I’ve been thinking of a radical change we could make to the treatment of mutability and borrowed pointers in Rust. The goal is to eliminate all of the error messages about “aliasable, mutable data” that the borrow checker currently issues. The idea is somewhat inspired by writing a recent paper on Rust’s current system—writing a paper on something never fails to get me thinking about how to improve it, though it sometimes fails to stimulate ideas which are actually good—and also somewhat inspired by recent conversations on IRC and in person.

The core of the idea is to build on a tradeoff that is already present in Rust: static control and safety vs convenience. Today, when it comes to managing the heap, Rust programmers can opt for owned pointers ( ~ ), which offer great control but also require a careful coding style, or they can opt for managed pointers ( @ ) which cede control to the garbage collector in exchange for simplicity. The problem is that @ pointers, due to their aliasable nature, actually become more complex to use when combined with the borrow checker (at least in some ways).

The summary, for the impatient who are already familiar with Rust, is that borrow checking on an @mut value would be dynamically checked (effectively building the Mut<T> wrapper into the language). In short, borrow checking on local variables would be static and borrow checking on managed values would be dynamic.

The problem situation

I’ve explained the problem with @ pointers and mutability as best as I will probably ever be able to over in the borrowed pointer tutorial. The crux of the problem, however, is that sometimes you have mutable data that must not be mutated for some short time in order to guarantee safety. A common example involves enums. Imagine this:

struct SomeType {...} fn get_some_value(opt_v: @mut Option<SomeType>) -> SomeOtherType { match *opt_v { None => { return default_value(); } Some(ref v) => { return v.compute_some_value(); } } }

The interesting part here is the ref v declaration, which declares v as a pointer into *opt_v . That is, it’s a pointer into the inside of the Option<> . Now, of course, if v.compute_some_value() were to somehow execute *opt_v = None —which it could, since opt_v is aliasable and mutable—then this pointer v would be invalidated. In other words, the pointer v only remains valid if *opt_v is never mutated!

If opt_v were not an @ pointer, this is less of an issue, because the compiler can track and see if anyone is mutating opt_v directly. But because opt_v is an @ pointer, it is aliasable, meaning that there can be other ways to reach opt_v that the compiler does not know about.

The current solutions: pure and Mut<>

Currently there are two ways to handle the situation of an aliasable, mutable value that must be immutable. One is to use only pure code, which basically means “code that doesn’t mutate anything it doesn’t own”. This means that the code cannot mutate any other @ boxes, which is quite extreme. It permits a surprising amount of code, but it also rules out a lot of perfectly valid programs.

The other alternative is to replace something like @mut T with @Mut<T> . Mut<T> is a type that I added sometime back to the core library that allows you to dynamically check borrows. Each instance of Mut<T> encapsulates a value of type T . You cannot access this value except through three methods: borrow_imm() , borrow_mut() , and borrow_const() . Each takes a closure as argument. They will invoke the closure with a borrowed pointer to the encapsulated data, but with different mutability qualifiers. The Mut<T> type dynamically checks that the closure provided to borrow_imm() never invokes borrow_mut() . In other words, it checks dynamically that you never request mutability during an immutable period. This is precisely the same guarantee that the borrow checker gives you, but made dynamic.

The Mut<T> interface is not intended to be used directly, but rather as a building block for wrapping another interface. Take, for example, an interface Map<K,V> for hashmaps:

trait Map<K,V> { fn insert(&mut self, k: K, v: V); fn get(&self, k: &K) -> &self/V; ... }

This interface states that to insert a key into a map, you must have mutable access, but to get the value from the map, it must be immutable. get() can therefore return a pointer directly into the map itself with no need to copy the value. This scheme relies on the borrow checker to freeze the map so long as the value returned from get() is in use. This works great for maps stored in local variables but does not work for a managed map like @mut Map<K,V> , since the borrow checker doesn’t know if there any other aliases to the same map.

Better than @mut Map<K,V> , then, would be something like @Mut<Map<K,V>> . We could then define an impl that looks something like:

impl<M: Map<K,V>> Mut<M>: Map<K,V> { fn insert(&mut self, k: K, v: V) { self.borrow_mut(|m| m.insert(k, v)) } fn get(&self, k: K, v: V) { self.borrow_imm(|m| m.insert(k, v)) } ... }

This would allow you to have an @Mut<Map<K,V>> instance that can be used like a map but where borrows are dynamically checked. We’d probably want to typedef this name to something like DMap<K,V> or, as pcwalton and I have pondered, have parallel modules, so it’d be more like @dynamic::Map where dynamic is the module for dynamically checked collections.

What I like about this setup is that you can get either static or dynamic checking, as you like. Static checking is great when the map is owned by a specific data structure or a function. Dynamic checking is ultimately most appropriate when you want to share a map amongst many data structures; in other words, with managed data.

The main thing that I don’t like about this system is that, for mutable data structures in managed data, Mut<> is almost certainly what you want, but it takes a lot of work to “opt-in” to using it. For example, you have to create an impl for your trait (like the one I showed for Map<K,V> above).

The key idea: make @mut dynamically checked

I have for a while been toying with the idea of building Mut<> into the language, but I wasn’t sure how to do it. Recently it occurred to me that we could just connect it with @mut . Today, an @mut pointer means a pointer that you can definitely mutate, presuming that your current function is not pure. In my proposed world, an @mut pointer would be one that you can maybe mutate, presuming nobody has frozen it.

The idea is to add an extra bit (actually two, see next section) to each @mut box that indicates whether its contents are frozen (there are plenty of free bits lying around in the header). This bit would start off as false. Whenever you try to mutate the contents of an @mut box, the compiler would dynamically assert that the bit is false (i.e., the box is not frozen), and fail if it were true.

Now, intead of getting an error when you immutably borrow the contents of an @mut box, the compiler will just set the bit to true for the duration of the borrow. This basically shifts the error from being statically checked to dynamically checked. This is (sort of) akin to the way that the compiler automatically roots @ pointers to keep them live as long as you have a reference to the inside (but different, of course, as it might cause dynamic failure).

Note that as long as you avoid @ , you still get a purely static check with zero overhead, just as you get well-defined memory management.

Make &mut take temporary ownership

To really ensure that things are convenient to use, we need to make a change to how an &mut pointer works. Today, an &mut pointer is basically the same as C: a pointer that can be freely copied and aliased. Moreover, the contract with &mut is the same as @mut : a value that you can write whenever you please. But this leads to the same problem as @mut : you have aliasable, mutable data and thus the borrow checker is forced to make overapproximations that can be limiting.

So my idea is to change the semantics of &mut to say that an &mut pointer is guaranteed to be the only way to mutate the thing that it points at. In fact, if we eliminate const (as I propose later), then we could go further and say that an &mut pointer is the only pointer pointing at the thing that it points at. As with all borrow checker guarantees, this guarantee would be achieved statically if the pointer points into the stack and dynamically if the pointer points at managed data.

Since we now know that the &mut pointer is the only way to mutate the data it points at, the borrow checker can treat these values as if they were owned/unique pointers, in a way. So in particular it can permit them to be frozen temporarily and so forth. In effect, an &mut pointer would be the same as the &restrict pointers I discussed in a previous blog post.

The primary effect of this, I believe, would be to eliminate all kinds of annoying borrow check errors. However some things that are legal today would become illegal:

Mutable borrows ( &mut expr ) make the borrowed value inaccessible for the duration of the borrow. No kind of borrow has this effect today. Mutable borrowed pointers ( &mut T ) would be non-copyable types, though you could re-borrow their contents on function calls.

Borrowed values become inaccessible

Today if I borrow a value, the original always remains accessible, though perhaps in limited capacity (no moves, perhaps no writes). In this new world, though, making a mutable borrow of a local variable, like &mut x , would cause x to become inaccessible. The permission to access x is essentially moved into the &mut reference (fractional permissions, anyone?). I think this is basically ok: the only reason to take a mutable reference to a local variable is to pass it to another procedure anyhow, and once the procedure returns you have your variable back.

Mutable borrows of managed data would work in a similar way, but it would be checked dynamically. So if m is a managed pointer, then &mut *m would cause m to be marked as inaccessible, meaning no reads or writes are permitted through m (or any alias of m , except the new borrowed pointer). This implies that we would need two bits in the header of each managed box (rather than the one bit I said earlier), because a managed box can have three states: unclaimed, immutable, const. An unclaimed managed box is one that is not borrowed in any way; this is the initial state. An immutable managed box means that there exists an immutable &T reference to the interior, and hence the contents cannot be mutated. Finally, a const box means that there exists a &mut T reference, and hence the contents of the box can be read but not written or frozen. The reason that mutation is not allowed is that mutation must happen through the &mut T reference. This state would be managed by code inserted by the compiler automatically when borrows occur, exactly as the compiler now inserts temporary values to root managed boxes.

&mut is non-copyable

If we are to retain the invariant that an &mut pointer is the only way to mutate the data that it points at, then &mut pointers clearly cannot be copied. So they must become non-copyable. This fits in with the general precedent in Rust that mutable things are not (implicitly) copyable. There is one case I foresee being annoying, however, though it is easily rectified. Imagine a situation where you have a mutable pointer and you wish to pass it to a helper function, as shown here:

fn foo(result: &mut int, ...) { helper(result, ...); helper(result, ...); helper(result, ...); fn helper(result: &mut int, ...) { *result += ...; } }

Presuming we adopt the moves based on types proposal (as seems likely), this program would be in error, because the call to helper() would in fact move result value into helper() in the first call, and hence result would be inaccessible for the second call. The program could legally be written by ‘re-borrowing’ result :

fn foo(result: &mut int, ...) { helper(&mut *result, ...); helper(&mut *result, ...); helper(&mut *result, ...); fn helper(result: &mut int, ...) { *result += ...; } }

In this case, result would be made inaccessible for the duration of the re-borrow, but that’s harmless. Still this is ugly and surprising. To make it less surprising, we could easily say that &mut values are automatically re-borrowed, just as we automatically borrow an @ to an & pointer in a function call.

General thoughts on &mut

This change to &mut is the part I am least comfortable with. It’s hard to explain and feels more complex, in a way. The rule that &mut values are re-borrowed in function calls is ad-hoc. That said, I see many benefits. For example, I think knowing that each &mut pointer is the only pointer to the data in question is generally good and will help to maintain invariants. You don’t have to consider the possibility that the data which you are mutating may also be changed through an alias.

In any case, I don’t see an attractive alternative. If we want to eliminate &mut as a source of borrow check errors, the only other option I see is to (1) do not statically check borrows at all, even for local variables, and (2) make & pointers in fact not just a C pointer but rather a pair of pointers, where one of those pointers points at the “borrow tracking bits”. This is because a pointer into the middle of a struct (say at some mutable field) would need to have a separate pointer indicating where the bits are that control whether that field is frozen or not. I find both (1) and (2), but especially (1), very unappealing.

What about &T ?

You might wonder if we should make &T (immutable borrowed pointer) non-copyable as well, for consistency. We could certainly do this, though there seems to be no good reason to do so at the moment. Immutable data can be freely aliased as much as you like, so making the type non-copyable just adds inconvenience with no additional safety. The only reason I can see to do it is if it would make it easier to explain how borrowed pointers work, but I think that saying “borrowed pointers are non-copyable” is not really better than saying “mutable borrowed pointers are non-copyable”.

Other changes

If we did take this direction, I think it also makes sense to make a some other simplifications:

remove mut declarations from fields and ~ pointers;

declarations from fields and pointers; remove purity;

remove const (maybe);

I’ll go over each of these briefly and outline why I think it makes sense.

Remove mut from fields and ~ pointers

The idea here is to limit mut declarations to the “top-level” of a data structure. Essentially mutability qualifiers would decorate the owning reference for each data structure, which is always either a local variable ( let mut ) or a managed value ( @mut ). In terms of the implementation, this means we can pick the extra data for tracking whether something is frozen into the @mut header. As a bonus, the notion of a “freezable” type gets simplified: a freezable type is just a sendable type.

If we allowed mut decls on fields or ~mut , they could never be dynamically tracked because we’d have to insert extra bits into the field declaration or something like that.

Remove purity

If we made this change, we would not need the notation of purity anymore. The only reason we ever needed purity was to allow immutable borrowing of aliasable, mutable data, and this proposal makes borrows of aliasable, mutable data a non-issue: &mut pointers would no longer be aliasable, and borrowing of @mut pointers would be checked dynamically.

Remove const

In a world where everything is easily freezable, I think const is basically unnecessary. Just take &T if you want to only read and &mut T if you want to change. The contract is relatively simple: if you are reading, no one is writing, and if you are writing, no one else is reading (or writing). However, you could imagine scenarios where it makes sense to have a “read-only” pointer to data that someone else might be writing, and we could keep &const and @const pointers easily enough.

Removing &const also means that an &mut pointer is guaranteed to be the only way to access the data it points at, which is stronger than saying it is the only way to mutate the data it points at. This is a nice invariant overall. Who knows, it might even come in handy for the type system, since if you are guaranteed to be the only one who can even read a certain piece of data, you can temporarily change its type and do other things without fear of violating type safety. Not that I have any concrete idea along these directions.

I think this change is worth exploring. It’s largely backwards compatible. It would codify what appears to be best practice and make the borrow checker a much less prominent part of people’s experience when using Rust.

There is some runtime cost to this proposal. Writes and borrows from managed boxes incur a dynamic check, though reads do not. If we keep const borrows, they also would not incur a runtime penalty. But these costs are only incurred for managed data, and it seems quite possible that with a more advanced GC we might need a write barrier anyway. Perhaps this check could be rolled together with that.

There is little loss to the “safety” of Rust, perhaps even a gain. Everything is the same except for @mut T , which effectively becomes @Mut<T> in today’s terms. But @mut T is already nonworkable for non-scalar T types so I suspect @Mut<T> to be far more common.

As far as the “complexity” of the system, I think things become simpler overall: there are fewer rules governing mutability; you only reason about mutability at the level of an entire data structure. Purity and its associated rules are gone. const might be gone. You never need to understand what the phrase “alisable, mutable” means.

The one place that does not seem simpler to me is &mut , which would now mean “the only mutable reference to the data in question” rather than “a mutable reference to the data in question”. But it’s not clear to me if this is really more complex, it might just be different. Moreover, it removes the need to think carefully about aliases when you have multiple mutable values, so it might even work out simpler overall.

So yes I’m bullish, but more thought and experimentation is certainly needed.