Every fledgling programming language exists somewhere on the continuum between “scratchings in a notebook” and “making Java nervous”. Right now, Magpie is farther to the right than total vaporware, but it’s not yet at the point where I actually want people to use it (though you’re certainly welcome to try). The big reason for that is that there’s some core pieces I’m still figuring out. Without those in place, any attempts to use the language will either fail or just be invalidated when I change something.

The biggest piece of that is the object system: how classes work. The two challenging parts of that are inheritance and constructors. I think I’ve got a few ideas that are finally starting to stick there, so I thought I’d start documenting them to make sure I’ve got it clear in my head, and hopefully get some feedback.

In this post, I’ll just worry about constructors. The way Magpie handles constructing instances of classes is a bit… uh… odd. I’ll explain Memento-style, starting with the end and working backwards to see how I got there. By the end (or is it the beginning?) it should hopefully make sense.

Making an Object

To see where we end up, here’s a simple class in Magpie:

class Point var x Int var y Int end

Pretty basic. It has two fields. Because those fields don’t have initializers (i.e. they aren’t like var z = 123 ), they need to get those values passed in. Given that class up there, you can do that and make an instance like this:

var point = Point new ( x : 1 y : 2 )

That doesn’t look very special. So new is just a static method on a class, and you pass in named arguments? That’s half right. new is just a static (“shared” in Magpie-ese) method. Magpie doesn’t have named arguments. What it has are records. The above is identical to:

var coords = x : 1 y : 2 var point = Point new ( coords )

Records in Magpie are as they are in ML: structurally-typed anonymous structs. A series of keyword: value pairs forms a single expression that evaluates to a record value. Sort of like object literals in Javascript, although they’re statically-typed in Magpie.

So, this is pretty straightforward. When you define a class, it automatically gets a shared method called new that expects a record with fields that match all of the required fields of the class?

Well, sort of. Actually, new doesn’t do much at all. It’s just:

def new ( arg ) construct ( arg )

OK, so what’s construct ?

Raw Constructors

Raw constructors are the real way that instances of a named class are created in Magpie. Each class automatically gets a shared construct method. That method (like new ) takes a record with fields for all of the fields of the class. It then builds an instance of the class and copies those field values over.

So raw constructors are the real way that instances of a class are created in Magpie. So what is new for then?

A Time To Initialize

Calling construct is the raw way to create an instance, but many (most?) classes need to perform some initialization when an instance is created, or maybe they’ll calculate the values of some of the fields instead of just taking them in as arguments. new exists to give you a place to do that.

For example, lets say we actually wanted to create points using polar coordinates, even though it stores Cartesian. In that case, we could define it like:

class Point shared def new ( theta Int , radius Int -> Point ) var x = cos ( theta ) * radius var y = sin ( theta ) * radius construct ( x : x y : y ) end var x Int var y Int end

As you can see new is basically a factory method. It does some calculation, and then the very last thing it does is call construct , the real way to create an object, and returns the result. (Like Ruby, a function implicitly returns the result of its last expression.)

The reason Magpie always gives you both construct and new is for forward-compatibility. new is the way you should generally be creating instances, so it gives you a default one that forwards to construct . If you later realize you need to do more initialization than just a straight call to construct , you can replace new without having to change every place you’re creating an object.

OK, But Why?

So that seems pretty strange. Why on Earth would I design things this way instead of just using normal constructors like most other languages?

Let’s imagine that Magpie did have normal constructors (which it did until a few days ago, actually). Let’s translate our Point class to use that:

class Point // 'this' here defines a constructor method this ( x Int , y Int ) this x = x this y = y end var x Int var y Int end

Pretty straightforward, and it works fine. Now let’s break it:

class Point this ( x Int , y Int ) this x = x end var x Int var y Int end

Here, we’re failing to initialize the y field. What is its value? We can fix that the way Java does with final fields by statically checking for definite assignment. Part of the type-checking process will be to walk through the constructor function and make sure every declared field in the class gets assigned to. This isn’t rocket science, and I went ahead and implemented that in Magpie too.

So we’re good, right? Well, what about this:

class Point this ( x Int , y Int ) doSomethingWithAPoint ( this ) this x = x this y = y end var x Int var y Int end

In the constructor, we’re passing this to another function. That function, reasonably enough, expects the Point it receives to be fully initialized, but at this point it isn’t. So that’s bad.

We can fix that by making the static analysis even more comprehensive. While we check for definite assignment, we’ll also track and make sure that this isn’t used until all fields are definitely assigned.

Of course, you need to be able to use this to actually assign the fields. So we’ll need to special-case that. At this point, it starts to look like we’re building some ad-hoc typestate system where the static “type” of this mutates as we walk through the body of the constructor and gets tagged with all of the fields that have been assigned to it. Like:

this ( x Int , y Int ) // here 'this' is "Point with no fields assigned" this x = x // now it's "Point with x" this y = y // now it's "Point with x and y" and we're good end

This is doable, but it’s a bit of a chore to implement. Much worse is that it’s a real chore for any (purely hypothetical at this point) Magpie user to have to know. In order to understand the weird type-check errors you can get in a constructor, you’ll have to fully understand all of this flow analysis I just described.

I’m trying to keep Magpie as simple as I can, and this is definitely not it.

Why Don’t Other Languages Have This Problem?

Here is where we get to the real motivation that leads to all of this. Java and C# don’t have this issue with their constructors. It’s perfectly valid to do this in Java:

class Point { public Point ( int x , int y ) { doSomethingWithPoint ( x , y ); this . x = x ; this . y = y ; } private final int x ; private final int y ; }

It’s bad form, but it’s safe. The reason why is because Java has default initialization. Before you ever assign to a field in Java, it still has a well-defined value. Numbers are 0, booleans are false, and reference types are null .

Whoops! That last one is a doozy. I hate having to check for null at runtime. One of the major motivations for designing Magpie was to have it statically eliminate the need for those. If I say a variable is of type Monkey , I want it to always be a monkey, not “possibly a monkey, but also possibly this other magical missing monkey value”.

The problem then is that it isn’t always possible to create a value of some arbitrary type ex nihilo. We can’t just default initialize a field of Monkey by creating a new monkey from scratch. Maybe it needs arguments to be constructed.

So default initialization has to go. Every field in an instance of a class will need to be explicitly initialized before anyone can use that instance. In other words, until its fully set-up, this is verboten.

(C++ has its own solution for this, of course: constructor initialization lists. They solve this problem neatly, but at the expense of adding a non- trivial amount of complexity to the language.)

The most straight-forward solution I could come up with was this: create the instance as a single atomic operation. To do this, we’ll need to pass in all of the fields the instance needs, and it will return us a fully- initialized ready-to-use object. That’s construct .

What’s nice about this is that it’s dead-simple. There’s almost no special support in Magpie for constructors. No syntax for defining them. No special definite assignment for tracking that fields are initialized. Just a single built-in construct method auto-generated by the interpreter for each class, and you’re good to go.

It’s not all rosy, though. Doing things this way can be kind of gross if your class has a lot of fields to initialize. You end up having to build a big record as the last expression in your new method.

The other challenge is that circular immutable data structures aren’t really feasible. (Magpie doesn’t have immutable fields yet, but it will.) Haskell has it even worse than Magpie since everything is immutable and it’s actually surprisingly tricky to solve it.

What may be the biggest drawback, though, is that it’s unusual. Unfamiliarity is its own steep cost, especially in a fledgling language.

Rewind

So, going from cause to effect, it’s:

To get rid of null references, I had to get rid of default initialization. To get rid of default initialization, I had to get rid of access to this before an object has been fully-constructed. To do that, I turned construction into a single construct method that takes all of the required state and returns a new instance all in one step. Then, to get user-defined initialization back, I wrapped that in a new method that you can swap out to do what you want.

The reasoning seemed pretty sound to me, but I’m always eager to hear what others think about it.