We thank the members of the Oka laboratory and D. J. Anderson for discussion and comments; B. Lowell and M. Krashes for providing PDYN–Cre mice; A. Fejes-Toth for HSD2–Cre mice; and Y. Peng for real-time mouse tracking software. This work was supported by Startup funds from California Institute of Technology. Y.O. is supported by the Searle Scholars Program, the Mallinckrodt Foundation, the McKnight Foundation, the Klingenstein-Simons Foundation, and the National Institutes of Health (NIH) (R56MH113030, R01NS109997). D.K. is supported by the NIH (R01 DK108797 and R01 NS107315). H.E. is supported by the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science.

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Nature thanks Charles Bourque, Ivan de Araujo and Michael McKinley for their contribution to the peer review of this work.