Celebrating the Apollo 11 Anniversary:

50 Papers for 50 Years

Celebrating 50 years since the Apollo 11 moon landing, the Journal of Spacecraft and Rockets (JSR) is proud to host this virtual special section highlighting AIAA journal papers related to the Apollo program. The goal is to illustrate the breadth of Apollo-related work that is discussed in the AIAA journals. In addition, these papers provide an interesting historical visit to the early manned spaceflight challenges, many decades ago.

The articles in this virtual special section are made available for free for a limited time (until 12/31/2019) by AIAA to celebrate this anniversary of the first humans landing on the moon, with 50 papers for 50 years. These particular papers were selected to represent a range of technical fields and time periods pertaining to the Apollo program. Many articles published during the Apollo program are from JSR, which was the primary technical journal for astronautics during the 1960s and early 1970s. The Journal of Guidance, Control, and Dynamics (JGCD) was created after the Apollo program ended and has published some interesting Apollo-perspective papers that are included here. A few science-related Apollo articles appeared in the AIAA Journal (AIAAJ). In 1963, AIAA was formed by the merger of the American Rocket Society and the Institute of the Aerospace Sciences, and journals published by these predecessor societies are available in the AIAA archive. Articles in the Journal of the Aeronautical Sciences 1934–1957/Journal of the Aerospace Sciences 1958–1962 (JAS) representing foundational work that eventually contributed to the Apollo program also are included in this special section.

The articles are presented here, grouped into topical areas.

Pre-Apollo Work and Events

The first grouping of manuscripts includes papers discussing work that preceded the Apollo program. The JAS technical papers consider the feasibility of sending objects into space and surviving the fiery reentry with a blunt body. Included also is a nontechnical JSR paper with a pre-Apollo historical perspective; this paper discusses events that culminated with the national decision to accelerate the American space program and reach to land humans on the moon before the end of the 1960s.

Malina, Frank J., and Summerfield, Martin, "The Problem of Escape from the Earth by Rocket," JAS, Vol. 14, No. 8, 1947. doi: 10.2514/8.1417

Van Dyke, Milton D., "The Supersonic Blunt-Body Problem — Review and Extension," JAS, Vol. 25, No. 8, 1958. doi: 10.2514/8.7744

Bogdonoff, Seymour M., and Vas, Irwin E., "Preliminary Investigations of Spiked Bodies at Hypersonic Speeds," JAS, Vol. 26, No. 2, 1959. doi: 10.2514/8.7945

Kemp, Nelson H., Rose, Peter H., and Detra, Ralph W., "Laminar Heat Transfer Around Blunt Bodies in Dissociated Air," JAS, Vol. 26, No. 7, 1959. doi: 10.2514/8.8128

Chu, Hu-Nan, "Influence of Large Amplitudes on Flexural Vibrations of a Thin Circular Cylindrical Shell," JAS, Vol. 28, No. 8, 1961. doi: 10.2514/8.9113

Emme, Eugene M., "Historical Perspectives on Apollo," JSR, Vol. 5, No. 8, 1968. doi: 10.2514/3.29263

Ground-Support Development

Before the mission can take off, it is critical to have proper ground support to launch the rocket. A particular challenge is handling the massive exhaust plume.

Lanzkron, Rolf W., and Fischer, William C., "Checkout Criteria and Ground Support Equipment for the Apollo Spacecraft," JSR, Vol. 3, No. 6, 1966. doi: 10.2514/3.28541

Susko, Michael, and Kaufman, John, W., "Exhaust Cloud Rise and Growth for Apollo Saturn Engines," JSR, Vol. 10, No. 5, 1973. doi: 10.2514/3.27761

Communication

Being able to remotely monitor the Apollo capsule and engage with its crew is a critical flight capability. Articles cover the challenges of communication network coverage and data compression, as well as with concerns regarding the communication black-out period during reentry.

Huber, Paul W., and Hunt, James L., "Reynolds Number Dependence of Apollo Near-Wake Temperature," AIAAJ, Vol. 6, No. 1, 1968. doi: 10.2514/3.4474

Meigs, B. E., and Stine, L. L., "Real-Time Compression and Transmission of Apollo Telemetry Data," JSR, Vol. 7, No. 5, 1970. doi: 10.2514/3.29999

Land, Jr., Walker A., "Network Support Simulation and Sensitivities Analysis for the Saturn–Apollo Missions," JSR, Vol. 7, No. 8, 1979. doi: 10.2514/3.30076

Landing-on-Earth Challenges

The splash-down landing of the returning Apollo capsule posed several technical hurdles. This set of articles discusses the challenges of landing in water, dealing with the mechanical impact, and addressing the safety aspect of recovering the capsule. One article discusses landing on land after a launch abort.

Benson, Harold E., "Water Impact of the Apollo Spacecraft," JSR, Vol. 3, No. 8, 1966. doi: 10.2514/3.28640

Baker, Wilfred E., and Westine, Peter S., "Model Tests for Structural Response of Apollo Command Module to Water Impact," JSR, Vol. 4, No. 2, 1967. doi: 10.2514/3.28835

Lands, Jr., Jack F., "Development of a Terminal Landing Rocket System for Apollo-Type Vehicles," JSR, Vol. 4, No. 3, 1967. doi: 10.2514/3.28862

Hammack, J. B., and Stonesifer, J. C., "Safety in Recovery of Apollo Spacecraft," JSR, Vol. 5, No. 4, 1968. doi: 10.2514/3.29289

Flight Simulations for Astronauts

Because astronauts periodically controlled the Apollo vehicle, much technical effort was spent on how to develop flight simulators for docking maneuvers and the powered lunar landing. These simulations also were used to develop the pilot control solutions and validate the handling qualities.

Nassiff, Samuel H., and Martikan, Fred O., "Integrated Operating Mode of the Apollo Mission Simulator," JSR, Vol. 2, No. 6, 1965. doi: 10.2514/3.28344

Cheatham, D. C., and Hackler, C. T., "Handling Qualities for Pilot Control of Apollo Lunar-Landing Spacecraft," JSR, Vol. 3, No. 5, 1966. doi: 10.2514/3.28506

Lindquist, O. H., "Development of a Manual Thrust-Vector-Control Mode for Apollo," JSR, Vol. 5, No. 3, 1968. doi: 10.2514/3.29242

Siller, J. F., "SYNOPTIC: Full-Scale Apollo Docking Simulation Tests," JSR, Vol. 7, No. 8, 1970. doi: 10.2514/3.59644

Supporting Human Flight

Flying humans in space requires sophisticated space suits to survive the harsh vacuum and space radiation environment. These articles discuss the testing of space suit prototypes as well as measuring the radiation doses.

Frankel, G., Albright, G., and Axelrod, I., "Manned Chamber Testing of the Apollo Prototype Space Suit." JSR, Vol. 2, No. 5, 1965. doi: 10.2514/3.28296

Tappen, W. B., "Apollo ECS Man-Rated Simulation Systems," JSR, Vol. 4, No. 4, 1967. doi: 10.2514/3.28886

Warren, Carlos S., Lill, Joseph C., Richmond, Robert G., and Davis, William G., "Radiation Dosimetry on the Gemini and Apollo Missions," JSR, Vol 5, No. 2, 1968. doi: 10.2514/3.29217

White, Timothy T., and Hardy, Alva C., "Apollo 4 and 6 Radiation Analysis," JSR, Vol. 7, No. 7, 1970. doi: 10.2514/3.30041

Launch-Vehicle Design

Developing the Saturn V rocket required many new technological advances. These articles discuss rocket-flight simulations, the development of the launch escape system, the Apollo engine pressure spikes, and lightning strikes on the Saturn V vehicle.

Von Pragenau, George L., "Free Flight Simulated on Ground with the Apollo Saturn V Space Vehicle," JSR, Vol. 4, No. 9, 1967. doi: 10.2514/3.29054

Valentine, R. S., Rossi, F. S., and Kromrey, R. V., "Fluid Dynamic Effects on Apollo Engine Pressure Spikes," JSR, Vol. 5, No. 1, 1968. doi: 10.2514/3.29181

McCarthy, Jr., J. F., Dodds, J. Ian, and Crowder R. S., "Development of the Apollo Launch Escape System," JSR, Vol. 5, No. 8, 1968. doi: 10.2514/3.29390

Krider, E. P., Noggle, R. C., Uman, M. A., and Orville, R. E., "Lightning and the Apollo 17/Saturn V Exhaust Plume," JSR, Vol. 11, No. 2, 1974. doi: 10.2514/3.62011

Flight-Control Development

A key new technology of the Apollo program was its guidance and control solutions. This included new computer-controlled steering solutions to point the spacecraft autonomously using gyro information.

Martin, Frederick H., and Battin, Richard H., "Computer-Controlled Steering of the Apollo Spacecraft," JSR, Vol. 5, No. 4, 1968. doi: 10.2514/3.29267

Chubb, W. B., Schultz, D. N., and Seltzer, S. M., "Attitude Control and Precision Pointing of Apollo Telescope Mount," JSR, Vol. 5, No. 8, 1968. doi: 10.2514/3.29385

Miller, John E., and Feldman, Julius, "Gyro Reliability in the Apollo Guidance, Navigation, and Control System," JSR, Vol. 5, No. 6, 1968. doi: 10.2514/3.29323

Miller, John E., and Laats, Ain, "Apollo Guidance and Control System Flight Experience," JSR, Vol. 7, No. 5, 1970. doi: 10.2514/3.29989

Orbital Dynamics

Apollo orbital dynamics is represented by a series of papers discussing the simulation of injection burns, lunar orbit insertion, performing rendezvous in lunar orbit, and also predicting the motion after jettison of the service module.

Martin, D. T., and Sievers, R. F., "An Empirical Simulation of the Translunar Injection Burn for Apollo," JSR, Vol. 6, No. 4, 1960. doi: 10.2514/3.29686

Berry, Ronald L., and Wiley, Robert F., "Real-time Targeting for the Apollo Lunar Orbit Insertion Maneuver," JSR, Vol. 6, No. 7, 1969. doi: 10.2514/3.29708

Young, Kenneth A., and Alexander, James D., "Apollo Lunar Rendezvous," JSR, Vol. 7, No. 9, 1970. doi: 10.2514/3.30106

Merchant, D. H., Gates, R. M., and Murray, J. F., "Prediction of Apollo Service Module Motion after Jettison," JSR, Vol. 8, No. 6, 1971. doi: 10.2514/3.59697

Reentry Flight Dynamics

A challenging flight phase is the reentry of the Apollo capsule into the Earth’s upper atmosphere. A series of technical articles discusses the complex aerothermodynamics during this hypersonic flight regime, predicting the heating load, and designing the thermal protection system with a novel heat shield.

Korkan, Kenneth D., and Hanley, Gerald M., "Apollo Command Module Aerothermodynamic Characteristics at Hyperbolic Earth Entry Velocities," JSR, Vol. 3, No. 8, 1966. doi: 10.2514/3.28639

Griffith, B. J., and Boylan, D. E., "Postflight Apollo Command Module Aerodynamic Simulation Tests," JSR, Vol. 5, No. 7, 1968. doi: 10.2514/3.29368

Crowder, R. S., and Moore, J. D., "Apollo Entry Aerodynamics," JSR, Vol. 6, No. 3, 1969. doi: 10.2514/3.29589

Erb, R. Bryan, Greenshields, D. H., Chauvin, L. T., Pavlosky, J. E., and Statham, C. L., "Apollo Thermal-Protection System Development," JSR, Vol. 7, No. 6, 1970. doi: 10.2514/3.30027

Bartlett, Eugene P., Anderson, Larry W., and Curry, Donald M., "An Evaluation of Ablation Mechanisms for the Apollo Heat Shield Material," JSR, Vol. 8, No. 5, 1971. doi: 10.2514/3.59679

Cagliostro, D. E., Goldstein, H., and Parker, J. A., "Silica Reinforcement and Char Reactions in the Apollo Heat Shield," JSR, Vol. 9, No. 5, 1972. doi: 10.2514/3.61685

Science

While significant advances in science resulted from the Apollo program, few such papers are published in the AIAA engineering journals. One JSR paper discussing the determination of the gravity field for the Apollo 14 landing site is included. Several AIAAJ papers discussing lunar surface material properties and solar reflectance of injection plumes illustrate the range of scientific investigations that resulted from the Apollo missions.

St. Armand, Joseph, and Goodwin, Jr., Kenneth R., "Determination of Gravity at Apollo 14 Landing Site," JSR, Vol. 8, No. 8, 1971. doi: 10.2514/3.30334

Cremers, Clifford, J., "Density, Pressure, and Temperature Effects on Heat Transfer in Apollo 11 Fines," AIAAJ, Vol. 9, No. 11, 1971. doi: 10.2514/3.50023

Birkebak, Richard C., "Spectral Reflectance and Emittance of Apollo 11 and 12 Lunar Material," AIAAJ, Vol. 10, No. 8, 1972. doi: 10.2514/3.50295

Kung, R. T. V., Cianciolo, L., and Myer, J. A., "Solar Scattering from Condensation in Apollo Translunar Injection Plume," AIAAJ, Vol. 13, No. 4, 1975. doi: 10.2514/3.49725

Historical Perspectives

The final set of articles has been published in the post-Apollo time period and presents a historical perspective of the program. Articles in JGCD provide a more personal narrative of some of the Apollo guidance, navigation, and control developments. Articles in JSR discuss technical studies that revisit the lunar orbit rendezvous design and the Apollo capsule seals using current engineering tools.

Battin, Richard H., "Space Guidance Evolution — A Personal Narrative," JGCD, Vol. 5, No. 2, 1982. doi: 10.2514/3.19761

Hoag, David, G., "The History of Apollo Onboard Guidance, Navigation, and Control," JGCD, Vol. 6, No. 1, 1983. doi: 10.2514/3.19795

Battin, Richard H., "Some Funny Things Happened on the Way to the Moon," JGCD, Vol. 25, No. 1, 2002. doi: 10.2514/2.4850

Reeves, David, M., Scher, Michael D., Wilhite, Alan W., and Stanley, Douglas O., "Apollo Lunar Orbit Rendezvous Architecture Decision Revisited," JSR, Vol. 43, No. 4, 2006. doi: 10.2514/1.18837

Finkbeiner, Joshua R., Dunlap, Jr., Patrick H., Steinetz, Bruce M., and Daniels, Christopher C., "Review of Seal Designs on the Apollo Spacecraft," JSR, Vol. 45, No. 5, 2008. doi: 10.2514/1.27188

The Apollo program achieved an astounding number of technical objectives in a relatively short time period. AIAA celebrates these technical achievements and is proud to present such work within the Institute’s family of journals.

Hanspeter Schaub

Editor-in-Chief, Journal of Spacecraft and Rockets

Joseph M. Powers

Editor-in-Chief, Journal of Propulsion and Power

Craig A. Kluever

Deputy Editor, Journal of Guidance, Control, and Dynamics

June 2019