The brutal toll of major Russian-backed Syrian government assaults on rebel-held parts of the country so far this year has been highlighted in a new report which found that Russian airstrikes have killed at least 2,882 civilians in 2018 so far.

Research by Airwars, a UK-based not-for-profit tracking the cost of airstrikes on civilian populations in Syria, Iraq and Libya, found there had been a 34 per cent increase in incidents of civilian harm caused by Russia during the first six months of this year compared to 2017.

Airwars documented a new total of 3,445 civilian casualties which can be directly linked to Russian aircraft, but noted that the actual number of deaths could be as high as 18,000.

To date, the Russian government has not acknowledged responsibility for any civilian casualties in its operations.

The 2018 spike corresponds with huge offensives from Syrian president Bashar al Assad to retake eastern Ghouta in Damascus and southern Deraa province, two of the last rebel strongholds in the country.

The Ghouta operation in April also saw the alleged use of chemical weapons by the Syrian government, which killed up to 85 people and led to retaliatory strikes on a Syrian military base by US President Donald Trump.

“This huge jump is reflective of the aggressive campaigns Russia has been involved in this year,” Airwars director Chris Woods told The Independent. “With every international belligerent in Syria we see very poor outcomes for civilians but we do not generally see deliberate targeting of civilian infrastructure with the US coalition like we do with Russia.

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“Ultimately, Russia is ensuring the survival of the Assad government at any cost.”

The six-month report also found that deaths caused by the US-led coalition against Isis in Syria dropped sharply in the first six months of 2018 compared to 2017, but despite the conclusion of the Raqqa campaign last year, coalition action had still killed between 272 and 460 civilians.

Airwars estimates the international coalition has killed up to 26,112 civilians since it began bombing Isis positions in Syria and Iraq in 2014.

The alliance itself has so far conceded 939 civilian deaths resulting from 237 airstrikes.

"War of Annihilation" – devastating toll on civilians in Raqqa, Syria Show all 20 1 /20 "War of Annihilation" – devastating toll on civilians in Raqqa, Syria "War of Annihilation" – devastating toll on civilians in Raqqa, Syria A child injured by an IED explosion in Raqqa Amnesty International "War of Annihilation" – devastating toll on civilians in Raqqa, Syria Children riding a bicycle among destroyed buildings in Raqqa Amnesty International "War of Annihilation" – devastating toll on civilians in Raqqa, Syria Entire neighbourhoods in Raqqa are damaged beyond repair Amnesty International "War of Annihilation" – devastating toll on civilians in Raqqa, Syria Satellite image showing the house where seven members of the Badran family were killed in a Coalition strike on 18 July 2017, before the strike CNES/Airbus DS "War of Annihilation" – devastating toll on civilians in Raqqa, Syria Satellite image showing the house where seven members of the Badran family were killed in a Coalition strike on 18 July 2017, after the strike CNES/Airbus DS "War of Annihilation" – devastating toll on civilians in Raqqa, Syria Members of the Badran family killed in three separate Coalition air strike on 18 July and 20 August 2017 in Raqqa Amnesty International "War of Annihilation" – devastating toll on civilians in Raqqa, Syria The city of Raqqa in northern Syria has become hardly recognizable to those who try to return after months battle between US-backed forces and the Islamic State terrorist group for control of it. The city has no running water or electricity and homes, business and public squares are mere rubble and debris Amnesty International "War of Annihilation" – devastating toll on civilians in Raqqa, Syria Satellite image showing the houses where 16 members of the Fayad family and neighbours were killed in Coalition strikes on 12 October 2017, before the strike CNES/Airbus DS "War of Annihilation" – devastating toll on civilians in Raqqa, Syria Satellite image showing the houses where 16 members of the Fayad family and neighbours were killed in Coalition strikes on 12 October 2017, after the strike CNES/Airbus DS "War of Annihilation" – devastating toll on civilians in Raqqa, Syria Fayad Mohammed and his daughters Wafa’, Fadda and Tamam; Ammar al-Faris; Reem al-Maddad, Yusra Abd-al-Aziz, and baby Razqiya Habib; Jasim Hamal and Salem Hamad. They were among the 16 civilians killed in Coalition air strikes on 12 October 2017 in Raqqa Amnesty International "War of Annihilation" – devastating toll on civilians in Raqqa, Syria Men wait by the side of the road for casual labour in Raqqa. Many end up clearing partially destroyed or damaged buildings, a very risky endeavour as many building were mined by IS and civilians are frequently killed and injured by mines Amnesty "War of Annihilation" – devastating toll on civilians in Raqqa, Syria Satellite images showing the Aswad family’s building before it was destroyed in a Coalition air strike which killed eight civilians, five of them children, on 28 June 2017 CNES/Airbus DS "War of Annihilation" – devastating toll on civilians in Raqqa, Syria Satellite image showing the Aswad family’s building after it was destroyed in a Coalition air strike which killed eight civilians, five of them children, on 28 June 2017 CNES/Airbus DS "War of Annihilation" – devastating toll on civilians in Raqqa, Syria Amal Othman, 13, and her brothers Ammar, 8 and Mahmoud, 17; and Jamal Aswad, 41 – four of the eight victims killed in a Coalition air strike on 28 June 2017 in Raqqa Amnesty International "War of Annihilation" – devastating toll on civilians in Raqqa, Syria Low-income district west of the Jezra intersection on the western outskirts of Raqqa city destroyed by the Coalition shelling started in June 2017 Amnesty International "War of Annihilation" – devastating toll on civilians in Raqqa, Syria Satellite image showing the houses where 16 members of the Fayad family and neighbours were killed in Coalition strikes on 12 October 2017, before the strike CNES/Airbus DS "War of Annihilation" – devastating toll on civilians in Raqqa, Syria Satellite image showing the houses where 16 members of the Fayad family and neighbours were killed in Coalition strikes on 12 October 2017, after the strike CNES/Airbus DS "War of Annihilation" – devastating toll on civilians in Raqqa, Syria Ali Hassan Nafa; Mahdia Hashish and her husband Hussein Ali; Hussein Hashish, Mohammed Hashish and Hussein Ibrahim Hashish, and Mohammed Ali Hashish Amnesty International "War of Annihilation" – devastating toll on civilians in Raqqa, Syria Harat al Badu, a built up area in central Raqqa, next to the stadium. It was the scene of the final battle in the city between SDF/Coalition forces and IS Amnesty International "War of Annihilation" – devastating toll on civilians in Raqqa, Syria Map showing where the Badran, Hashish, Aswad and Fayab families were living before the coalition air strikes Unosat /Amnesty International

Russia began military aid to the Syrian government in 2015, a move which eventually turned the tide of the war decisively in president Assad’s favour.

While Washington and Moscow have backed opposing sides in Syria’s complex seven-year-old conflict US President Donald Trump and his Russian counterpart Vladimir Putin suggested they may find “common ground” for military cooperation in the conflict after a bilateral meeting in Helsinki.