Christine Lagarde, the head of the International Monetary Fund, has praised King Abdullah of Saudi Arabia as a “strong advocate of women”, but human rights campaigners said his reign only brought marginal advances for women, while failing to secure fundamental rights of free expression, association, and assembly.

In paying tribute to the king who died on Thursday aged 90, Lagarde – who has expressed her concerns over gender inequality – described the monarch as a great leader who implemented many reforms.

“In a very discreet way, he was a strong advocate of women. It was very gradual, appropriately so probably for the country. I discussed that issue with him several times and he was a strong believer,” said Lagarde, who is attending the Davos economic forum in Switzerland.

Human Rights Watch, however, said the royal initiatives during his reign were largely symbolic and produced extremely modest concrete gains.

“King Abdullah came to power promising reforms, but his agenda fell far short of achieving lasting institutional gains for Saudi citizens,” said Joe Stork, Human Rights Watch’s deputy Middle East director. “King Salman, the new ruler, should move the country forward by ending intolerance for free expression, rooting out gender and sectarian discrimination, and fostering a fair and impartial judicial system.”

King Abdullah introduced several reforms to allow women to play a greater role in Saudi Arabia, in the teeth of opposition from traditionalists in the highly conservative country. He appointed Saudi Arabia’s first female member of the council of ministers, or cabinet, Norah al-Faiz, as one of his deputy ministers to represent the interests of women’s education. Appointed in February 2009, she became the kingdom’s highest-ranking female official.

The $12.5bn King Abdullah University of Science and Technology that he built was the first Saudi school of higher education to allow men and women to study together. In a landmark ruling in 2011, Abdullah granted women the right to vote and run in municipal elections in 2015. “We refuse to marginalise the role of women in Saudi society,” the king said in an address at the time. However, conservatives have blocked his efforts to boost women’s rights.

Human Rights Watch said the most concrete gains for women under King Abdullah included opening up new employment sectors for women. In February 2013, Abdullah appointed 30 women to the Shura council, a consultative body that produces recommendations for the cabinet.

But it said systematic discrimination against women persists as the authorities have not ended the discriminatory male guardianship system. Under this system, ministerial policies and practices forbid women from obtaining a passport, marrying, travelling, or entering higher education without the approval of a male guardian, usually a husband, father, brother or son.

Employers can still require male guardians to approve the hiring of adult female relatives and some hospitals require male guardian approval for certain medical procedures for women. Women remain forbidden from driving in Saudi Arabia, and authorities have arrested women who dared challenge the ban.

In 2005, Abdullah promised he would allow women to drive, but the ban remains in force because of opposition from traditionalists. In December, Saudi authorities detained two women on the Saudi side of the border with the United Arab Emirates, one of whom tried to drive a car across to Saudi Arabia.

Saudi Arabia is the only country in the world that bans women – both Saudi and foreign – from driving. The prohibition forces families to hire live-in drivers, and those who cannot afford the $300 to $400 (£190 to £255) a month for a driver must rely on male relatives to drive them to work, school, shopping or the doctor.

“It is not enough for women to sit on the Shura council if they can’t even drive themselves to work,” Stork said.

Women’s rights and restrictions in Saudi Arabia

Dress

Women have to cover their bodies with a loose, black abaya and their heads with a scarf. Vice and virtue police patrol for violations. In 2002, they let 15 schoolgirls die inside a blazing dormitory because they were not wearing appropriate clothing as they tried to escape.

Voting and politics

Women were officially given the right to vote in municipal elections in 2011, but only after voter registration had closed. The next round of elections is due to be held this year on an unspecified date. If the polls go ahead, it will be a historic day for women. Women now make up around 20% of the Shura council, a quasi parliamentary advisory board. There is also one female deputy minister, Norah al Faiz, who is responsible for girls’ education.

Sports

Two Saudi Arabian women competed in the London Olympics, the first time the kingdom sent female athletes to an international competition. But women are banned from gyms, pools and sports grounds used by men. There are no competitive sports for women. Many conservatives see female sports as “steps of the devil” towards immorality, although a law passed in 2013 allowing women to attend football matches.

Marriage, finances and health

Saudi women need the approval of a male relative or guardian to marry, open a bank account or see a doctor – even for serious medical emergencies. They are also expected to have a male chaperone any time they leave their home and need permission to leave the country.

Employment

Women still represent a low proportion of the workforce, but the numbers are growing. They were recently allowed to work as cashiers and in lingerie stores, part of an expansion of the list of “suitable jobs” for women.

Law

In 2013, four female lawyers became the first to be granted licences to appear in court. According to the US state department, though, their clients are not equal before the law – a woman’s testimony carries only half the weight of a man’s and a daughter is entitled to only half the inheritance a son gets.

Driving

Women are not allowed to drive. This is not enshrined in Saudi law but is strictly enforced. Two women have been referred to a terrorism court for getting behind the wheel even though they held valid licenses – issued in other Gulf countries but covering Saudi Arabia.

Emma Graham-Harrison