My big goal for 0.5 is to straighten out our function types (yet again). I’ve been tossing the design for these over in my head since the summer and I wanted to lay out my plan. This is a variation of something that Ben Blum and I sketched out on a whiteboard.

Closure type

The closure type will be described something like so. Beware, it’s got a lot of options. It turns out that there is a very large variety of things one might want to use closures for, and supporting them requires a fair number of knobs. I believe that in practice there will be a smallish set of standard forms (I’ll describe those later). In any case, this is the closure type in its full generality, with annotations:

(&|~|@) [r/] [pure|unsafe] [once] fn [:K] (S) -> T ^~~~~~^ ^~~^ ^~~~~~~~~~~~^ ^~~~~^ ^~~^ ^~^ ^ | | | | | | | | | | | | | Return type | | | | | Argument types | | | | Environment bounds | | | Once-ness (a.k.a., affine) | | Purity | Lifetime bound Allocation type

Let’s go through each of these things to see what they mean, left to right. I’ll also mention defaults for the optional sections (indicated above with braces [] ).

Allocation type: A closure always includes a pointer to its environment. The allocation type indicates what kind of pointer this is.

Lifetime bound: If the environment contains borrowed pointers, this is the intersection of all of their lifetimes. For any sigil other than & , it defaults to &static , meaning only statically allocated data. For & , the default is selected as per any region pointer.

, it defaults to , meaning only statically allocated data. For , the default is selected as per any region pointer. Purity: Indicates whether a function may mutate state visible to its caller. Defaults to impure.

Once-ness: Indicates whether the function will only be called at most once. Defaults to a function that can be called many times.

Environment bounds: Indicates the kind of data that appears in the environment (e.g., sendable data, copyable data, immutable data, any old data at all). Defaults to an empty list.

Argument and return types: Obvious, I should hope.

Use cases and common combinations

Here are some of the scenarios where we use closures, and the types I would expect to see (here I am leaving out the argument and return types):

Iterators and higher-order functions like fold will use &fn() —which basically means “any old function at all”.

will use —which basically means “any old function at all”. Cleanup- or finally-style patterns will use &once fn() , because they only invoke their function once.

, because they only invoke their function once. Callbacks stored in data structures will be @fn() , which means “some heap-allocated function”.

, which means “some heap-allocated function”. The main function of a task will be ~once fn:Send() , meaning a function that can be sent around and can only be called once.

, meaning a function that can be sent around and can only be called once. A clonable or restartable task might be specified with ~fn:Send Copy() , which indicates that the environment is deeply copyable.

, which indicates that the environment is deeply copyable. The hash function of a map might be ~pure fn:Send Const() , which would allow the hash function to be sent between tasks and also executed many times in parallel (this would be important if the hash function were put into a map).

Uncommon scenarios

One uncommon scenario that will work is that you might want to return a closure that closes over a borrowed pointer. Since you are going to return the closure, you must allocate its environment in the managed heap; ordinarily such a closure could not enclose a borrowed pointer, but under the new types you could write:

fn create_count_fn(x: </mut int) -> @lt/fn() -> int { || { let v = *x; *x += 1; v } }

Here @lt/fn() means “a function whose environment is on the managed heap but which contains data that is only valid for the lifetime lt ”. This could be used like:

let mut x = 1; let count_fn = create_count_fn(&mut x); assert count_fn() == 1; assert count_fn() == 2;

Of course, this example is artificial. I have wanted to use a pattern like this one time, when I was building a combinator library, but I don’t feel like elaborating out a more realistic example. Certainly I would not expect this pattern to come up frequently, if at all—combinator libraries are generally better built using purely managed data.

Copyability

Today, all closures types are copyable (despite the fact this is not sound). This will not be true under this scheme. Whether or not a closure is copyable will depend on a number of factors:

once closures are never copyable;

closures are never copyable; otherwise: copying a ~ induces a deep clone of its state, and hence a ~ closure is copyable if and only if they include the Copy bound; copying a & or @ closure is valid and results in a shallow copy.



Subtyping

There is a subtyping relationship between function types that have the same allocation type based on the other parameters:

Lifetime: Contravariant with respect to the lifetime, as borrowed pointers are;

Purity: Pure is a subtype of impure, impure is a subtype of unsafe;

Bounds: More bounds is a subtype of fewer bounds;

Argument types: Contravariant with respect to the argument type;

Return types: Covariant with respect to the return type.

Today, @fn() is a subtype of &fn() . This is unsound and will no longer be true (because the drop glue for @fn() is different, this subtyping relationship can induce memory leaks). However, it will still be allowed to use an @fn() or ~fn() as the value of a parameter whose type is declared as &fn() —this is simply a borrow.

Trait instances (objects)

Trait instances, which I have decided we should call objects, can be modeled similarly. Basically an object is a closure with (a) only one piece of closed over data and (b) multiple methods. Here is the diagram, I won’t bother to explain the details as they are analogous to the function case, except applied to the receiver and not to the captured upvars:

(&|~|@) [r/] Trait [:K] ^~~~~~^ ^~~^ ^~~^ | | | | | Environment bounds | Lifetime bound Allocation type

Bare functions and extern functions

One thing you’ll note: the bare function type, used for function items without an environment, is going away. Instead we’ll just allow function items to be coerced to any function type. Also, we’re going to change our approach to C-style function pointers and add a type like:

extern "abi" [pure|unsafe] fn(S) -> T

Here “abi” might be “C”, for example. I’ll expand on this in a later post.