Imagine yourself living in the mid 1300s in Europe. Numerous cities are prospering, colossal churches are being built, and verdant farms are running well. Yet, most of Europe is overpopulated, and life for the workers and peasants is ‘nasty, brutish and short.’ Suddenly, all of that is lost. The Black Death has arrived, and you start wishing for the old times to come back.

Between the 14th and 17th century, the Black Death, one of the most disastrous pandemics in human history, ravaged through Europe and Asia, resulting in the estimated 100-200 million deaths in the 14th century alone. 1

The black death is considered to be the beginning of the second plague pandemic that broke out in intervals. It is the middle of three great waves that hit in historical times: The Plague of Jusinian 541–542, The Black Death of 1340s, continuing in the Second Plague Pandemic, and the third Plague Pandemic 1855-1959.

Rats and fleas

According to a study, DNA and protein signatures specific for the bacteria Yersinia Pestis were identified in human skeletons that were archaeologically associated with the Black Death. 2 Y. Pestis is commonly found in fleas carried by rodents, including marmots and black rats. Many scientists suggest that the disease was carried by these fleas living on the back of black rats that were regular passengers on merchant ships. The desperate fleas would mistakenly move on to bite humans when the rats die. Once a human is infected, any normal fleas hopping from human to human and biting them could transmit the disease, which resulted in huge outbreaks especially in crowded regions.

Even though the theory of “black rats” is most widely accepted, a few alternative theories challenged this traditional view. For instance, Dr Graham Twigg suggests that the climate and ecology of Europe made it impossible for fleas or rodents to spread the disease. Twigg and historian Norman Cantor proposed that the epidemic of anthrax might have been a factor in the cause of the disease.3 4 Others like Susan Scott and Christopher Duncan, a demographer and zoologist from Liverpool University, argued that the disease was actually caused by an Ebola-like virus. 5 Despite these alternative theories, it is accepted amongst most scientists that the bacteria, Yersinia Pestis, was responsible for the Black Death.

Symptoms

According to modern medicine, the Black Death’s symptoms and signs include fever, weakness, abdominal pain, chills, and shock. Tissue bleeding and death may cause the dying tissue to appear black, a reason why the plague was later named the “Black Death.” 6

Giovanni Boccaccio, an Italian writer and poet, described the symptoms in a graphic way: “In men and women alike it first betrayed itself by the emergence of certain tumours in the groin or armpits,” these tumours were as large as apples and sometimes eggs. Then, this “deadly gavacciolo” starts spreading in all directions. Soon, “the form of the malady began to change, black spots or livid [started] making their appearance in many cases on the arm or the thigh or elsewhere.” 7

Victims usually died within two to seven days after initial infections. However, the symptoms were not noticeable instantly after the infection. These factors, along with others, made finding a cure difficult.

Spread to Europe

A study held by a team of medical geneticists reports that the great waves of plague have all originated in China. 8 Epidemics that may have included the plague killed an estimated 25 million Chinese and other Asians during the 15 years before it reached Costantinople in 1347. 9 10

In 1345/6 the Mongol army was laying siege to the city of Kaffa, a port city of the black sea. What happens next is written in the account of Gabriele De’Mussi in 1348/9. 11

“Whereupon the Tartars (Mongols), worn out by this pestilential disease, and falling on all sides as if thunderstruck, and seeing that they were perishing hopelessly, ordered the corpses to be placed upon their engines and thrown into the city of Kaffa.”

Further description tells us that, by the infected corpses, the people of Kaffa were infected along with the Italian merchants that were there at the time. 12 However, some modern scholars argue that the disease could not have been transmitted through infected corpses and suggest that infected rats could somehow enter the city of Kaffa. Either way, the Italian merchants, or Genoese traders at the time, fled the city of Kaffa carrying the plague into Sicily and south of Europe. By the end of 1347, the Black Death arrived in Italy via Genoa and Pisa and quickly invaded its crowded cities.

“They died by the hundreds, both day and night, and all were thrown in ditches and covered with earth. And as soon as those ditches were filled, more were dug. And I, Agnolo di Tura buried my five children with my own hands And so many died that all believed it was the end of the world.” A mourner at Siena.

The disease spread from Italy to northwest Europe. France, Spain, Portugal and England were contaminated by June 1348. In the city of Marseilles, 50-60% died. 13 The plague spread through Germany and Scandinavia from 1348 to 1350. Finally, it arrived in northwestern Russia in 1351.

However, a few regions like the Kingdom of Poland survived the Plague by their limited trading relationships with neighboring countries.

Spread to the Middle East

Before the arrival of the Black death at the end of 1346, reports of the plague had reached the seaports of Europe: “India was depopulated, Tartary, Mesopotamia, Syria, Armenia were covered with dead bodies; the Kurds fled in vain to the mountains.”

The traveler wrote in “The Travels of Ibn Battuta” that 2,000 people died daily in Damascus (Syria), but the people were able to defeat the plague through prayer. 14 In 1347, the plague struck Alexandria in Egypt, probably through ports’ trade with Constantinople. The disease traveled eastward invading Gaza and other cities in Lebanon, Syria, and Palestine. In 1349, the holy city of Mecca was infected.

The North African historian Ibn Khaldun described the outbreak that occurred, “Civilization both in the East and the West was visited by a destructive plague which devastated nations and caused populations to vanish. It swallowed up many of the good things of civilization and wiped them out… Civilization decreased with the decrease of mankind. Cities and buildings were laid waste, roads and way signs were obliterated, settlements and mansions became empty, dynasties and tribes grew weak. The entire inhabited world changed.” 14

Punishment from God?

According to the church, the Black Death was god’s revenge for the sins of humanity. Many scholars thought likewise in the middle east. That thought, as a result, slowed down the process of finding a cure, but it wouldn’t matter anyways, the disease was spreading rapidly.

Doctors and Scholars were at loss trying to explain the cause of the disease. Some associated it with astrological forces; they explained the cause of the disease to be the alignment of Jupiter, Saturn, and Mars. Others thought that some sort of earthquake resulted in the release of “bad air.”

Since the church thought this was god’s wrath for people’s sins, they advised the people to refrain from doing sins and gaining any advantages: not changing cloths, buying new items, or having baths! Even some scientists of the time claimed that bathing would open one’s pores and let the bad air in. These solutions, as you may have guessed, did not contribute in slowing down the spread, but did the opposite. Therefore, the people turned to god for forgiveness. They carved a cross on to their doors with the words “Lord have mercy on us.”

The church was suspicious towards communities of Jews since not many of them died. The Christians later accused them of poisoning wells to ruin European civilization. As a result, various communities of Jews were exterminated throughout Europe. In reality, not many Jews died of the plague because of their hygienic customs.

After the plague halted, one of the consequences was the questioning of the church. People thought that if the church was not able to do anything, there must be another way. Realizing that belief in religion is not enough was an important factor that led to the scientific revolution in Europe.

In future minor outbreaks, towns and cities hired plague doctors. They were usually untrained physicians or scammers who charged patients and their families with extra money for false cures. Even though a few of them were good doctors. Most patients were rarely cured. They used to wear beak-shaped masks and suits of heavy fabric to not allow the “bad air” in — a costume designed by Charles de L’Orme in 1619.

Death and consequences

Throughout the duration of 4 years, the Black Death wiped out an estimated 25 million people of Europe — about a third of its population — before unexpectedly halting. Even though most studies were associated with Europe, it was not the only victim. About 100-200 million people on the globe were victims to the plague, reducing the world population from an estimated 450 million down to 350-375 million in the 14th century alone. 15 The most widely accepted estimate for the Middle East, including Iraq, Iran and Syria, during that time, is a death rate of about a third. 16 40% of Egypt’s population were victims as well. 17

Despite the tragedy, the Black Death gave rise to many beneficial effects, especially for Europe. Firstly, the people who survived the plague were able to pass on their healthier genes, which resulted in a healthier population of Europe nowadays. In fact, some theories say that the Black Death is responsible for the high frequency of a genetic mutation that provides protection against HIV, smallpox, and possibly plague. 18 Also, without a doubt, healthier lifestyles and increased hygiene that were common after the Black Death developed better immunity against diseases.

Consequently, European workers started earning more wages because of the decrease in population. Favorable conditions were provided for peasants as they could move and rise higher in life. Land was plentiful, economic inequality was decreasing, and serfdom became scarce. More food was available for the people. As a result, the crops were cheap and people had better diets that contributed to their health. Increased production of food and other resources boosted the wealth and trade of European countries.

With all of these benefits, however, the Europeans continued prosecuting minority groups like Jews, believing that they were a cause of this disaster. By 1351, 60 major and 150 smaller Jewish communities had been destroyed along with 350 massacres that have occurred. 19

A beginning with no end

Perhaps, you think that this plague is of history, it started long ago and ended, but that is not the case. The plague did not entirely disappear from European soil until the 19th century as smaller but still deadly outbreaks occurred continuously in the decades that followed.

Today, the plague still exists in many places in the world. The last reported serious outbreak was in 2006 in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, when at least 50 people died. 20 Other countries such as China, India, Mongolia, Vietnam, and others as shown in the map above, has reported cases of the Black Death. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), from 2010 to 2015 there were 3248 cases reported worldwide, including 584 deaths. 21

The Plague, however, is not as powerful as it used to be. There are many cases that were cured using antibiotics at the right time. Healthier diets, better hygienic practices, and cleaner environments have helped fighting the disease and keeping the rat fleas away.

Some scientists warn that the bacteria Y. Pestis might evolve and invade the globe ruthlessly once again. Others fear that the Plague might be used by terrorists in aerosol form.

If you enjoyed this article, subscribe to the Zeintific blog to keep up with new ones. Suggest an article title in the comment section and I will make sure to mention your name in it. Lastly, if you had control over the Black Death, would you let it happen? Consider the list of benefits the Plague was responsible of. Is it sometimes allowable for evil to happen for a greater good?

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Written by Zein Hanouneh