Perceived benefits and costs of romantic relationships for women and men: Implications for exchange theory . Personal Relationships,1, 5 - 21 .

Google Scholar Crossref

Sherfey, M. J. ( 1966 ). The evolution and nature of female sexuality in relation to psychoanalytic theory . Journal of the American Psychoanalytic Association, 14, 28 - 128 .

Google Scholar SAGE Journals | ISI

Sherwin, R. , & Corbett, S. ( 1985 ). Campus sexual norms and dating relationships: A trend analysis . Journal of Sex Research, 21. 258 - 274 .

Google Scholar Crossref | ISI

Smith, T. ( 1994 ). Attitudes toward sexual permissiveness: Trends, correlates, and behavioral connections . In A. S. Rossi (Ed.), Sexuality across the life course (pp. 63 - 97 ). Chicago : University of Chicago Press .

Google Scholar

Sprecher, S. ( 1998 ). Social exchange theories and sexuality . Journal of Sex Research, 35. 32 - 43 .

Google Scholar Crossref | ISI

Symons, D. ( 1979 ). The evolution of human sexuality. New York : Oxford University Press .

Google Scholar

Tannahill, R. ( 1980 ). Sex in history. New York : Stein and Day .

Google Scholar

Thompson, A. P. ( 1983 ). Extramarital sex: A review of the research literature . Journal of Sex Research, 19, 1 - 22 .

Google Scholar Crossref | ISI

U.S. Department of Justice . ( 1987 ). Sourcebook of criminal justice statistics. Washington, DC : U.S. Government Printing Office .

Google Scholar

Ussher, J. ( 1989 ). The psychology of the female body. London : Routledge .

Google Scholar

Walkowitz, J. R. ( 1980 ). Prostitution and Victorian society. Women, class, and the state. Cambridge, England : Cambridge University Press .

Google Scholar Crossref

Waller, W. , & Hill, R. ( 1951 ). The family: A dynamic interpretation. New York : Dryden (Original work published 1938)

Google Scholar

Weijts, W. , Houtkoop, H. , & Mullen, P. ( 1993 ). Talking delicacy: Speaking about sexuality during gynaecological consultations . Sociology of Health and Illness, 15, 295 - 314 .

Google Scholar Crossref | ISI

Weiss, D. E. ( 1991 ). The great divide. How females and males really differ New York : Poseidon .

Google Scholar

Wiederman, M. W. ( 1997 ). The truth must be in here somewhere: Examining the gender discrepancy in self-reported lifetime number of sex partners . Journal of Sex Research, 34, 375 - 386 .

Google Scholar Crossref | ISI

Wiederman, M. W. , & LaMar, L. ( 1998 ). “Not with him you don't!”: Gender and emotional reaction to sexual infidelity during courtship . Journal of Sex Research, 35, 288 - 297 .

Google Scholar Crossref | ISI

Wilson, D. ( 1978 ). Sexual codes and conduct: A study of teenage girls . In C. Smart & B. Smart (Eds.), Women, sexuality, and social control. London : Routledge and Kegan Paul .

Google Scholar

Wilson, J. Q. ( 2001 ). The marriage problem: Hows our culture has weakened families. New York : HarperCollins .

Google Scholar