SUCCESSORS OF ROME:

GERMANIA, 395-774

At first I wanted to erase the Roman name and convert all Roman territory into a Gothic Empire: I longed for Romania to become Gothia, and Athaulf to be what Caesar Augustus had been. But long experience has taught me that the ungoverned wildness of the Goths will never submit to laws, and that without law, a state is not a state. Therefore I have more prudently chosen the different glory of reviving the Roman name with Gothic vigour, and I hope to be acknowledged by posterity as the initiator of a Roman restoration, since it is impossible for me to alter the character of this Empire. Athaulf, King of the Visigoths [Orosius, Adversum Paganos, translated in Stephen Williams, Diocletian and the Roman Recovery, Routledge, 1985, 2000, p.218] The annals [ χρονογραφία ] recognize the fratricidal Romulus, from whose name they are called Romans, was born to a whore [ πορνογέννητος ], that is, he was generated in defilement [adulterium]; and he made a refuge for himself where he welcomed debtors from foreign climes, runaway slaves, murderers, and people who deserved death for their crimes, and he attracted such a throng of such people that he called them Romans; from this nobility there arose those whom you call cosmocrators [ κοσμοκράτορες , "world rulers"], or emperors. We, that means the Lombards, Saxons, Franks, Lotharingians, Bavarians, Swabians, Burgundians, so disdain them that we utter no other insult than 'Roman!' to our enemies when aroused, and we understand that single term, the name of the Romans, to include every baseness [ignobilitas], every cowardice, every kind of avarice, every kind of dissipation, every mendacity, indeed every vice. Liutprand of Cremona, "The Embassy of Liudprand," The Complete Works of Liudprand of Cremona, translated by Paolo Squatriti [The Catholic Press of America, 2007, pp.246-247, translation modified]; addressed, certainly in Greek, to the Emperor Nicephorus II Phocas, who threw Liutprand into prison -- the irony here is that Liutprand represents the German King Otto I, who claims to be the "Roman Emperor," but Nicephorus, who has just called him a "Lombard," has provoked him into denouncing all the "Romans," ever since Romulus, and boasting of the many tribes of Germans, including Otto's Saxons, with the added irony that Liutprand records this in Latin, the language of the "Romans." Introduction Six major German tribes, the Visigoths, the Ostrogoths, the Vandals, the Burgundians, the Lombards, and the Franks participated in the fragmentation and the collapse of the Western Roman Empire. The Vandals were actually two tribes, the Asding and the Siling Vandals. Several other tribes were also involved, the Alans and the Suevi in particular, though the Alans were an Iranian steppe people, not Germans. The six major tribes, however, founded significant kingdoms. All of them disappeared except one, the Franks, who gave their name to Western Europe in languages like Arabic. The diagram illustrates the fate of the kingdoms, two overthrown by the Franks, two by Romania, and one by Islâm. The parts of Italy preserved from the Lombards by the Romans later, of course, fell to the Franks too (if then ceded to the Pope); and North Africa, retrieved by the Romans from the Vandals, then went to Islâm. The Frankish kingdom breaks up into the elements of Mediaeval European history. Although Burgundy and Lorraine are now gone as such, Switzerland and Monaco are Modern pieces of the former, and the Netherlands, Belgium, and Luxembourg are Modern pieces of the latter. Besides the German tribes that entered and conquered or damaged the Western Roman Empire, there were the tribes that remained back in Germany proper. These were the Saxons, the Alemanni, the Thuringians, and the Rugians. When the Rugians were destroyed by Odoacer in 487, a new confederation of Germans formed in their place, the Bavarians. All these tribes in Germany were eventually subjugated by the Franks, the Alemanni in 496 and 505, the Thuringians in 531, the Bavarians at some point after 553, and then finally the Saxons by 804. When Germany eventually separated as East Francia, the old tribal areas assumed new identities as the Stem Duchies.

My sources for all these tables and maps can be found on the page for Francia and in "Decadence, Rome and Romania, the Emperors Who Weren't, and Other Reflections on Roman History." In particular, genealogies for the German kingdoms can be found in the Erzählende genealogische Stammtafeln zur europäischen Geschichte, Volume III, Europäiche Kaiser-, Königs- und Fürstenhäuser, Ergänzungsband [Andreas Thiele, R. G. Fischer Verlag, Second Edition, 2001]. This page continues and supplements the material in "Rome and Romania, 27 BC-1453 AD". Index Introduction

The Germanic Languages The Great English Vowel Shift

Visigoths Suevi Early Gothic History

Burgundians

Vandals

Ostrogoths

Lombards Dukes of Benevento

Thuringians Dukes of Thuringia

Bavarians

Alemanni

Saxons

Franks

Anglo-Saxon England Kings of Kent Archbishops of Canterbury Kings of Sussex Kings of Northumbria Kings of Essex Kings of Mercia Kings of East Anglia Kings of Wessex

Legendary and Early Kings of Scandinavia Runes Kings of Dermark, Norway, Sweden Kings & Lords of the Isles Earls of Orkney Kings of York The Danelaw Kings of Man Kings of Dublin

Philosophy of History Copyright (c) 2004, 2010, 2011, 2012, 2016, 2018 Kelley L. Ross, Ph.D. All Rights Reserved The Germanic Languages Gothic is the first attested Germanic language, preserved thanks to St. Ulfilas (Wulfila, "Little Wolf," d.c.383), who was consecrated Bishop to the Goths in 336, who formulated an alphabet for the language, and who then translated the Bible into it. The Gothic alphabet ceased to be used as the Gothic Nations ceased to exist. Gothic is assigned to the Eastern group of Germanic languages. Unfortunately, the other possible members of the Eastern group are long gone, and so little remains attested of their languages that their affinities cannot be determined with certainty. Candidates for the Eastern group are Burgundian, Lombard, Vandal, and Gepid. Except for the Gepids, who disappeared under the realms of the Avars, Bulgars, and Magyars, all the languages were spoken by tribes who ended up scattered across Roman territory. This may be an artifact of their being indeed in the Eastern Germanic language area, where they bore the front of the Hun arrival and fled west. Otherwise, the Germanic languages are divided into Western and Northern. The Western languages derive from various dialects of the languages of Germany, where the Jutes, Angles, and many Saxons colonized Britain and led to the development of English, while the German lowlands gave rise to dialects of Franconian, Saxon, and Frisian, where Low Franconian developed into modern Dutch and Saxon into Low German. West German tribes that in their day would have had distinctive dialects or languages but that have disappeared or assimilated over time would include the Franks, Saxons, Thuringians, Alemanni, Bavarians, and Suevi. Most of these form the basis of the Stem Duchies of Mediaeval Germany. Regional languages or dialects, like Low German (from Old Saxon) or Franconian, can still be associated with their original tribal areas. The Alemanni and Bavarians occupied the dialect area that developed into the Upper German dialects of High German. Eventually, "Standard" German came to be based on a Middle (or Central) German dialect of High German. This status originates with the translation of the Bible by Martin Luther (1483-1546). Luther was born and lived in Upper Saxony, teaching at Wittenberg, at one time the capital of the Elector of Saxony. Luther thus spoke the East Middle dialect of German, which today is also the speech of Berlin. My understanding is that Middle German originates with a dialect of Old Franconian and it becomes a dialect of High German mainly because of the propagation of sound changes from Upper German north across the country. Now High German therefore encompasses both Upper and Middle German and is only contrasted with Dutch (from Low Franconian), Frisian, and Low German (from Saxon). The transition remains ambiguous in the "Rhenish Fan" areas, as discussed below. The "East" dialects of Middle and Low German reflect German settlement East of the Elbe during the Middle Ages. This has been abruptly rolled back in the aftermath of World War II, with Germans simply expelled from Prussia, Further Pomerania, Silesia, the Sudetenland, and other regions, back to the Oder. When France conquered German speaking areas in the 17th & 18th centuries, principally meaning Alsace -- where the Alsatian dialect of Upper German was spoken -- but also including areas of Lorraine -- with Low Franconian dialects -- Germans were not expelled, but a long history of cultural and political pressure began to assimilate the regions politically, culturally, and linguistically to France. Although the recovery of Alsace, in particular, was a constant goal of the Emperors in the 18th century, by the 19th the assimilation to France was far advanced, and it is not clear to me how popular, if at all, the annexation of Alsace was to Germany in 1871. The behavior of the Germans down to 1918 in Alsace and Lorraine, which were ruled like African colonies, probably did not endear itself to the locals. We do not have the information of a plebiscite in the areas either in 1871 or in 1918. Census data from 1999 (from the French Institut National de la Statistique et des Études Économiques, INSEE), however, showed 39% of adults in Alsace still able to speak German. This must have been significantly higher a century earlier, but it probably also means that the decline has been steady, as it continues among the young. Germany and France are no longer fearsome enemies; and, after the terror of the World Wars and Naziism, the idea that France might have wrongfully acquired Alsace is probably a historical dead letter. The Northern group of Germanic languages begins with Runic inscriptions and Old Norse (Old Icelandic) and then leads to modern languages like Icelandic, Danish, Norwegian, Faeroese, Swedish, and Gutnish. The language of the earliest Runic inscriptions (c.300 AD) is a form of Norse so archaic that it seems almost equivalent to Proto-Germanic.



Grimm's Law PIE G *p f *t þ *k x/h *kw hw *b p *d t *g k *gw kw *bh b *dh d *gh g *ghw gw/w

θ

χ

The second part of the Law is that Proto-Indo-European voiced stops, b, d, g, and gw, became voiceless stops, p, t, k, and kw. Thus, Latin trabs, "wooden beam," and Lithuanian trobà, "house," correspond to Old English þorp, "farm, estate," and the New English suffix, "-thorp," used in place names and surnames; Latin decem, "ten," corresponds to English ten; Latin gelu, "frost, icy cold," corresponds to English cold; and Greek bíos, "life," which reflects the labial w more than the velar g, corresponds to English quick.

Finally, the third part of the Law is that Proto-Indo-European voiced aspirate stops, bh, dh, gh, and ghw, became simple voiced stops, b, d, g, and gw or w. Thus, "brother" in Sanskrit, bhrâta, in Greek, phratér, and Latin, frater, correspond to Gothic broþar and English brother; Greek thýra, "door," corresponds to English door; Greek khén, "goose," corresponds to English goose; and Proto-Indo-European *gwhermos, "warm," corresponds to Latin formus, Greek thermós, and English warm. There are some variations on these rules, influenced by environments like the position of the Proto-Indo-European accent, as was discovered by Karl Verner and formulated as "Verner's Law."

A fascinating feature of the Germanic languages is that the sort of consonsant shifts we see in Grimm's Law later begin to be repeated in the development of High German (the "Second Germanic Sound Shift"). These changes take place in sequence and spread like waves north through the German language community. Indeed, they are very good evidence for the "wave model" of language development. Most significantly, the different waves go different distances in different places,

Grimm's Law High German Sound Shift PIE G PG #1

4-5c PHG #2

5-8c *b p *-p-/-*p ff *p-/-pp- pf *d t *-t-/-*t ss *t-/-tt- ts *g k *-k-/-*k x/hh *k-/-kk- k(x)

In the first wave, the voiceless stops become fricatives -- f, s, and x or h. Thus, English ship corresponds to High German Schiff; English eat and out correspond to High German essen and aus, respectively; and English make and Dutch ik, "I," correspond to High German machen and ich, respectively.

All of these changes are reflected in the extraordinary dialect map at left, the "Rhenish Fan," Rheinischer Fächer, where not only have the different sound changes extended different distances from their origin, but there is even a different distance with the same sound change (k/ch) in different words. These transition dialects are all regarded as belonging to High German, but, as I have noted, they originate in a relatively independent area of Old Franconian and Middle German. It is of interest that the official language of Luxembourg, Letzeburgish, is a dialect of Middle German, falling between dorp/dorf Bad Honnef Line and the dat/das Sankt Goar Line. The Kur-Köln and Kur-Trier glosses refer to the old Imperial Electorates of Cologne and Trier, which were independent states until the Napoleonic era.

Grimm's Law High German

Sound Shift PIE G PHG #2

5-8c *b p *p-/-pp- pf *d t *t-/-tt- ts *g k *k-/-kk- k(x)

In the second wave of sound changes, voiceless stops become affricatives, which start with the stop and ends with the fricative -- pf, ts, and kx. Thus, English penny and pound correspond to High German Pfennig and Pfund, respectively; and English two and time correspond to High German zwei and Zeit. In the third case we see something different. With the English word cow, the corresponding Standard High German word, Kuh, retains the simple stop. However, the Swiss word, pronounced kxû, relfects the expected change from stop to affricative. Thus, this sound change did not continue far enough North to enter the Standard Dialect of High German. The dialects of southern Bavaria, Austria, and southern Swabia (High Alemannic) also share this feature, with a word like Kchind for Standard German Kind, "child." There is no word in my German dictionary [The New Cassell's German Dictionary, Funk & Wagnalls, 1958, 1965, p.258] that has an initial cluster of kch.

Grimm's Law High German

Sound Shifts PIE G HG #3

8-9c *bh b b p *dh d d t *gh g g k

Grimm's Law Germanic

Sound Shifts PIE PG H/LG #4

9-10c *t þ *þ/ð d

English displays its own version of Germanic sound shifts, when the vowels of Middle English all move around into New English -- the "Great English Vowel Shift." With all such changes, linguists still hunt for explanations of why such things happen. In general, there is not going to be an explanation. Sounds change, and then the changes spread. It just happens, although features of social, political, or religious prestige may come into play. Thus, a certain dialect of Middle German came to be the Standard dialect for the modern German language because, as noted, that is what Martin Luther spoke and used for his German translation of the Bible. He may have chosen that dialect because it already had some prestige, or just because that is what he knew. Certainly the post-Luther prestige of the dialect accounts for its becoming spoken in Berlin -- the green salient on the map up into the East Low German dialect area.

My sources here are a couple of fine articles at Wikipedia, "Grimm's Law" and the "High German consonsant shift," and then R.L. Trask, Historical Linguistics [Arnold, London, New York, 1996], Winfred P. Lehmann, Historical Linguistics [Third Edition, Routledge, 1992, 1997, both maps here are adapted from Lehman, pp.126 & 128], Calvert Watkins, The American Heritage Dictionary of Indo-European Roots [Second Edition, Houghton Mifflin, 2000], Robert S.P. Beekes, Comparative Indo-European Linguistics, An Introduction [John Benjamins Publishing Company, Amsterdam, 1995], and J.P. Mallory and D.Q. Adams, The Oxford Introduction to Proto-Indo-European and the Proto-Indo-European World [Oxford, 2006, 2007].



The Great English Vowel Shift

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The Great English Vowel Shift While Germanic languages in general and High German in particular have their merry-go-round of consonant shifts, English switches over and does it with vowels. As Middle English develops into New English, between 1200 and 1600, the quality of the long vowels undergoes a distinctive transformation. The results are a great deal messier than indicated in the chart below. English no longer has "pure" vowels. Actual vowel sounds number somewhere between nine and thirteen, with most vowels reduced and rather indefinite, or diphthongized, with the places of articulation (the allophones) scattered around where the original vocalic phoneme ideally would have been pronounced. The shifting is thus not just confined to the great systematic change of the long vowels. The short vowels have also shifted somewhat, most notably where the short "a" is now usually pronounced /æ/, as in "bad," "rap," etc. Nevertheless, there is a systematic change with the long vowels, which is indicated in a general way in the diagram. Thus, the long "a" is now pronounced /ê/ (or /êi/), as we see in words like "trade," "made," "date," etc. This ends up being the same result for the diphthong "ai" (or "ay"), as we see in "paid," "day," and "lay." The long "e," meanwhile, is pronounced /î/ as in "meet," "beet," "sleep," etc.; and long "i" has shifted around to the diphthong /ai/, as in "light," "spite," "dike," etc. With the back vowels, we are a little distracted by the spelling conventions of Middle English. People tend to think that "oo" is simply the digraph to write /û/, when of course it simply indicated a long "o" and the "u" sound is the result of the sound shift. Thus, the Dutch and German word Boot, "boat," is often pronounced by Americans as /bût/ (very common with the fine German submarine movie Das Boot [1982]) rather than /bôt/ -- like, as it happens, "boat" itself. Of course, English does have a word "boot," in which the long "o" has shifted into a long "u." More obscure is the use of "ou" to write the original long "u." This convention, however, is shared by French and even Greek. This long "u" then shifts into the /au/ diphthong, as in words like "pound," "round," "noun," etc. "Ou" may not be the most obvious way to write a long "u," but then the same sound is written "oe" in Dutch. The original diphthong "au" shifts back around to "o," but more to the quality (roughly) of the modern short "o" than the modern long "o." Thus we get, "paw," "Paul," "caulk," etc. The vowel shift was a process that went on for centuries. Indeed, it has never been quite completed in the North of England or Scotland. Americans like to make fun of Canadians saying /abût/ for "about." I don't think they actually quite do that, but their "ou" is not the same as Americans pronounce it, and indeed there are places in England and Scotland where /abût/ is the pronounciation, because the Middle English vowel quality is retained. Even for standard English, however, the spelling gives no more than a clue about pronunciation. "Rough," for instance, which would have been /rûx/ in Middle English, has ended up with the vowel reduced to the indefinite "schwa," "ǝ," and the "gh" transformed into an "f." Something like this has generally happend to "gh," or it has become silent; leaving most modern speakers ignorant of how it was ever pronounced in the first place. This is the sort of thing that makes English a nightmare for people learning it as a second language. The somewhat ragged ending of the Great English Vowel shift became more ragged over time, as many vowels became "reduced" in quality, such as the noted and iconic "schwa," ǝ, at the end of a word like "sofa." English also acquired a "short a," æ, written here with the "ash" from Old English, which is not found in nearby European languages -- although it is quite common in Arabic and Persian. This gives English twelve simple vowels, not counting vocalic variants of "r" and "l," let alone the variety of diphthongs. This strikes many people as little better than a mess, and it is certainly messier than many familiar languages with neat and tidy systems of "pure" vowels. Yet both French and German have schwas, and French actually has more simple vowels than English -- and spelling that at least rivals the confusion of English, without the excuse of a Vowel Shift. A friend of mine kept pronouncing the French article le as though the vowel was /e/ rather than /ǝ/ because, I think, not having studied French, he had trouble believing it would have such an ugly sound in it. But there is really nothing ugly about it; and the word for it comes from Hebrew. But European writing systems, derived from the pure vowels of Greek and Latin, are impoverished in terms of the traditional symbols available to represent the vowels. The symbols in the chart here are from the International Pronunciation Alphabet (IPA), but the ones that may be the most useful are also the ones that are not used in the traditional spelling of any language. Of course, macrons are not used in writing to indicate "long" e or a, but that is a small addition when other sounds really don't have standard written forms. /O/ turns up as "oa" in "boat," "coat," "goat," etc., but there are other words with the sound written other ways. We also have anomalies as such as the "long" a being /e/, and the "short" a being /æ/, but then the "a" in "father" being something else. It might be easier just to return to Middle English pronunciation.

Germanic Languages Germania Index Tense and Aspect, Expressed in English Philosophy of Science, Linguistics Philosophy of Science Philosophy of History Home Page Copyright (c) 2008, 2012 Kelley L. Ross, Ph.D. All Rights Reserved At first I wanted to erase the Roman name and convert all Roman territory into a Gothic Empire: I longed for Romania to become Gothia, and Athaulf to be what Caesar Augustus had been. But long experience has taught me that the ungoverned wildness of the Goths will never submit to laws, and that without law, a state is not a state. Therefore I have more prudently chosen the different glory of reviving the Roman name with Gothic vigour, and I hope to be acknowledged by posterity as the initiator of a Roman restoration, since it is impossible for me to alter the character of this Empire. Athaulf, King of the Visigoths [Orosius, Adversum Paganos, translated in Stephen Williams, Diocletian and the Roman Recovery, Routledge, 1985, 2000, p.218] The Visigoths, 395-711 None of six main German tribes to occupy Roman lands, save one, survived the early part of the Middle Ages. Only the Franks created an enduring state. The principal immediate damage to the Empire was done by the Visigoths, who, instead of being assimilated like earlier barbarians (which would have been the plan of Valens), settled as a coherent tribe in Roman territory. They could not be properly subdued by Theodosius I and then, even when acting as allies, began to operate in ways, sometimes deliberately, sometimes not, that undermined the Empire. With the attention of Stilicho, left by Theodosius in charge of the Army, occupied by the Visigoths, the Western frontiers were stripped of troops. In the dark of the New Year, on January 1, 407, the Iranian Alans, the Vandals, and the Suevi crossed a frozen Rhine to engage in an uncontested romp through Gaul and Spain.

VISIGOTHS Alaric I 395-410 Athaulf (Ataulfo) 410-415 Sigeric 415 Wallia 415-417 defeat of Vandals &

Alans in Spain, 417 Theodoric I 417-451 withdrawal to Aquitaine, 418; killed by Huns, battle of Chalôns-sur-Marne (otherwise known as the Campus Mauriacus or the Catalaunian Plains), 451 Thorismund 451-453 Theodoric II 453-466 invades Spain, defeats Suevi, 456; deposed Euric (Eurico) I 466-484 Alaric (Alarico) II 484-507 defeated by Franks, driven from Gaul, 507 Amalaric (Amalarico) 508-511,

526-531 capital at Toledo, 527 Theodoric the Great Ostrogoths,

493-526 511-526 Theudes (Theudis) 531-548 Theudegisel 548-549 Agila I 549-554 Romans in Cartagena

& Andalusia, 551 Athanagild(o) 554-567 Theodomir 567-571 Leuva (Leova) I 571-572 Leu(/o)vigild(o) 572-586 Reccared(o) I 586-601 converts to Catholicism, 587;

Kingdom converts to

Catholicism, 589 Leova II 601-603 Witterich 603-610 Gundemar 610-612 Sisebut (Sisebur) 612-621 Reccared II 621 Swintilla (Suinthila) 621-631 Sisenand(o) 631-636 Chintila 636-640 Tulga 640-642 Chindaswind(/suinto) 642-653 Recdeswinth 653-672 Wamba 672-680 Euric (Erwig) II 680-687 E(r)gica 687-702 Witiza 702-709 Roderic (Rodrigo) 709-711 Agila II 711-714 Overthrown by Omayyads,

711; Christian Kingdom of

Asturias, 718

SUEVI Hermeric 409-438 sworn as Roman foederati, 410 Rechila 428-448 defeats the Count of Spain, Andevotus, at the Jenil River, 438; takes Mérida, made capital, 439; takes Seville, 441; converts to Catholicism, 447 Rechiar(ius) 448-456 Peace with Romans, 452; defeated & killed by

Visigoths, 456 Aioulf 456-467 Suevi convert to

Arianism, 466 Maldras 467-460 Richimund 460-c.463 Frumar 460-c.465 Remisund c.463-? unknown kings Carriaric c.550-559 Theodemar 559-570 Suevi convert to

Catholicism, 561 Miro 570-582 Eboric 582-584 Andeca 584-585 Visigoth conquest

Meanwhile, in 428, the Asding Vandals crossed over into Africa. By 442 they had established themselves, ending the ancient source of grain for Roman Italy. With the Western Empire obviously in collapse, the Visigoths then expanded into much of the rest of Gaul and Spain (469-478). The Visigothic Kingdom, pushed entirely into Spain by the Franks (507), absorbing the Suevi (584), and converting from Arianism to orthodox Catholicism (589), endured until the armies of Islâm arrived in 711. The history of Spain is then largely of Islâmic Spain, until the Christian north revives and Islâm power goes into decline, around the turn of the millennium. Local rulers of Islâmic Spain can be found as follows:

The Islamic Conquest of the Visigoths features an anecdote concerning an artifact called the "Table of Solomon." This was supposedly part of the Roman loot of Herod's Temple that was brought to Rome. The Visigoths took the table when they sacked Rome in 410 and then carried with them to Spain. The problems with this story are that Josephus doesn't mention such a table in the furniture of the Temple; it isn't shown with the other loot in the Arch of Titus; and it seems unlikely that a cumbersome marble table would have been taken by the Visigoths, when other, far more portable, treasures were left in Rome until thoroughly looted by the Vandals in 455. Nevertheless, when the conqueror of Spain, T.âriq ibn Ziyâd, captured Toledo and inspected the treasures of the Visigoths, he identified this item as the "Table of Solomon." Since T.âriq had exceeded his orders, his superior, Mûsâ ibn Nus.ayr, tried to take credit for the conquest. When Mûsâ traveled to Damascus and presented the spoils of the Visigoths to the Caliph al-Walîd in 715, he was horrified to realize that the Table was missing a leg. This had cleverly been removed by T.âriq, who then stepped forward to present it to the Caliph, as evidence of his part in the Conquest. T.âriq might have worried about retaliation from Mûsâ; but Mûsâ in turn was ruined by the new Caliph, Sulaymân (715-717), al-Walîd's brother, in retaliation for not delaying his entry into Damascus until Sulaymân had come to the Throne. Sulaymân even ordered the murder of Mûsâ's son, Abdul Azîz, whom he had left as governor of Spain. Meanwhile, the "Table of Solomon," authentic or not, disappeared from history.

Slightly different lists of Visigothic Kings are given by the sources. The Oxford Dynasties of the World, by John E. Morby [Oxford University Press, 1989, 2002, p.59] looks good. The original version here was based on the Kingdoms of Europe, by Gene Gurney [Crown Publishers, New York, 1982] and Bruce R. Gordon's Regnal Chronologies. I've tried to combine and reconcile the lists to an extent, but I have no way of knowing at the moment which dates are preferable.

Many Visigothic names survive into modern Spanish. Of the Kings, the name of Rodrigo seems the most obvious example. Later names like Ferdinand (Ferdinando, Fernando) are also examples.

The origin and history of the Goths is a matter of great interest, dispute, and speculation. The island of Gotland off the coast of Sweden seems to testify to the location and antiquity of the name, but there is no real historical evidence linking the Goths to it, apart from much later, and legendary, accounts, like the history of the Goths completed in 551 by Jordanes, a Goth himself -- although it seems to be based on a larger history by Cassiodorus. What is better known is that in the first centuries A.D. German tribes expanded from the Baltic & North Sea coasts of Germany south and east along the frontier of the Roman Empire. In so doing they interacted with Roman culture, even developing their own writing system, the Runes. By the third century, the Goths were in the forefront of this expansion, passing around the Roman salient of Dacia, shown on the following map.

From this position, in 251 the Goths raided into the Balkans, killing the Emperors Decius and Herennius. In 267 the Goths even sailed down into Roman territory, in a kind of anticipation of the Viking (or Varangian) raids of later centuries, sacking Athens -- though, not really being seafaring themselves, they used ships from Greek colonials in the Crimea (the Cimmerian Bosporus) and nearby. The Emperor Gallienus inflicted some setbacks on them, before he was murdered, but they were finally defeated in 269 at the battle of Naissus by Claudius II, henceforth known as "Gothicus." Nevertheless, Aurelian then withdrew Roman legions and settlers from Dacia in 271. By then some of the Goths were moving on, and soon different Gothic communities can be distinguished. Previously, it was thought that Visigoths and Ostrogoths familiar from later history were already discernable. However, this now looks anachronistic, as discussed elsewhere. Gothic power did expand through the Ukraine. Eventually, it may have extended all the way to the Don, and then spread north, by some (questionable) reckonings all the way back to the Baltic. The Gothic "empire" of King Ermanaric (i.e. "King [riks] Herman," where "Herman" itself is from [h]er[i], "army," and man, "man") collapsed abruptly when the Huns arrived in about 370 -- Ermanaric is even supposed to have committed suicide. This pushed the Goths back into Roman territory, which began all the troubles for Rome.

But after some centuries in the area, the Goths had left a treasure hoard behind in what later would be modern Romania. A Runic inscription on one item in the hoard contains the words Gutani, which was the Goths' own name for themselves (it turns up in Latin as Gutones) and hailag, the Gothic word for "holy" and recognizably cognate to modern German heilig. The Ostrogoths left behind something else: a small community in the Crimea. This survived and was still speaking Gothic as late as the 16th century. The Imperial Ambassador to Constantinople, 1554-1562, the Fleming Ogier Ghiselin de Busbecq (1522-1592) took down sixty words from informants from the Crimea, confirming the Gothic identity of their language. But then the community vanished at some later period. The long episode of Germans in the East would later evoke dreadful ambitions. There is little doubt that Hitler saw himself as revenging Ermanaric with his invasion of Russia.



BURGUNDIANS Gebicca d.407 established at Worms

(Borbetomagus) Gundahar/

Gondikar/

Gunther 407-

436/437 killed by Aëtius & Huns Gundioc/

Gunderic 434-473 ceded Sapaudia (cisjurane Burgundy), 443; Sequania (transjurane Burgundy), 458 Chilperic I 443-c.480 Chilperic II 473-493 son of Gundioc, killed by Gundobad Godegisel 473-501 son of Gundioc, killed by Gundobad Gundobad 473-516 son of Gundioc, West Roman Generalissimo , 472-474 Sigismund 516-524 converts to Catholicism, killed by Franks Gudomar (II)/

Gundimar/

Godomar 524-532 Overthrown by Franks

The first incursion of the Burgundians into the Empire was evidently with the Vandals, Alans, and Suevi who crossing of the Rhine on 1 January 407. Unlike the others, who mostly headed off across Gaul, the Burgundians settled down around Worms (Borbetomagus) on the Rhine and, in league with the Alans, set up a puppet Emperor, Jovinus (411-413). After the deposition of Jovinus, the Burgundian King, Gundahar, was legitimized as a foederatus by the Emperor Honorius. However, this did not last, and Aëtius moved against the Burgundians with his Hun allies in 436. The slaughter of the Burgundians was apparently remembered in the stories of the Nibelungen, with Gundahar's name rendered as "Gunnar."

Before long, however, the Burgundians were accepted again as foederati and granted lands in Sabaudia (or Sapaudia), the later Savoy (443). This created a durable Kingdom, subsequently expanded to the proportions familiar from later history. As noted, Gundobad enjoyed a career at the West Roman Court, where he personally murdered the Emperor Anthemius (472) and then followed his uncle Ricimer as Magister Militum of the West (472-474) -- until chased out by Julius Nepos. Disposing of his brothers, he ruled the Burgundians down to 516, overseeing things like the promulgation of the law codes Lex Romana Burgundionum and Lex Gundobada. This promising start, and the adoption of Catholicism (in place of Arianism) by his son Sigismund, was, however, soon snuffed out by the Franks, despite the fact that their own cousin, St. Chlothilda, was Regent of the Frankish Kingdom (511-c.544) at the time of the last two Burgundian Kings. Apparently she prefered the power of her sons over that of her cousins.

The Kingdom of the Burgundians remained a unit in the many divisions of the Merovingian and Carolingian domains, until independent kingdoms resulted in the 880's. The map shows later subdivisions, especially of the Duchy and the Free County, which remained distinct for the longest. Upper and Lower Burgundy became a united Kingdom, based at Arles (hence, the "Arelate"). Eventually the Kingdom disappeared, with its parts largely absorbed by France. The name of Burgundy became primarily associated with the French Duchy of Burgundy (which bestowed its name on the wine of the region) and its subsequent possessions in the Low Countries.



VANDALS Gunderic c.406-428 Gaiseric 428-477 Invasion of Africa, 428; Capture of Carthage, 439; expedition of Aëtius , Visigoths provide troops, and fleet of 1100 cargo & troop ships arrive in Sicily from Theodosius II , cancelled, 441; Sack of Rome, 455; Expedition of Majorian organizing in Spanish ports surprised & burned, 461; Joint E/W expedition of Anthemius & Basiliscus fails, 468 Huneric 477-484 Gunthamund 484-496 Thrasamund 496-523 Hilderic 523-530 Gelimer 530-534 Overthrown by Belisarius , 533-534

When the last Western military commander, Odoacer, decided to depose the child Emperor Romulus "Augustulus" and not appoint another one, this formally restored the unity of the Roman Empire. Odoacer returned the Imperial Regalia to Constantinople and legally became an official of the Emperor Zeno. This dependency, however, was in name only, and Zeno soon directed his uncomfortably active allies, the Ostrogoths, to overthrow Odoacer. Invading Italy in 489, the Ostrogoths did not succeed in killing Odoacer and taking Ravenna until 493.



OSTROGOTHS Theodoric/

Thiudareiks

the Great 493-526 Animal killing ended

in Colosseum, 523 Athalaric 526-534 Theodatus/

Theodahad 534-536 Belisarius takes Sicily, 535, Naples and Rome (#1), 536 Vitiges 536-540 Belisarius takes Milan and Ravenna, Ostrogoths surrender, 540 Theodebald 540 Eraric 540-541 Totila (Baduila) 541-552 Ostrogoths recover, 541-552; Belisarius returns to Italy, 544-549, inconclusive campaigning; Rome falls to Ostrogoths, depopulated, 546 (#2); Belisarius reoccupies Rome, 547 (#3); Rome betrayed to Ostrogoths, 549 (#4); Totila defeated by Narses, Battle of Busta Gallorum or Taginae, Totila killed in pursuit, Narses takes Rome by storm, 552 (#5) Teias 552-553 defeated, killed by Narses, Battle of Mons Lactarius, 553; Franks defeated by Narses, Battle of Casilinum or the Volturnus, 554

Theodoric's name, although it looks like an adjective from "Theodore" in Greek, "Gift of God," actually is a rendering of Thiudareiks or "King of the People" in Gothic. Thiuda or "people" is a cognate of þeoda in Old English and of deutsch in modern German (or "Teuton" by way of Latin). Reiks is a cognate of rex in Latin and raja in Sanskrit. "Thiudareiks" itself has many modern descendants: Dietrich in German, Derek in English from German, Dirk in Dutch, Thierry in French, and Terry in English by way of French. "Terry" is now usually seen as an abbreviation of "Terence," but the Oxford Dictionary of First Names [Patrick Hanks and Flavia Hodges, 1990] says otherwise.

Like Visigothic Spain, Ostrogothic Italy would contribute towards the civilization of Mediaeval Europe. Cassiodorus (c.490-c.583) and Boethius (476-524) both were distinguished writers. Although himself executed by Theodoric for treason, Boethius produced a number of enduring philosophical classics that were essential Latin reading in the Middle Ages. These included his commentary on Porphyry's Isagoge -- the Introduction to Aristotle's logical works that was the starting point for Mediaeval philosophy -- and then his On the Consolation of Philosophy, written in prison before his execution. In the commentary-upon-commentary style of Medieval learning, Boethius would be followed much later by Peter Abelard (1079-1142). Although nominally a Christian, Boethius' Consolation owed little to religion.

In the genealogy below, we can see some Kings of the Ostrogoths before Theodoric's descent into Italy. The actual dynasty ends in 540, when Belisarius conquered the country for the Emperor Justinian. When Ostrogothic resistance revived, the Kings were unrelated to the old dynasty. The heiress of the dynasty, Matasuntha, at first married the first extra-dynastic King but then married into the house of Justinian. Her son, Germanus, would form the only actual link between the Justinian Emperors and their successors Tiberius II and Maurice. The last days of the Ostrogoths were an exhausting campaign against the Romans. Belisarius, with thin forces, at first defeated them more by maneuver and strategem than by force, taking the surrender of Ravenna in 540. Ravenna would remain in Roman hands until termporarily occupied by the Lombards in 712 and then permanently in 751. However, undefeated Ostrogoths promptly elected new Kings, finding a competent, energetic, and effective one, Totila, in 541. Belisarius was called away to fight the Persians, and Justinian visited upon Italy the rule of multiple rapacious and incompetent generals. The Ostrogoths steadily recouped their fortunes, and Belisarius returned in 544 with little to enable him to prevent the fall of Rome in 546. This would prove to be the second of five times that Rome would change hands between the Romans and the Ostrogoths.

In the course of the War, Italy would suffer such damage as it had not had previously in the protracted earlier 5th century "Fall" of Rome. The principle city of the North, Milan, would be destroyed by the Ostrogoths; and Rome itself would be starved and depopulated, and its aqueducts broken, in the course of the struggle. The judgment of history about this is conflicted. If Honorius had fought for Italy as fiercely against the Visigoths, and won in the end, he certainly would be celebrated by historians as the Savior of the Empire, however much damage had been done. That Italy fell to Germans less with a bang than with a whimper is a truth actually little noted, and hardly present at all in popular consciousness. I expect most people imagine the Goths storming their way into Rome against futile Roman resistance. There is little general awareness that nothing of the sort happened until the 6th century; and, when some attention is paid to it, the struggle of Justinian and Belisarius largely comes in for censure by historians. Italy, they seem to think, would have been better off without Justinian's Reconquest. Perhaps, with 20/20 hindsight; but it is hard to fault the sense of a Roman Emperor that it is his duty to recover Rome and expell the barbarians. That the success of the War would be undone by the Lombards, who inflicted further damage and prevented recovery, cannot be blamed on Justinian. Totila himself fell in battle against the Roman general Narses, who recovered Rome, for the last time, in 553. The City would not again fall to barbarians, although the Arabs looted Ostia and the Vatican (at least) in 846.



The recovery of Italy by the Romans from the Ostrogoths turned out to be a devastating event for the country. Between 536 and 553 the war surged back and forth, probably doing more damage than all the previous fighting since the invasion of Italy by the Visigoths in 410.

LOMBARDS Alboin 568-573 Celph 573-575 Autharis 584-590 Theodelinda 590-591 Agilulf 591-615 Adaloald 615-625 Arioald 625-636 Rotharis 636-652 Aribert I 652-661 Grimoald Duke of

Benevento

647-662 662-671 Garibald 671-674 Bertharit 674-688 Cunibert 688-700 Aribert II 701-712 Liutprand 712-744 Rachis of Friuli 744-749 Duke of

Spoleto

756-757 Aistulf of Friuli 749-756 Duke of

Spoleto

751-756 Desiderius 756-774 Duke of

Spoleto

758-759 Overthrown by Franks

Other German Tribes, 508-806

Kings of the

Bavarians, Bavarii Theodo I 508-512 Theodo II 512-537 Theodo III 537-565 control by Franks,

after 553 Theodobald I 537-567 Garibald I 550-590 Grimwald I 590-595 Tassilo I 591-609 Garibald II 609-640 Agilolf 609-630 Theodo IV 640-680 Theodo V 680-702 Theodobert 702-725 Grimwald II 702-723 Theodobald II 702-715 Tassilo II 702-730 Hubert 725-737 Odilo 737-748 Tassilo III 748-788 annexed by Franks

Kings of Thuringia Widephus 4th century occupied by the

Huns, c.450-c.455 Bisin 5th century Baderich 5th century Berthachar 5th century Hermenefried c.500-

531 annexed by

the Franks

The list of the Kings of the Thuringians is something I have only seen at one source, a historical website. The dates are pretty early. The line ends with Frankish conquest, but a Duchy of Thuringia is later briefly revived, as seen below.

The confederation of the Bavarii was a relatively late creation. The original tribe in the area, the Rugians, were destroyed when they attempted to invade Italy against Odoacer in 487. The Bavarians formed in their place. Later, when Justinian succeeded in destroying the Ostrogoths (552), the Bavarians moved south of the Danube, but about the same time they also came under the control of the Franks. Thus, the line of Kings, or perhaps Dukes, after Frankish suzerainty, continues until formal annexation by Charlemagne in 788.



Kings of the Alemanni;

control by Franks,

496, 505 Leuthari c.536-554 Butilin c.536-554 Haming d.c.539 Leutfred I c.570-587 Uncilen 588-613 Gunzo d.613 Chrodebert c.615-639 Leutfred II c.640-673/95 Godefred c.700-709 Huocin d.c.712 Willehari d.c.712 Lanfred I c.720-730 Nebi d.746 Theodobald c.737-744 Lanfred II 746-749 Gerold 791-799 Isenbard 799-806 annexed by the Franks

Their domain, revived as the Duchy of Swabia, lost its name in Germany, but the word nevertheless survives as the name for Germany itself in the Romance languages, like Allemagne in French. The left bank of the Rhine, taken by the Alemanni and passed to Swabia, became Alsace. Alsace and Lorraine were gradually conquered by France, substantially beginning with the settlement of the Thirty Years War in 1648 (the Treaty of Westphalia). Although annexed by Germany in 1871, Alsace has been back with France since 1918. It retains, however, many Germanic place names (Strasbourg, Ensisheim, Haguenau, Hochfelden, Altkirch, etc.) and, at least until the post-World War I era, many native German speakers. Neither Germans nor French bothered with any plebiscite to see which country the locals preferred.



Saxons Vegdegg

Odinson 1st century AD Gelder ? Freawine 4th century Guictglis 5th century Hulderic 6th century Alof the Great 6th century Boddic 7th century Berthold ? Sighard ? Dietrich ? Wernicke 8th century Withukund

the Great ?-777,

778-785 Frankish conquest,

777-778, 785-790,

rebellion, 790-804

The Saxons were a tough fight for the Franks, just about the worst. It took Charlemagne 27 years (777-804) to effectively reduce the country. The fighting, by all accounts, was brutal, with little restraint or humanity shown by either side.

Dukes of Thuringia Radulf c.634-642 independent, 639 Hetan I c.642-687 Gozbert c.687-689 Hetan II c.689-719 annexed by the Franks

A telling sign of a bit of Merovingian decline is that Thuringia should drift into independence for 80 years. We can imagine that Frankish control of the Bavarians and Alemanni during the same period was likely to have been pretty slack. Significantly, Thuringian independence ends in the days of Charles Martel. The Bavarians and Alemanni must have been more entrenched. It was only Charlemagne, waxing in power, who eliminated the native lines.

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Anglo-Saxon England Kings of Sussex, Bernicia, Deira,

Northumbria, Essex, Mercia, and East Anglia

Kings of Sussex

Saxons Aelle & Cissa 491-

c.499/516 killed at Battle of Badon? rule by Mercia, c.516-c.660 Athelwalh c.660-c.685 Berthun 685-686 Nothhelm or Nunna c.692-c.725 Wattus c.692 Athelstan c.714 Athelbert c.725-c.750 Osmund c.758-c.772 Dukes of Sussex under Mercia Oswald c.772 Oslac c.772 Ealdwulf 765-c.791 Elfwald c.772-?

Kings of Bernicia

Angles Ida 547-559 Glappa 559-560 Adda 560-568 Aethelric 568-572 Theoderic 572-579 Frithuwald 579-585 Hussa 585-592 Kings of Deira

Angles Aelle 560-599 Aetheiric 599-604 Kings of Northumbria,

Angles Aethelfrith Bernicia,

593-616;

Deira,

604-616 annexed Bernicia, and Deira, 604 Edwin 616-633 Osric Deira,

633-634 Eanfrith Bernicia,

633-634 St. Oswald 634-642 Oswiu 642-670 St. Oswine Deira,

644-651 Aethciwaid Deira,

651-655 Ecgfrith 670-685 defeated and killed by the Picts and Britons under Brude III mac Bili at Nechtansmere or Dun Nechtain, 685 Aldfrith 686-705 Eadwulf I 705-706 Osred I 706-716 Cenred 716-718 Osric 718-729 Ceotwulf 720-737, d.760 Eadberht 737-758, d.768 after surrender of Dumbarton, killed (?) by King Angus (Oengus, Onuist) of the Picts, 756 Oswulf 758-759 Aethelwald 759-765 Alhred 765-774 Aethelred I 774-779,

790-796 Aelfwald I 779-788 Osred II 788-790, d.792 Vikings sack Lindisfarne Monastery, 793, Jarrow Monastery, 794 Osbald 796,

d.709 Eardwulf 796-808 Aelfwald II 808 Eardwulf 808-809 Eanred 809-841 Aethelred II 841-844,

844-848 Redwulf 844 Osbert 848-866,

d.867 Aelle 866-867 Danish "Great Army" conquers Deira, 867 Egbert I 867-873 Ricsige 873-876 Egbert II 876-878 Eadwulf II 878-913 Aldred 913-927 Wessex annexes Bernicia, 927

At first what this meant for the local Britons was just trying to repel Frisian and Saxon pirates. This had long been a problem for the Romans, and we notice that in the Notitia Dignitatum the only commander of Limitanei, frontier troops, with the rank of Comes ("Count," i.e. companion of the Emperor) was the "Count of the Saxon Coast," whose job was to police priates in the English Channel and North Sea.

Around 455, then, Hengest from Jutland, the land of the Jutes, established himself in what would then become the Kingdom of Kent. Because of its priority, the Kings of Kent are listed on the Periphery of Francia page for the British Isles. The Primate of England, the Archbishop of Canterbury, is still seated in Kent.

After Honorius, Roman Britain essentially disappeared from history. Nevertheless, we get a look at what was happening from St. Gildas "the Wise," whose De Excitio et Conquestu Britanniae, "The Ruin and Conquest of Britain," is the only contemporary account of the Gemanic invasion of Britain. Since Gildas was one of the Britons who fled to Brittany, he may be more an illustration, rather than an exception, to the loss of literacy and history in Britain. His history is arguably part of the literature of Brittany. Later the History of the English Church and People by the Venerable Bede (673-735) is where history pops up again, three hundred years later, in Britain. But for the Germanic conquest period, Bede repeats Gildas, sometimes word for word.



Kings of Essex

Saxons Sledda 580's-c.600 Saebert c.600-c.616 Sexred, Saeward, & Saexbald c.616-623 killed in battle against Wessex, 623 Sigebert I Parvus 623-c.650 Sigebert II Sanctus c.650-c.653 Swithhelm c.653-663 Sigehere 663-688 Kent, 687-688 Sebbi 663-c.693 Sigeheard 693-c.707 Swaefred or Swaefheard Kent,

689-692 693-c.707 Offa 707-709 Saelred 709?-746 Swebert 709-738 Swithred 746-759 Sigeric 759-798 Sigered 798-825 annexed by Wessex, 825

What events filled that time, and the vague years between 410 and Gildas, became strongly mythologized, especially around the figure of King Arthur. The first Life of Gildas was written in the 9th century, even later than Bede. Neither source mentions a King Arthur. We still just have Ambrosius Aurelius, whom Bede says won the battle of Badon Hill, although Gildas actually does not say so. The Life does says, interestingly, that Gildas was born in the Kingdom of Strathclyde to the royal family, a son of King Caunus. This does not clearly match any name I have for Strathclyde, although "Cinuit" is close, in the right time frame. But the brother of Gildas, "Cuillum," the next King, doesn't match at all. Gildas is even supposed to have sojourned in Ireland, working for the High King Ainmere macSátnai O'Néill (566-569), before going to Rome, Ravenna, and back to Brittany.



Eventually, the story of Ambrosius is assimilated into the Arthurian legends, as examined elsewhere, and the victory at Badon Hill is supposed to have gained a respite. Before long, however, the Celtic Britons were pushed back into the west, into Wales, Strathclyde, and Cornwall. From the latter some, like Gildas, escaped to what would become Brittany. The Germans became organized into several Kingdoms. In the south the Jutes, who would soon disappear from their homeland with Danish conquest (leaving the name "Jutland" behind), established themselves in Kent and the Isle of Wight. In the north, Angles, who would similarly disappear from the southern part of Jutland but then would give their name to the whole of England (Anglia), established Mercia, East Anglia, Bernicia and Deira, which united to form Northumbria, and several smaller, subsidiary Kingdoms. Finally, in the south the Saxons, who would remain an important power on the continent, established the Kingdoms of the South Saxons, Sussex, of the East Saxons, Essex, and of the West Saxons, Wessex. Since Wessex eventually absorbs all the others and creates the united Kingdom of England, its Kings are given with Kent on the Periphery of Francia page.

I was long under the impression that the term "Anglo-Saxons" was a coinage of modern historians. This combined the names of the Angles, after whom, we have seen, the whole of England came to be named, and the Saxons, whose southern Kingdom of Wessex ended up uniting the whole. However, the expression can already be found in the 12th century historian Ordericus Vitalis, as Saxones Angli. This was in relation to the people who fled to Constantinople after the Norman Conquest of 1066. It would be both Angles and Saxons who joined the Varangian Guard, or who were settled in "New England," Nova Anglia, on the Black Sea, and continued to fight Normans (the ones from Italy) in the Roman Army. In all of this, the Jutes seem to have been forgotten, despite the priority of Kent among the Germanic kingdoms. Since the only Jute settlements were in Kent and on the Isle of Wright, perhaps there were just too few of them to maintain their identity. The Welsh name for the area of England, Lloegr, of course antedates the Germanic conquest. We see it Latinized as "Logres," "Logris," or "Loegria." Celtic Britain as a whole was Prydain. Note that Celtic place names and the surnames of Celtic peoples remaining within England often use the Walh element from Old English.



A bizarre theory is floating around that Britain was better off under the Germans than it had been under the Romans. This is recounted by Bryan Ward-Perkins in The Fall of Rome, and the End of Civilization [Oxford University Press, 2005, 2006]. The view is advanced, of course, by clueless Marxists. Ward-Perkins describes their theory and its problems thus:



The Roman period is sometimes seen as enriching only the elite, rather than enhancing the standard of living of the population at large. Indeed, some scholars claim that the wealthiest and most powerful members of society were enriched specifically at the expense, and to the detriment, of the less privileged. For instance, a recent book on Roman Britain [N. Faulkner, The Decline and Fall of Roman Britain, Stroud, 2000] depicts its economy as an instrument of oppression, and explicitly compares Rome's impact on the island to the worst effects of modern imperialism and capitalism. The end of Roman power is celebrated as the end of exploitation: 'The mass of British people could then enjoy a short golden age free from landlords and tax collectors.' Roman economic sophistication had benefited only the property-owners and the state; and the 'Dark Ages' that followed its demise were in reality a 'golden age'. I think this, and similar views, are mistaken. For me, what is most striking about the Roman economy is precisely the fact that is was not solely an elite phenomenon, but one that made basic good-quality items available right down the soical scale. As we have seen, good-quality pottery was widely available, and in regions like Italy even the comfort of tiled roofs. I would also seriously question the romantic assumption that economic simplicity necessarily meant a freer and more equal society. There is no reason to believe that, because post-Roman Britain had no coinage, no wheel-turning pottery, and no mortared buildings, it was an egalitarian haven, spared the oppression of landlords and political masters. Tax, admittedly, could no longer be collected in coin; but its less sophisticated equivalent, 'tribute', could perfectly well be extorted in the form of sheaves of corn, pigs, and indeed slaves. [p.146]

Kings of Mercia

Angles Creoda or Crida c.585-c.593 Pybba c.593-c.606 Ceorl c.606-c.626 Penda 633-655 Northumbrian rule, 655-658 Wulfliere 658-675 Aetheired I 675-704, d.716 Cenred 704-700 Ceolred 700-716 Aethelbald 716-757 Beomred 757, d.769 Offa 757-796 Ecgfrith 796 Cenwulf 796-821 Ceolwulf I 821-823 Beornwulf 823-825 Ludeca 825-827 Wiglaf 827-929,

830-840 Wessex rule, 829-830 Berhtwulf 840-852 Burgred 852-874 Ceolwulf II 874-879 subsequent control by Wessex Aetheired II c.883-911 Aethelflaed 911-918 Aelfwyn 918-919 annexed by Wessex, 919

The future unifier of England, Wessex, was not at first able to absorb the whole country; for as it began to do this, the Vikings arrived. This started with the sacking of the Monastery at Lindisfarne, in Bernicia, Bede's own home, in 793. Eventually, Northumbria, East Anglia, Essex, and about the north-eastern half of Mercia were overrun and became part of the Danelaw. At first the Vikings raided, sacked, and carried off slaves, or were bought off with "protection" money -- "Danegelt" -- but then Danes and Norwegians, like the Jutes, Saxons, and Angles earlier, after similar behavior, began to establish their own Kingdoms. They also passed around to Ireland and the Isle of Man and began encroaching from the west on Wales and England. This finally led to the outright annexation of England to Denmark by King Canute in 1016, though the Danish Kings only lasted until 1042. A fair number of Danish words ended up in English, like "skiff," which is simply the Danish cognate of the English word "ship."

Kings of East Anglia

Angles Uffa 571-c.578 Tytila c.578-c.599 Redwald c.599-c.625 Eorpwald c.625-c.632 Ricbert c.632-c.634 Sigebert c.634-c.638,

d.c.641 Egric c.638-c.641 Anna c.641-c.653 Athelhere c.653-c.655 Athelwold 655-c.663 Ealdwulf c.663-c.713 Alfwald c.713-c.749 Beonna c.749-c.761 Athelred c.761-790 Athelbert 790-794 overrun by Mercia, c.794-796 Eadwald c.796-c.799 overrun by Mercia, c.799-823 Athelstan c.823-837 subject to Wessex, 829 Athelweard 837-850? Beorhtric 852-854 Edmund 854-869 Oswald c.870 overrun by the Danish "Great Army", 869

If Offa begins to represent the European political coming of age of England, we could say this had already happened intellectually earlier in the century. With Bede we have, according to Thomas Fuller, "the profoundest scholar of his age for Latin, Greek, musick and what not" [cf. Bede, Historical Works, on the title page and spine, Ecclesiastical History on the dust jacket, Books I-III, Loeb Classical Library, Harvard U. Press, 1930, 1999, p.xiii]. Bede is the first historian of Britain since Gildas, and perhaps the most thorough one since Tactitus, and the proper beginning of English history comes with his A History of the English Church and People [op.cit.]. It is noteworthy that this is included in the Loeb Classical Library, when few would think of Anglo-Saxon England as part of the Classical World. It is probably included just because it is a classic in Latin -- though the absence of Anna Comnena from the series, as a classic in Greek (or of many of Mediaeval works in Latin, like Isidore of Seville, St. Thomas Aquinas, etc.), is then awkward. Although perhaps not often appreciated, Bede does provide some important perspectives on Roman history and participates in the development of Roman Catholic religion.

Today, some of the names of the early Kingdoms survive as Counties, like Kent and Essex. The County of Middlesex, occupied by the City of London, tended to be part of Essex, but this was the area where three Kingdoms came together and the border moved around a good bit. Some of the names have even passed to the New World, as with Middlesex and Sussex Counties, New Jersey.

These tables are mainly based on The Mammoth Book of British Kings and Queens, by Mike Ashley [Carroll & Graf Publishers, Inc., New York, 1998, 1999, pp.208-321] but with the lists for Bernicia, Deira, Northumbria, and Mercia intially drawn up from the Oxford Dynasties of the World, by John E. Morby [Oxford University Press, 1989, 2002, pp.64-66].



The Stain of Sin in the Venerable Bede

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Legendary and Early

Kings of Scandinavia A furore Normannorum libera nos, Domine.

"From the fury of the Northmen deliver us, O Lord." This page supplements The Kings of Denmark, Norway, and Sweden, 588 AD-Present with diagrams of the earliest kings, with some of their legendary and mythic progenitors. When that link is used, a new browser window will open for the page. If one of the windows is reduced in size and positioned conveniently, the diagrams here can be compared with the tables there. The information here is derived from the Royal Families of Medieval Scandinavia, Flanders, and Kiev by Rupert Alen and Anna Marie Dahlquist [Kings River Publications, Kingsburg, California, 1997], The Mammoth Book of British Kings and Queens by Mike Ashley [Carroll & Graf Publishers, Inc., New York, 1998, 1999], the large genealogical chart, Kings & Queens of Europe, compiled by Anne Tauté [University of North Carolina Press, 1989], and Kingdoms of Europe, by Gene Gurney [Crown Publishers, New York, 1982]. These sources are not consistent, and choices and compromises have been made, especially to simply get a coherent picture of some things, which is actually not always possible. Thus, neither of the two sets of dates for Ragnar Lodbrok (750-794 or 860-865), King of Denmark and Sweden, works if he is the Viking chief who sacked Paris in 845 and treated with Charles the Bald. If he was, then, actually, all we have to do is split the difference, more or less! Royal Families of Medieval Scandinavia, Flanders, and Kiev does not begin very early in the chronology and so avoids some of the issues with the legendary kings. The Mammoth Book of British Kings and Queens gives a bare genealogy that goes from Halfdan to Helgi to Yrsa to Eystein. (The original, bare genealogy is shown in the table for the Kings of Dublin.) This skips over information such as that Yrsa was both the daughter and the wife of Helgi (or even a woman), conceiving with him the hero Hrolf Kraki, who is not listed in the genealogy at all. This is perhaps the high point of a legendary period that we may be perceiving through the most distorted of lenses, and there are many versions of the story, and of the names, from different, and of course much later, sources. The dates are entirely conjectural and inconsistent between the sources. We suspect that where there is smoke there must be fire, but we are nevertheless very far from a real historical picture of these people. While writing exists in the Scandinavian countries for the entire period covered below (and eventually across a broad swath of Europe from Britain all the way to the Ukraine), namely the system of Runes, as shown at left, it ends up being of limited value for historical information. Objects and small monuments are inscribed with names and some references to events and transactions, but we do not find great monumental historical inscriptions like that of Ramesses II about the battle of Qadesh or like that of Darius at Behistun about his rise to power, much less texts on practical media that tell us much about ongoing developments. As Christianity crept into the region, bringing the Latin alphabet with it, full texts began to be written, preserving Sagas and instituting chronicles. One gets the impression that Runes were regarded as somewhat more magical than utilitarian, which is pretty much the way they were later remembered. Or the more practical media of utilitarian inscriptions may simply have decayed in the damp climates. Nevertheless, Runic inscriptions continue throughout the Middle Ages in Scandinavia for the traditional epigraphic and magical purposes.

The descent of the earliest kings is reckoned all the way back to Odin (Wotan, Woden -- hence "Wednesday"). This may be a dimly remembered historical person, but the fact that other Germans, like the Saxons who invaded Britain, also reckoned their descent from Odin may indicate that this is a mythic device and that Odin indeed is understood as the Odin, the king of the gods. That full genealogy is not shown here (it is in Ashley, p.209). Instead, I pick it up where the Danish line divides, with one branch picking up kings of Sweden, who otherwise seem to have a separate descent from Odin for earlier kings. These early, mythic kings are the Ynglings, which end in Sweden with Ingjald Illrade. Ingjald is succeeded either by Ivar Vidfamne or Olaf Tretelgia (or Tretelia), who is also said to have fled Sweden and founded the royal line of Norway. Ivar is also reckoned as a king of Denmark, but the coordination between the two lines is not always clear. Much the same can be said for subsequent kings down to Ragnar Lodbrok. Fortunately, the sons of Ragnar are supposed to have divided his inheritance, and this begins to get us on more secure historical ground (which means that the 9th century rather than the 8th century dates for Ragnar are probably more like it). Especially noteworthy is the line of descent that involves rulers of York (Saxon Northumbria; Eboracum in Latin, Eoforwic in Old English, and Jórvik in Norse), the Isle of Man, and Dublin -- note that the genealogy shown here is a bit different from that presented in the separate treatment of Dublin. Thus we are well into the period when Viking raiders are spread all over Western Europe, and Eastern as well (Randver Radbartsson is supposed to have been fathered by a Russian, i.e. a Norseman in Russia, a Varangian). This diagram continues with the Swedish kings, who, however, as described by Alen and Dahlquist, do not necessarily continue the same line of descent. This is a little more organized than we get with Denmark, but it may well indicate that kings are ruling simultaneously and that the legendary genealogy is in fact a mythic construction. Erik I thus may indeed precede Erik II, even though the dates here have him later in the 9th century. With Erik VI, however, we get into more historically secured material, which is where Tauté begins her diagram.

With the continuation of Swedish kings, there are just a few uncertainties. We are missing the name of Stenkil's wife, the daughter of King Edmund III. After Stenkil's death, there is some trouble, and two usurpers became sufficiently established, or remembered, that they get numbered as Erik VII and Erik VIII. One of these may be a king listed in other places as "Erik Arsaell," but there is no discussion of this name where I might expect it, in Alen and Dahlquist. Another uncertainty is whether King Blot-Sven was or was not married to a daughter of Stenkil. And then there is the question whether Sverker I was or was not descended from Blot-Sven. Alen and Dahlquist show that he was; Tauté does not show it. Some sources show rather different dates for Halsten and Inge I, and Inge II may also have been reigning simultaneously with Filip. Tauté does not list Magnus Nielsson at all, and Alen and Dahlquist have Inge II dying in 1125 on one page and living until 1130 on another. After they are all out of the way, we get rival lines, the "Sverkerska" and "Erikska" dynasties, between whom the Throne swaps back and forth, often violently, for a century. The execution of a number of heirs prepared the way for both male lines to die out, and the Throne passes to the sons of Birger Jarl, beginning the "Folkung" dynasty. From there, the genealogy of Sweden is continued on The Kings of Denmark, Norway, and Sweden page.

The diagram for the kings of Denmark begins with some of the same figures given for Sweden above. Here we get another phenomenon. From various sources we known of several kings who do not fit into the legendary succession or genealogy. While these figures can be found given authentic looking dates and listed in succession, the impression persists that most of them were in fact ruling simultaneously. If sufficient time had elapsed, they all either would have been dropped from memory or worked up into a seamless legendary picture. As it happened, history was fast approaching and a jumble is what we get. Denmark was not a unified kingdom, much as we get that sense from the earlier legendary material. It was probably much like contemporary and adjacent Saxony, which consisted of three major tribes (Westphalians, Angarii, and Eastphalians) and two minor ones (Wihmuodi and Nordalbingi). The chief of the Westphalians, Widukind, surrendered to Charlemagne in 785. Widukind is supposed to have been related to some Danish kings and spent some time there in refuge. The first properly historical king of Denmark was Gorm the Old, who is said to have been a son of Hardeknut (Canute I), but is shown by Ashley descended through Canute, Frodo, and Harald II. Harald is completely ignored by Alen and Dahlquist. This confusion gives us a fitting end to the legendary period -- though Gorm is more than a little legendary himself. We are then quickly into the fully history period, for which there don't seem to be major uncertainties, except for some overlapping reigns that result in some kings being dropped from some accounts. Again, from here, the genealogy of Denmark is continued on The Kings of Denmark, Norway, and Sweden page.

Norway may have begun as a colony of Sweden, represented by the legendary founder, Olaf Tretelgia. This simplifies things, since there may have not been the large number of rival kingdoms as may actually have existed in Sweden and Denmark, and which serve to confuse the account. As with Sweden above, branch lines lead to interesting colonial acquisitions of the Vikings. For instance, the line of Thorstein the Red intermarries with the Earls of Orkney -- the Orkneys are the group of islands off the north end of Scotland. Similarly, the line of Olaf Geirstade leads directly (according to Ashley) to Rolf (or Rollo) who became the first Duke of Normandy. For subsequent Norman influence on European history, this was one of the most fateful events. An interesting career is that of Harald III Hårdråde. When his brother St. Olof II died in battle against Canute II the Great of Denmark in 1030, Harald flees into exile in Kiev. He makes his way as a mercenary all the way down to Sicily and eventually back home to Norway in 1047, where the Danes were gone and Olof's son, Magnus I the Good, ruled Norway and Denmark. Harald joins Magnus in rule, but the nephew doesn't last long. After Harald's long quest, then follow years of successful rule. In 1066, however, Harald's ambitions overwhelm him. He lands in England, intending to follow Canute in the rule of that country. He is unexpectedly defeated and killed, however, by Harold II. This is often regarded as the end of the Furor Normannicus, the Viking Terror. Harold, unfortunately, rode from victory over Harald to defeat and death at the hands of William of Normandy, who thus effects the conquest of England by Northmen, somewhat removed from their Viking past, after all. After the succession jumps around a bit, we get a couple of major uncertainties. Harald IV may not really have been a son of Magnus III. And then Sverre almost certainly was not a son of Sigurd II, but he claimed to be -- probably just a convenient pretext upon which a usurper could fight for the Throne. Since his fight was successful, subsequent kings of Norway were descended from him. After this, as above, the genealogy of Norway is continued on The Kings of Denmark, Norway, and Sweden page.

Germania Index The Kings of Denmark, Norway, and Sweden Kings & Lords of the Isles Earls of Orkney Kings of York The Danelaw Kings of Dublin Philosophy of History Home Page Copyright (c) 2002, 2004, 2007, 2010, 2013 Kelley L. Ross, Ph.D. All Rights Reserved Kings & Lords of the Isles

Kings and Lords of the Isles Llywarch Hen King of the Isles and Man, c.560-595 Man conquered by Báetán mac Cairill of Ireland, 577, by Aedán mac Gabhrán of Dál Riata, 582 Diwg c.600 Man conquered by Edwin of Northumbria, 620 Gwyar 630's Tegid 670's Algwn c.700 Sandde 730's Elidr 760's Gwriad c.800 Iona Monastery attacked by Vikings,

795, 802, 806 Godred mac Fergus Lord of the Hebrides, c.836-853 Kentil Flatnose, or Caitill Find c.853-c.866 Vassal of Olaf the White of Dublin Tryggvi 870's Asbjorn Skerjablesi 880's disputed between Dublin & York Ragnall of York c.914-c.921 King of York, 910-c.921 Gebeachan or Gibhleachán ?-937 Mac Ragnall 937?-942 Olaf Sitricson c.942-972 King of Dublin, 945-980 Magnus Haraldsson c.972-977 Godred Haraldsson 977-989 Ragnald Godredson c.1000 Kenneth Godredson 1005-? Swein ?-1034 Vassal of Orkney, 989-1014,

of Dublin, 1014-1035 Thorfinn the Mighty c.1038-1052 Earl of Orkney, c.1018-c.1060 Margad Ragnallson of Dublin 1052-c.1061 Murchaid mac Diarmait of Dublin 1061-1070 King of Dublin, 1052-1070 Fingal Godredsson 1070-1079 Godred I Crovan 1079-1095 King of Man, 1079-1095 King of Dublin, c.1091-1094 Lagman 1095-1099, d.1111? King of Man, 1095-1099 Sigurd III, the Crusader, I of Norway 1099-1103, d.1130 Earl of Orkney, 1099-1105 King of Norway,

1103-1130 King of Man, 1099-1103 Dmnall mac Teige King of the Isles & Man, 1103-1114?, d.1115 Olaf I the Red Isles & Man, 1114?-1153 Godred II the Black Isles & Man, 1153-1158, 1164-1187 Somerled 1156-1164 King of Man, 1158-1164 Ragnald usurper, 1164 Ragnald of Islay King of the Isles, 1164-c.1210 Dugald Lord of Lorne & Argyll, 1164-c.1192 Donald I c.1210-1230 Duncan mac Dougall c.1210-c.1247 Dugald Screech c.1210-1235? Uspak or Gillespie 1230 Ewen mac Dougall c.1248-1266 Dugald mac Ruari (MacRory) 1249-1266 Annexed to Scotland, 1266 Angus Mór (the Great) MacDonald King of the Isles, c.1266-1296 Alexander I 1296-1299, deposed, d.1308? Angus II Og (the Younger) 1299-1330 John I 1st Lord of the Isles, 1330-1387 Donald II 2nd Lord of the Isles, 1387-1423 Married to Mariota, Margaret Leslie,

Countess of Ross, 1424-1436, d.1440 Alexander II 3rd Lord of the Isles, 1423-1449 Earl of Ross, 1436-1449 John II 4th Lord of the Isles, 1449-1493 Earl of Ross, 1449-1475 Angus III usurper, 1480-1490 Isles Revert to Scottish Crown, 1493 Donald Dubh, the Black claimant, 1545

The rule of the Isles often included that of more distant islands, like the Isle of Man and even the Orkney Islands. Here Man is give a separate treatment beginning with Godred Crovan in 1079. The Orkneys also have their own page, beginning with Ragnald the Wise around 874. But the history of the Isles goes back rather earlier, beginning with legendary or poorly documented British and Irish Kings. The first ruler here, Llywarch, has a name that even looks Welsh, and indeed he had a connection to the Kings of Gwynedd. The Isles, of course, were far beyond the control of Roman Britain, so it is interesting that the presence of the British themselves, which we also see with the Kingdom of Strathclyde, extends well beyond what we understand as Roman boundaries. Llywarch already had to contend with the Scots coming over from Ireland and from their Kingdom of Dál Riata, based in Argyll. Despite the obscurity of the period, the /gw/ element in names of the such rulers of the Isles as we have over the next couple of centuries still looks Welsh.

This picture begins to change radically with the arrival of the Vikings. The first Viking raids on the East and the West side of Britain seem to be almost simultaneous. Thus, the Saxon monastery of Lindisfarne, not far south of the present Scottish border at the River Tweed, was sacked in 793. In 795 a series of attacks began on the Scottish monastery on the island of Iona, off Mull. In short order, the Vikings had overrun the islands and were raiding well down into Ireland. The Norse Kingdom of Dublin was founded in 853. Meanwhile, in 841 Vikings had even appeared in the Seine, and Paris was sacked in 845.

The Vikings were not the sort to grab some land and then settle down to tend their gardens. Who was ruling what was thus often a very fluid business, and we find the Isles in the middle of a tug-of-war between Norse rulers of Dublin, York, and Orkney. In the background, of course, is the King of Norway; and when the Norwegian state gets organized in some kind of disciplined form, the ultimately sovereignty of Orkney, the Isles, and sometimes Man is assumed there. With Orkney also went the Shetland Islands to the north.

Perhaps the last sort of classic combination of the territories came with Somerled, King of Man and of the Isles. Somerled began with the Southern Hebrides (in purple on the map) and eventually spread to the rest of the Hebrides, part of Galloway (in yellow), and Man. With his death, things begin to permanently break up, not the least because of divisions and disputes between his sons. As Norway settles into being an ordinary sort of European state, Scotland begins to assume a more organized and modern form. Although Norway was probably still able to defeat the Scots in pitched battle, King Alexander III of Scotland maneuvered Scottish forces into control over the Isles and Man. In 1266, the Norwegians accepted a payment and annual tribute to surrender sovereignty to Scotland. By then, we begin to mostly have Celtic names in the Isles anyway. Although Man would not long remain with Scotland, the Isles were now secure, except for the threat of the locally autonomous nobility.

The local nobility became the MacDonalds. In the fight over the Scottish Throne between the Balliols, the English, and the Bruces (1290-1306), the MacDonalds sometimes picked the wrong side (Balliols) and were deposed (Alexander I and Angus II). With the rule of the Bruce and the Stuarts, things settled down, but the Kings became unhappy with the power and independence of the Lords of the Isles. Alexander II was captured by King James I of Scotland, as was John II by James III. After futher rebellions, James IV annexed the Isles to the Crown in 1493, shortly after the Orkneys and Shetlands were obtained from Norway (1472).

Today the MacDonalds are still the prominent nobility of the Isles. Not long ago, the MacDonald's hamburger chain tried suing Lord MacDonald over the use of the MacDonald name. British courts, of course, dismissed anything so absurd as a foreign claim on the name of the real and original MacDonalds.

The list here is entirely from The Mammoth Book of British Kings and Queens by Mike Ashley [Carroll & Graf Publishers, Inc., New York, 1998, 1999].



Germania Index

The Kings of Denmark, Norway, and Sweden

Kings of Dublin

Kings & Lords of Man

Earls of Orkney

Kings of York

The Danelaw

Philosophy of History

Home Page

Earls of Orkney

and Kings of York

Earls of Orkney Ragnald I the Wise c.874-c.875,

d.894 Sigurd I the Mighty c.875-892 Thorstein the Red c.875-900 Guthorm c.892-893 Hallard c.893-894 Einar I 894-920? Arnkel 920?-954 Erlend I 920?-954 Erik Bloodaxe c.937-954 King of Norway,

933-934 Gunnhildr, Ragnfred,

& Godred 954-955,

976-977 Thorfinn I Skullsplitter c.947-977 Arfinn 977-979? Havard 979?-981? Liot 981?-984? Hlodvir 984?-987? Sigurd II 987?-1014 Somerled 1014-1015 Einar II 1014-1020 Brúsi 1014-c.1030 Thorfinn II the Mighty c.1018-c.1060 Ragnald II 1038-1046 Paul I c.1060-1098 Erlend II c.1060-1098 Sigurd III the Crusader,

I of Norway 1099-1105,

d.1130 King of the Isles,

1099-1103 King of Man,

1099-1103 King of Norway,

1103-1130 Haakon 1105-1126 Magnus I 1108-1117 Paul II the Silent 1126-1137 Harald I Smoothtalker 1126-1131 Ragnald III 1137-1158 Harald II the Old 1139-1206 Erlend III 1154-1156 Harald III 1195?-1198 David 1206-1214 John I 1206-1231 Magnus II of Angus 1231-1239 Gilbert 1239-1256 Magnus III 1256-1273 Magnus IV 1276-1284 John II 1284-1311 Magnus V 1311-c.1329 Malise c.1329-1353? Erengisl 1353-1357/60,

d.1392 Henry I of St. Clair 1363/1379-1400 Henry II 1400-1420 William 1420-1471,

d.1480 Scottish sovereignty, 1469;

resigned to Scottish crown, 1472

The Orkneys were one set of North Atlantic Islands, including the Shetlands, Faeroes, and Hebrides, that were natural stepping stones and staging areas for Viking raids on Britain, Ireland, and elsewhere. Until the King of Norway asserted authority, the Islands were more or less nests of pirates. The way in which things became more organized we can see in one stunning connection: A son -- Hrólfur, Rolf, or Rollo -- of the first Earl, Ragnald, went on to become the first Duke of Normandy. The consequences of this for European history, from England to Sicily and beyond, are beyond calculation; yet this connection to the Orkneys is rarely noted.

The rulers of the Orkneys often tangled with those of the Hebrides and further islands. Sigurd III, installed by his father, King Magnus III of Norway, in Orkney, ended up ruling all the way down to the Isle of Man, before returning home to assume the throne of Norway.

The Orkneys retreat from the spotlight of history for many centuries. They suddenly acquire great significance, however, in World War I. A large sound south of the main island (Pomona), Scapa Flow, became the main base for the Grand Fleet of the British Royal Navy. This might seem to be rather far from anything, but it put the fleet in a position, at the entrance to the North Sea, to intercept the German High Seas Fleet whatever it might do. As it happened, the German fleet was thus intercepted in 1916, resulting in the Battle of Jutland. When the War ended, the German fleet was then interned in Scapa Flow. Rather than have the ships turned over to Britain or her allies in a post-war settlement, in June 1919 the Germans scuttled their ships in a dramatic, surprise action. There the ships still lie, long after most of their British rivals, however victorious, have been broken up and sold for scrap.

Kings of York --

Latin Eboracum, Old English Eoforwic,

and Norse Jórvik Ivarr the Boneless 866-873 King of Dublin, 856-873 Halfdan Ragnarson 873-877 King of Dublin, 873/5-877 Gothfrith 883-895 Sigfrid 895-c.899 Canute c.899-c.900 Athelwold 899-902 Halfdan II 902?-910 Eowils 902?-910 Ragnall 910-c.921 King of the Isles, c.914-c.921 Sitric Caech King of Dublin, 917-921 921-927 Godfrid (Guthfrith) King of Dublin, 921-934 927 York held by Æthelstan of England, 927-939 Godfrid, Olaf Guthfrithsson King of Dublin, 934-941 940-941 Sitric? King of Dublin, 941-943 941-943 Ragnall II Gothfrithson 943-945 Held by Edmund I and

Eadred of England, 944-948 Erik Bloodaxe 948-954 killed, Battle of Stainmore,

York annexed by Eadred of England, 954

The Norse Kingdom of York, or Jórvik to them (Eboracum in Latin, Eoforwic in Old English), represented one of the major and most permanent holdings of the Vikings on the mainland of Great Britain -- part of the "Danelaw," whose conquest began with the landing of the "Great Army" in 865. The Army landed in East Anglia, and Northumbria was invaded in 866. The Northumbrian Kingdom of Deira was overthrown (867) and than East Anglia (869). Eventually, conquest extended all the way down to London (held by Danes 871-885). York was the principal Roman city of northern Britain (Erboracum) and was the ecclesiastical center of the area, one of the Archbishoprics of England, from then until now. That the city should then have been taken by the Vikings was of great significance. Norse holdings also extended into Cumbria and Galloway, with Danes in the south shading over into Norwegian barons in the north of Cumbria and Galloway. In the early days of the kingdom, we see the involvement of the kings with other Norse domains, like Dublin and the Isles, where leaders hold more than one simultaneously, or move around from one to another. There is not much time for this to settle down before the English begin to return. After about thirty years of conflict and confusion (927-954), York returns to England, until, of course, the Danes conquer all of England, 1013-1014 & 1016-1042.

The lists and genealogy here is entirely from The Mammoth Book of British Kings and Queens by Mike Ashley [Carroll & Graf Publishers, Inc., New York, 1998, 1999].



Germania Index

The Danelaw

The Kings of Denmark, Norway, and Sweden

Kings & Lords of the Isles

Kings of Dublin

Philosophy of History

Home Page

The Danelaw The "Danelaw" is the area of England that was occupied and ruled by Danish Vikings between 866 and about 917. Viking raids were nothing new, but the leaders of the virtual invasion of the period, Ivar the Boneless and his brother Halfdan, had set out from Dublin to avenge the killing of their father, Ragnar Lodbrok, by Aelle, King of Northumbria. While one might think of the Danes coming directly across the North Sea from Denmark, which Ragnar may have done himself, and which is now often said about this invasion, Ivar and Halfdan were operating from their advanced base in Ireland. Thus, their invasion of England may have been from the North, into York (867), and then down into East Anglia (869). However, they are also said to have landed in East Anglia first, passed on to Northumbria, and then returned to overthrow the King of East Anglia. Either way, they went on to capture London (871). Mercia was largely under Danish control, and a vast area of it in the north-east was appropriated by Danish barons of the "five castles" or "five boroughs." The invasion began in 865, and the Viking forces were called, in The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, the "Great Army," or the "Great Heathen Army." The virtue of the story about Ivar and Halfdan is that it gives a reason for the invasion, while we don't have that if the Army came directly across the North Sea from Denmark. Perhaps the Vikings needed no pretext for a massive invasion, but it does seem reasonable that something occasioned the project. And revenge for the death of a relative, who had already been looting, murdering, and raping, sounds like something Vikings could get indignant about: "How dare you murder our beloved murderer!" Wessex, which since Egbert (802-839) we could consider the proto-kingdom of England (829), inflicted some defeats on the Danes but seemed ready to lose the war and be overrun.

Kings of East Anglia Guthrum or Athelstan 879-890 lands in England, 871; defeated by Alfred the Great, 878, enfeoffed with East Anglia Eohric or Yorrik 890-902 Guthrum II 902-916 East Anglia joined to England, 917

The new arrangements also allowed Alfred to subordinate Mercia, the last remaining Anglo-Saxon state, to his supervision. Alfred is supposed to have introduced the Carolingian penny coinage, of 24 sterling silver grains, to Britain. When the Norse Kings of York were subdued in 959, the Danish invasion had finally been defeated, with the result also of a unified England from the English Channel to the Firth of Forth. The Great Army therefore ironically resulted in the unification of England. Edgar (959-975) may have been the first King crowned and anointed in a Christian ceremony by the Archbishop of Canterbury -- in this case, St. Dunstan.

Unfortunately, the Danes would keep coming, and indeed would occupy all of England in 1013-1014 and 1016-1042. In 991, King Æðedred introduced the "Danegeld" tax, to have money to pay off the Danes. By the time of the later conquest, however, Denmark had become a Christian state, much more organized and "normal" in the ways of the Mediaeval world. King Canute was a ruler aspiring to Christian piety, which we see in the story of his demonstration of his inability to control the tide.

The list here is entirely from The Mammoth Book of British Kings and Queens by Mike Ashley [Carroll & Graf Publishers, Inc., New York, 1998, 1999]. The map is based on The Mammoth Book and also on The Anchor Atlas of World History, Volume I [Hermann Kinder, Werner Hilgemann, Ernest A. Menze, and Harald and Ruth Bukor, 1974, p.128], and The New Penguin Atlas of Medieval History [Colin McEvedy, 1992, pp.46-47].



Earls of Orkney

Germania Index

The Kings of Denmark, Norway, and Sweden

Kings & Lords of the Isles

Kings of Dublin

Philosophy of History

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Kings of Dublin

Kings of Dublin 1a. Olaf the White (Amlaíb) 853-871/3, or d.872 captures Dumbarton in Strathclyde, 870/871 1b. Ivar I (Ímar) the Boneless 856-873 1c. Ausile (Hásli) 863-867 2. Eystein 873-875 3. Halfdan? (Alband) 873/5-877 4. Barid/Barith (Bard) 875/7-881 5. Son of Auisle 881-883 Eoloir?, son of Jarnkne ? 6. Sichfrith (Sigfrid) 883?-888 7a. Sitric I (Sigtryggr) 888-893, 894-896 7b. Sichfrith Járl 893-894 8. Ivar II 896-902, d.904 Interregnum, Dublin abandoned by Norse, 902-917 9. Sitric II (Sigtryggr Gale) 917-921 King of York, 921-927 10. Godfrid (Guthfrith) 921-934 King of York, 927 11. Olaf (III) Godfridsson, Guthfrithsson (Anlaf) 934-941 King of York, 940-941 defeated invading England, Battle of Brunanburh, 937 12. Sitric? III 941-943 King of York, 941-943 13. Blacair mac Gofraid (Blákkr Godfridsson) 943-945, d.948 14. Olaf Cuarán (Anlaf, Óláfr Sigtryggsson Kváran) 945-980, d.981 15. Glúniarainn (Járnkné Óláfsson) 980-989 16. Sitric IV (Sitric mac Amlaíb), Sihtric Silkbeard 989-1036, d.1042 17. Echmarcach mac Ragnaill 1036-1038, 1046-1052, d.1064/5 King of Man & Galloway, 1052-1064 18. Ivar III Haraldsson (Ímar mac Arailt) 1038-1046, d.1054 Diarmait mac Máel King of Leinster, 1042-1072 High King (?) of Ireland, 1042-1072 19. Murchad mac Diarmata 1052-1070, Vassal of Leinster King of the Isles, 1061-1070 20a. Gofraid mac Amlaíb 1070/72?-1074, d.1075 20b. Domnall mac Murchada 1070-1072, 1074-1075 King of Leinster, 1072-1075 Toirrdelbach Ua Briain King of Munster, 1063-1086 1072? 21. Muirchertach mac Toirrdelbaig Ua Briain 1074-1086 King of Munster, 1086-1119 22a. Donnchad mac Domnaill 1086-1089? King of Leinster, 1075-1089 22b. Énna mac Diarmata 1086-1089? King of Leinster, 1089-1092 23. Gofraid Meranach (Godred Crovan?) King of Man, 1079-1095 c.1091-1094, 1095 Domnall mac Muirchertaig Ua Briain 1094?-1118, d.1135 Donnchad mac Murchada ?-1115? King of Leinster, 1098-1115 Diarmait mac Énna 1115-1117? King of Leinster, 1115-1117 Énna mac Donnchada King of Leinster, 1117-1126 1118-1126 Conchobar mac Toirrdelbaig 1126-1127, d.1144 King of Mide, 1142-1144 Thorkell c.1133 Conchobar Ua Briain 1141-1142 Ottar 1142-1148 Ragnall mac Torcaill (Thorkellsson) ?-1146 Brótar mac Torcaill 1146-1160 Asculf (Ascall mac Torcaill) 1160-1162?, 1166-1170, d.1171 Diarmait mac Donnchada King of Leinster, 1126-1171 1162-1166, 1170-1171 English conquest, 1171

The table and genealogy here are based on A New History of Ireland, Volume IX, Maps, Genealogies, Lists -- a Companion to Irish History, Part II [Oxford University Press, 1984, 2002, pp.134, 139, 208-210]. This information has been combined with parts of the tables for Sweden and Norway above; but A New History of Ireland does not always agree with my Norse sources, and precedence is given to it in this section. Thus the New History shows unknown antecedents for Olaf, the co-King of Ivar. My Norse sources identified him as Olaf the White, four generations removed from Halfdan I, King of Norway, and father of Thorstein the Red -- whose descendants figure among the Earls of Orkney. Perhaps Olaf of Dublin was not Olaf the White, so this identification may be taken with some caution. Another issue is over the grandsons of Ivar I. My Norse sources showed them as sons of Sitric I, but the New History expresses no commitment at all about which, or any, known sons of Ivar are their fathers. The subsequent generations are represented above only with two further Ivars. Which these are supposed to be cannot even be recognized in terms of the New History genealogy. Of course, there is no great certainty for any of the early Scandinavian information. Danish Kings are not fully historical until Gorm the Old (d.950). So conflicting information should not be too surprising. The uncertainties about the succession and identity of the Kings of Dublin are evident enough in the missing dates and many the question marks -- and the multiple lines of dots leading to King Echmarcach. The numbering of the Kings is that of the New History. It ends with the 23rd King, Gofraid Meranach. This may or may not be Godred Crovan, who founded a durable dynasty of the Kings of Man. The last days of the Kingdom, from 1126 to 1171, were a free-for-all of obscure Kings, though the entire period corresponds to the reign of a single King of Leinster, Diarmait mac Donnchada, whom we find asserting his influence in Dublin just in time to meet the arrival of the English.



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