Recently, in the C++ blog-o-sphere, a post by Jonathan Baccara made its rounds in the community. A corresponding reddit thread featured some discussion on the subject.

An important question was raised by several commenters, along the lines of

Why would anyone want partial specialization of function templates?

Usually followed up with:

Overloading is the proper way to get what you want.

This statement is both correct and incorrect, for a few reasons.

(Not) An Example of The Problem

First, the simplest example of “unnecessary” partial specialization:

template < typename T , typename U > void foo ( T t , U u ); // Invalid C++ ! template < typename T > void foo < T , int > ( T t , int i );

Of course, the more correct way to handle this:

template < typename T , typename U > void foo ( T t , U u ); // All good! (Not a specialization, just an overload) template < typename T > void foo ( T t , int i );

Great! Problem solved! We can all go home and sleep soundly, rest assured that we don’t need any silly partial specializations.

Not So Fast!

The above example isn’t contrived. It’s a very common pattern. Unfortunately, this doesn’t work in all circumstances.

A Real Use Case

Suppose we want to write a JSON serialization library. We want to support dumping and loading of custom types to JSON, and we want users of our library to be able to extend our library to transparently handle their own types.

How can we go about this? The typical past case has looked like this:

namespace json_lib { template < typename T > struct serialize ; template < typename T > json_data to_json ( T item ) { return serialize < T >:: to_json ( item ); } template < typename T > T from_json ( json_data j ) { return serialize < T >:: from_json ( j ); } }

It works like this: we ask for a specialization of serialize for the type T . We leave the primary template undefined, so that an unsupported type just becomes a compiler error. Our library provides an array of basic definitions of serialize for many common types ( int , float , string , etc). For a user to support their own type, they open up the json_lib namespace and provide a specialization of serialize for their type. This has been the common pattern for a lot of libraries for quite some time.

Unfortunately:

It’s ugly It couples tightly.

The Ugly

In order for users to extend the JSON library, they need quite a bit of boilerplate. Suppose we have a custom my_integer class that just wraps an integer:

namespace my_library { class my_integer { int _value ; public: explicit my_integer ( int i ) : _value ( i ) {} int value () const { return _value ; } }; }

How do we add support for serializing this?

namespace json_lib { template < > struct serialize < my_library :: my_integer > { static json_data to_json ( my_library :: my_integer i ) { return json_lib :: to_json ( i . value ()); } static my_library :: my_integer from_json ( json_data j ) { return my_library :: my_integer { json_lib :: from_json < int > ( j ) }; } }; }

Ouch! That’s quite a bit of boilerplate, just to extend for our little integer class.

The Coupling

Now, anyone who #include s our my_integer header will immediately get the json_lib headers pulled in. Booo. This means that our users must have the include paths set up properly, and json_lib is now polluting their namespace. Moving the definition of the static to_json and from_json functions to an implementation file won’t help: the declarations must still be visible to the compiler at all times.

A Different API?

What if we change the extension API of json_lib to use function overloads instead. In this situation, json_lib only provides a series of to_json and from_json specialization, that might look something like this:

json_data to_json ( int i ) { /* ... */ } json_data to_json ( float i ) { /* ... */ } json_data to_json ( string i ) { /* ... */ } template < typename T > T from_json ( json_data d ); template < > int from_json < int > ( json_data j ) { /* ... */ } template < > float from_json < float > ( json_data j ) { /* ... */ } template < > string from_json < string > ( json_data j ) { /* ... */ }

Here, we have several to_json functions, none of which need to be function templates or template specializations, since they can use overloading on their parameter types.

The story is different with from_json : it has no parameters to overload, just the single json_data parameter. We cannot use overloading (yet. Continue on, dear reader).

Our custom integer serialization now looks like this:

namespace my_library { json_lib :: json_data to_json ( my_integer i ) { return json_lib :: to_json ( i . value ()); } } namespace json_lib { template < > my_library :: my_integer from_json < my_library :: my_integer > ( json_data j ) { return my_library :: my_integer { from_json < int > ( j ) }; } }

Meh… It’s somewhat of an improvement. Here we rely on ADL to find the to_json for my_integer . This will clean up the call sites, which no longer need to qualify every call to to_json .

from_json sees a minor improvement. It must still be declared within the json_lib namespace because it is a specialization of a template within that namespace, but it has less boilerplate. Overall, it is still hideous.

A Different API Brings a Different Problem

Suppose we have a library with some custom container:

template < typename T > class my_container { /// All that container fluff... };

And we want any specialization of my_container to be serializable to and from JSON. How do we do that in our new API?

// All good... template < typename T > json_data to_json ( my_container < T > c ) { /// Do stuff... } namespace json_lib { // Hold on a minute... template < typename T > my_container < T > from_json < my_container < T >> ( json_data j ) { /// Do other stuff... } }

NO! That’s a partial specialization of a function template! We can’t do that!

Our prior version, with a serialize struct template would work in this case, since we can partially specialize that template. But then we get our old baggage back…

We can’t use overloading here, because the only time the type appears in the function signature is in the return value, and overloading on a return type is not only illegal, it’s nonsensical.

What if we change up the json_lib API to use an output parameter instead?

template < typename T > void from_json ( json_data j , my_container < T >& out ) { /// Do stuff... }

Pfft. We’re programming in C++! We know better than output parameters! /s

In all seriousness: this has a few (potentially serious) problems:

Users of from_json must now declare their variable before calling from_json on it. Ew. Now users are unable to use const , since the initialization of the variable happens after it is declared. All types that want to support serialization must now be default-constructible. For some types, like my_integer , this is okay: Just initialize to zero. For other types, this is completely unacceptable. What if default construction is expensive? What about a type username , which stores a user’s name as a string ? What’s the “default” username? What about color ? What’s the “default” color?

A New Different API

To solve this problem, what we need is:

A type that is default-constructible A type that carries around another type A type that is extremely cheap to copy and move, such that it can be completely optimized away A type that enables ADL into the carried type’s namespaces

Let’s suppose we have such a type (or a template thereof). We can call it type_t . And we can make a variable template of it called type . What does type look like? What does it look like to use type ?

template < typename T > struct type_t {}; template < typename T > constexpr auto type = type_t < T > {}; template < typename T > void other_func ( type_t < T > ) { // ... } void foo () { other_func ( type < int > ); }

With this, you may be able to see what a new-and-improved json_lib API might look like. Here it is:

json_data to_json ( int i ) { /* ... */ } json_data to_json ( float i ) { /* ... */ } json_data to_json ( string i ) { /* ... */ } int from_json ( type_t < int > , json_data j ) { /* ... */ } float from_json ( type_t < float > , json_data j ) { /* ... */ } string from_json ( type_t < string > , json_data j ) { /* ... */ }

Extending that API?

namespace my_library { json_lib :: json_data to_json ( my_integer ) { /* ... */ } my_integer from_json ( type_t < my_integer > , json_lib :: json_data j ) { /* ... */ } }

And for our custom container?

namespace my_library { template < typename T > json_lib :: json_data to_json ( my_container < T > c ) { /* ... */ } template < typename T > my_container < T > from_json ( type_t < my_container < T >> , json_lib :: json_data j ) { /* ... */ } }

What about using that API?

auto some_json = read_json (); auto some_username = from_json ( type < username > , some_json );

And there you have it. No need to open up the json_lib namespace. No need to even include the headers, if you can just forward-declare json_lib::json_data , since return types and reference parameters need not be complete types.

We can declare our to_json and even our from_json within the namespace of their respective types, since ADL will find them.

The only big problem is with type : who provides it? Does json_lib provide it? It’s a fairly general type. In fact, we could technically use just about any of the unary templates declared in type_traits . The contents don’t matter. It’s all about the template arguments.

Another possible definition for type_t :

template < typename T > using type_t = T * ;

Now all users implicitly have the definition of type_t without importing any libraries. (Of course this presents problems of its own.)

Maybe if others find this trick useful enough, a std::type could find itself part of a future standard library proposal.

A Bonus: Values as Types

Users familiar with Boost.Hana have probably seen tricks like this, although carried a lot further and much more fleshed out. I’ll only touch on them lightly here.

One of the common questions from programmers who newly discover constexpr is why code like this code doesn’t compile:

constexpr int do_thing ( int i ) { std :: array < int , i > arr = {}; // ... return 12 ; }

The compiler will complain because i is not a constant expression. “But we’re in a constexpr function!”

The problem is that constexpr functions must be evaluatable with non-constant arguments at runtime.

The common reponse has been requests for the ability to overload functions with constexpr arguments, so that a function will only evaluate with constexpr arguments.

With a few tricks, we can get pretty close. Let’s make another empty struct template and corresponding variable template:

template < auto V > struct value_t {}; template < auto V > constexpr auto value = value_t < V > {};

Here I am using C++17’s non-type template argument type deduction for auto V . It allows any parameter to be passed here that may be used as a non-type template parameter. Now, we can get close to our constexpr -only argument functions. Look here:

template < auto V > constexpr int do_thing ( value_t < V > ) { std :: array < int , V > arr = {}; // ... return 12 ; }

How do we use it?

do_thing ( value < 22 > );

Let’s Get Creative!

Can we use regular operators with our compile-time value types? Of course!

template < auto A , auto B > auto operator + ( value_t < A > , value_t < B > ) { return value < A + B > ; } template < auto A , auto B > auto operator - ( value_t < A > , value_t < B > ) { return value < A - B > ; } template < auto A , auto B > auto operator * ( value_t < A > , value_t < B > ) { return value < A * B > ; } template < auto A , auto B > auto operator / ( value_t < A > , value_t < B > ) { return value < A / B > ; } template < auto A , auto B > auto operator == ( value_t < A > , value_t < B > ) { return value < A == B > ; } template < auto A , auto B > auto operator != ( value_t < A > , value_t < B > ) { return value < A != B > ; }

No need to use old MPL-style meta-functions a-la:

typedef mpl :: int_ < 12 > a ; typedef mpl :: int_ < 22 > b ; typedef mpl :: add < a , b > sum ;

Just:

auto a = value < 12 > ; auto b = value < 22 > ; auto sum = a + b ;

To see the logical conclusion of using values-as-types, take a look at Boost.Hana.