INTERACTIVE: Science's gender gap Female scientists have made steady gains in recent decades but they face persistent career challenges. US universities and colleges employ far more male scientists than female ones and men earn significantly more in science occupations. Gender breakdown: 1973-2008

Median annual salary: 2008 Gender breakdown by field of study for US scientists and engineers with PhDs employed in academia 100 thousand Male

Female All positions Full-time senior faculty Full-time junior faculty Other full-time positions Postdocs Part-time positions All fields Physical sciences Mathematics Computer sciences Life sciences Psychology Social sciences Engineering Adjust scale: Data source: National Science Foundation http://www.nsf.gov/statistics/seind12/append/c5/at05-17.pdf Median annual salary of US scientists and engineers employed full time in 2008 All occupations S&E occupations Scientist Biological life scientist Computer and information scientist Mathematical scientist Physical scientist Psychologist Social scientist Engineer S&E related occupations Non-S&E occupations All ages 29 and younger 30 to 39 40 to 49 50 to 75 All degrees Bachelor’s Master’s Doctorate Data source: National Science Foundation Table 9-16 http://www.nsf.gov/statistics/wmpd/2013/tables.cfm US science, engineering and health doctorate holders employed in all positions in academia, by sex and degree field 1973–2008 (thousands). Gender and field 1973 1975 1977 1979 1981 1983 1985 1987 1989 1991 1993 1995 1997 1999 2001 2003 2006 2008 Both sexes, all fields 118.0 134.1 145.5 155.3 167.1 176.1 190.2 195.9 206.6 210.6 213.8 217.5 232.5 240.2 245.5 259.5 272.8 272.8 Both sexes, Physical sciences 25.5 27.5 29.2 28.8 30.0 29.9 32.2 32.8 33.6 33.7 35.0 35.7 37.5 38.7 38.6 39.9 39.6 39.3 Both sexes, Mathematics 9.7 11.0 11.7 12.2 12.4 12.9 13.6 13.8 14.5 15.2 15.5 14.6 15.6 15.2 14.9 16.7 17.4 17.4 Both sexes, Computer sciences 0 0 0 0.1 0.3 0.5 0.8 1.1 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.1 3.3 3.7 3.8 5.2 5.8 6.9 Both sexes, Life sciences 34.9 39.4 42.6 47.0 51.3 54.9 58.7 61.3 64.8 66.9 68.2 71.6 77.3 81.9 84.3 90.0 95.5 94.0 Both sexes, Psychology 12.2 14.8 16.2 17.7 20.1 21.0 23.1 23.7 25.0 25.2 25.0 26.1 27.3 29.0 30.4 31.8 35.0 34.3 Both sexes, Social sciences 23.4 28.0 31.1 33.6 36.9 38.9 42.0 42.2 44.5 44.8 44.4 42.5 44.9 46.2 46.9 48.1 50.0 50.9 Both sexes, Engineering 12.4 13.4 14.8 15.8 16.1 18.1 19.9 21.2 22.9 22.8 23.1 23.8 26.6 25.5 26.6 27.8 29.6 29.8 Male, all fields 107.2 120.3 129.0 136.0 144.0 149.8 159.2 162.0 168.0 168.7 166.9 165.1 173.3 175.8 175.0 180.7 182.7 179.4 Male, Physical sciences 24.0 25.9 27.4 26.9 27.8 27.7 29.8 30.0 30.5 30.8 31.4 31.4 32.4 33.4 32.8 33.7 32.3 31.7 Male, Mathematics 9.0 10.3 10.8 11.3 11.3 11.8 12.3 12.5 13.0 13.9 13.7 12.8 13.5 12.9 12.6 13.8 14.1 13.7 Male, Computer sciences 0 0 0 0.1 0.3 0.4 0.7 0.9 1.3 1.6 2.1 2.5 2.6 2.9 2.9 4.3 4.5 5.5 Male, Life sciences 30.8 34.3 36.6 40.1 42.9 44.5 46.7 47.9 49.5 50.1 49.4 50.1 52.6 55.1 54.9 56.6 57.9 55.3 Male, Psychology 10.0 11.8 12.6 13.5 14.9 15.1 16.0 16.2 16.5 16.0 14.7 14.7 15.4 15.6 15.7 15.6 16.0 15.5 Male, Social sciences 21.0 24.7 26.9 28.5 30.9 32.3 34.3 33.9 35.1 34.6 33.4 31.3 31.9 32.4 31.7 32.0 31.9 32.0 Male, Engineering 12.3 13.3 14.7 15.7 15.9 17.8 19.5 20.6 22.2 21.8 22.1 22.3 24.8 23.4 24.3 24.8 26.0 25.8 Female, all fields 10.7 13.8 16.5 19.4 23.1 26.5 31.1 34.0 38.7 41.9 46.9 52.4 59.2 64.4 70.5 78.7 90.1 93.4 Female, Physical sciences 1.4 1.6 1.7 1.9 2.1 2.2 2.5 2.8 3.1 3.0 3.6 4.4 5.1 5.3 5.8 6.1 7.3 7.7 Female, Mathematics 0.6 0.8 0.9 0.9 1.1 1.1 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.4 1.7 1.8 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.9 3.3 3.8 Female, Computer sciences 0 0 0 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 Female, Life sciences 4.0 5.1 6.0 6.9 8.4 10.3 12.1 13.3 15.3 16.8 18.8 21.5 24.7 26.7 29.4 33.4 37.6 38.8 Female, Psychology 2.2 3.0 3.6 4.3 5.2 5.9 7.1 7.6 8.5 9.2 10.3 11.5 11.9 13.4 14.7 16.2 19.0 18.8 Female, Social sciences 2.4 3.3 4.2 5.2 6.0 6.5 7.7 8.3 9.4 10.2 10.9 11.2 13.0 13.8 15.2 16.2 18.2 19.0 Female, Engineering 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.6 0.7 1.0 1.1 1.5 1.7 2.1 2.3 3.0 3.6 4.0 US science, engineering and health doctorate holders employed as full-time senior faculty members in academia, by sex and degree field 1973–2008 (thousands). Gender and field 1973 1975 1977 1979 1981 1983 1985 1987 1989 1991 1993 1995 1997 1999 2001 2003 2006 2008 Both sexes, all fields 74.0 84.3 90.7 97.2 107.3 115.6 119.7 127.3 131.0 133.0 128.6 127.3 131.9 136.7 136.9 142.0 139.4 144.9 Both sexes, Physical sciences 15.2 17.1 18.0 18.8 19.7 20.2 20.8 21.5 21.4 21.2 20.6 20.0 20.5 20.7 20.7 21.3 20.2 20.7 Both sexes, Mathematics 5.9 6.9 7.6 8.3 9.1 9.7 10.0 10.5 10.9 11.8 11.5 10.6 10.8 10.8 10.2 11.2 10.7 11.1 Both sexes, Computer sciences 0 0 0 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.1 0.3 0.4 0.9 0.9 1.7 1.7 2.1 2.4 2.9 3.2 3.8 Both sexes, Life sciences 21.0 23.4 24.6 27.0 29.6 32.6 33.7 35.8 36.4 37.4 35.8 37.2 38.3 40.6 41.2 43.4 43.7 44.4 Both sexes, Psychology 7.3 8.7 9.1 9.9 11.7 12.8 13.5 14.3 15.0 15.3 14.3 14.5 15.3 15.6 15.9 15.8 16.1 16.9 Both sexes, Social sciences 15.9 18.5 20.7 21.7 24.9 26.3 27.7 29.5 31.1 30.6 29.9 28.1 28.8 30.1 29.6 30.7 29.3 30.7 Both sexes, Engineering 8.7 9.7 10.7 11.6 12.4 13.7 13.9 15.3 15.9 15.8 15.7 15.3 16.6 16.6 16.8 16.8 16.2 17.3 Male, all fields 69.7 78.9 84.7 90.2 98.7 104.9 107.4 113.2 115.2 115.5 110.3 107.0 109.4 110.6 108.3 109.7 104.6 106.1 Male, Physical sciences 14.7 16.6 17.4 18.1 19.0 19.4 20.0 20.6 20.3 20.3 19.5 18.8 18.9 19.0 18.6 18.9 17.6 17.6 Male, Mathematics 5.6 6.5 7.2 7.9 8.6 9.1 9.3 9.8 10.0 10.8 10.5 9.8 10.0 9.7 9.1 9.9 9.2 9.2 Male, Computer sciences 0 0 0 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.1 0.3 0.4 0.8 0.8 1.4 1.3 1.6 2.0 2.4 2.6 3.2 Male, Life sciences 19.5 21.6 22.7 24.8 26.9 29.1 29.4 31.0 31.0 31.4 29.3 29.3 30.0 31.1 30.4 30.9 30.4 29.9 Male, Psychology 6.4 7.6 7.8 8.4 9.7 10.5 10.8 11.2 11.5 11.3 10.2 10.1 10.7 10.3 10.3 9.5 9.1 9.3 Male, Social sciences 14.7 16.9 18.8 19.5 22.3 23.2 24.1 25.3 26.4 25.5 24.7 22.8 22.4 23.2 21.9 22.4 20.7 20.9 Male, Engineering 8.7 9.7 10.7 11.5 12.2 13.6 13.7 15.1 15.7 15.4 15.3 14.8 16.1 15.8 15.9 15.7 15.0 16.0 Female, all fields 4.3 5.4 6.0 7.0 8.6 10.7 12.4 14.0 15.8 17.6 18.3 20.3 22.5 26.1 28.6 32.3 34.8 38.8 Female, Physical sciences 0.5 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1 0.9 1.1 1.2 1.5 1.9 2.1 2.4 2.7 3.1 Female, Mathematics 0.3 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.0 0.8 0.8 1.1 1.1 1.3 1.4 1.9 Female, Computer sciences 0 0 0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.3 0.3 0.5 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.6 Female, Life sciences 1.5 1.8 1.9 2.2 2.7 3.5 4.3 4.8 5.4 6.1 6.5 7.8 8.3 9.5 10.8 12.5 13.3 14.5 Female, Psychology 0.8 1.1 1.2 1.4 2.0 2.4 2.7 3.1 3.5 4.0 4.1 4.4 4.6 5.4 5.6 6.3 7.0 7.6 Female, Social sciences 1.1 1.5 1.8 2.2 2.6 3.1 3.6 4.1 4.7 5.1 5.2 5.3 6.4 7.0 7.7 8.3 8.7 9.8 Female, Engineering 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.4 0.3 0.5 0.5 0.8 0.9 1.1 1.2 1.3 US science, engineering and health doctorate holders employed as full-time junior faculty members in academia, by sex and degree field 1973–2008 (thousands). Gender and field 1973 1975 1977 1979 1981 1983 1985 1987 1989 1991 1993 1995 1997 1999 2001 2003 2006 2008 Both sexes, all fields 29.3 32.1 34.9 34.0 34.6 32.8 37.2 37.2 38.7 40.1 43.8 44.0 46.4 47.4 50.5 53.0 57.7 54.6 Both sexes, Physical sciences 5.6 5.2 5.7 4.7 4.6 4.0 4.6 4.7 4.8 5.0 5.2 5.6 6.1 6.6 6.7 7.2 7.5 6.9 Both sexes, Mathematics 3.3 3.5 3.3 3.1 2.6 2.5 2.7 2.4 2.6 2.4 3.2 2.4 2.8 2.4 2.3 3.0 3.4 3.4 Both sexes, Computer sciences 0 0 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.6 0.6 0.9 1.0 1.4 1.2 1.3 1.2 0.9 1.3 1.7 1.9 Both sexes, Life sciences 8.5 9.7 10.3 10.3 11.3 10.8 11.9 12.3 12.8 13.7 15.0 15.6 16.9 17.5 19.2 20.3 20.8 20.4 Both sexes, Psychology 3.6 4.2 4.8 4.4 4.8 4.5 5.0 4.9 5.2 5.4 5.2 5.5 5.5 6.2 6.6 6.3 7.6 6.4 Both sexes, Social sciences 5.7 7.1 8.2 8.6 8.8 8.1 8.4 8.2 7.9 8.4 9.3 9.0 8.9 9.1 9.6 9.5 10.5 10.3 Both sexes, Engineering 2.6 2.5 2.7 2.8 2.3 2.7 4.0 4.0 4.3 4.3 4.5 4.8 5.0 4.5 5.1 5.5 6.1 5.2 Male, all fields 26.0 27.5 28.9 27.3 27.1 25.2 27.8 27.2 27.6 28.1 29.7 28.5 29.5 30.1 31.0 31.5 33.3 31.7 Male, Physical sciences 5.2 4.9 5.2 4.3 4.1 3.5 3.9 4.1 4.1 4.1 4.2 4.1 4.5 5.1 5.1 5.5 5.6 5.0 Male, Mathematics 3.1 3.2 2.9 2.7 2.2 2.2 2.3 2.0 2.2 2.2 2.7 2.0 2.2 1.7 1.7 2.1 2.4 2.4 Male, Computer sciences 0 0 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.5 0.5 0.8 0.8 1.1 1.0 1.0 0.9 0.7 1.0 1.3 1.4 Male, Life sciences 7.5 8.1 8.4 8.1 8.9 8.1 8.5 8.5 8.4 8.8 9.5 9.5 9.8 10.4 11.0 11.2 11.1 10.8 Male, Psychology 2.7 3.0 3.3 2.8 3.0 2.6 2.7 2.7 2.9 3.0 2.3 2.4 2.1 2.7 2.7 2.4 2.8 2.4 Male, Social sciences 5.0 5.9 6.5 6.6 6.5 5.9 6.0 5.6 5.2 5.3 5.9 5.5 5.5 5.4 5.5 4.9 5.3 5.8 Male, Engineering 2.6 2.4 2.7 2.7 2.2 2.6 3.8 3.8 4.0 3.9 4.0 4.1 4.4 3.9 4.3 4.5 4.8 3.9 Female, all fields 3.3 4.6 6.0 6.8 7.5 7.7 9.4 10.0 11.2 12.0 14.1 15.6 17.0 17.3 19.4 21.5 24.4 22.9 Female, Physical sciences 0.3 0.3 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.7 0.9 1.1 1.5 1.6 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.9 1.9 Female, Mathematics 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.3 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.3 0.5 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.6 0.9 1.1 1.0 Female, Computer sciences 0 0 0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.2 0.3 0.2 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 Female, Life sciences 1.1 1.6 1.9 2.2 2.4 2.7 3.4 3.8 4.5 4.9 5.5 6.1 7.1 7.1 8.1 9.1 9.7 9.6 Female, Psychology 0.9 1.2 1.5 1.6 1.8 1.9 2.3 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.9 3.1 3.4 3.5 3.9 3.9 4.8 4.0 Female, Social sciences 0.8 1.2 1.7 2.1 2.3 2.1 2.4 2.6 2.7 3.0 3.4 3.5 3.5 3.7 4.1 4.6 5.2 4.5 Female, Engineering 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.8 1.0 1.3 1.3 US science, engineering and health doctorate holders employed in other full-time positions in academia, by sex and degree field 1973–2008 (thousands). Gender and field 1973 1975 1977 1979 1981 1983 1985 1987 1989 1991 1993 1995 1997 1999 2001 2003 2006 2008 Both sexes, all fields 7.6 8.3 8.8 11.4 12.6 13.4 18.1 16.4 19.2 20.2 22.2 23.9 26.4 29.3 31.7 35.4 36.7 39.9 Both sexes, Physical sciences 2.2 2.2 2.4 2.5 2.9 3.0 3.7 3.4 4.0 4.1 4.8 4.9 6.1 6.8 7.1 7.7 6.4 6.8 Both sexes, Mathematics 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.3 0.5 0.4 0.5 0.7 0.5 0.6 0.8 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.1 1.4 Both sexes, Computer sciences 0 0 0 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.3 0.3 0.6 0.6 0.8 Both sexes, Life sciences 2.5 2.4 2.8 3.9 4.0 4.6 6.2 6.0 6.7 7.2 7.7 8.4 8.4 9.5 10.5 12.2 13.8 14.5 Both sexes, Psychology 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.8 2.2 2.2 2.9 2.8 2.9 2.8 3.9 3.9 4.0 4.6 4.9 5.7 6.0 6.3 Both sexes, Social sciences 1.0 1.5 1.2 1.9 2.0 2.2 3.2 2.6 3.5 3.5 3.7 3.6 3.9 4.3 4.5 4.4 5.6 5.6 Both sexes, Engineering 0.8 0.9 0.8 0.9 1.1 1.1 1.5 1.1 1.5 1.8 1.5 2.1 3.1 3.0 3.4 3.6 3.1 4.4 Male, all fields 6.5 7.2 7.4 9.4 10.0 10.3 14.3 12.0 13.9 14.4 15.4 16.1 18.0 20.5 21.4 23.7 23.4 23.6 Male, Physical sciences 2.1 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.6 2.7 3.4 2.9 3.5 3.6 4.2 4.1 5.2 6.0 6.1 6.6 5.2 5.4 Male, Mathematics 0.1 0.2 0.4 0.2 0.3 0.2 0.4 0.5 0.4 0.5 0.4 0.4 0.7 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8 1.0 Male, Computer sciences 0 0 0 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.1 0.2 0.2 0.6 0.5 0.7 Male, Life sciences 2.0 1.9 2.2 3.0 3.0 3.2 4.6 4.1 4.6 4.9 5.1 5.6 5.3 6.2 6.5 7.4 8.3 7.7 Male, Psychology 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.4 1.4 1.4 1.8 1.6 1.5 1.2 1.9 1.7 1.8 2.1 2.0 2.5 2.6 2.4 Male, Social sciences 0.8 1.3 0.9 1.6 1.6 1.7 2.5 1.8 2.4 2.4 2.2 2.1 2.2 2.6 2.7 2.7 3.3 2.9 Male, Engineering 0.8 0.9 0.8 0.9 1.1 1.0 1.5 1.0 1.4 1.7 1.5 2.0 2.7 2.6 3.1 3.1 2.7 3.7 Female, all fields 1.1 1.0 1.4 2.0 2.6 3.1 3.8 4.5 5.3 5.8 6.7 7.7 8.4 8.8 10.4 11.7 13.3 16.3 Female, Physical sciences 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.2 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.6 0.8 0.9 0.8 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.4 Female, Mathematics 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.0 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.3 0.3 0.4 Female, Computer sciences 0 0 0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.0 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.0 0.1 0.1 Female, Life sciences 0.6 0.5 0.6 0.9 1.0 1.3 1.6 1.8 2.1 2.4 2.6 2.8 3.1 3.3 4.0 4.8 5.5 6.9 Female, Psychology 0.2 0.2 0.3 0.5 0.8 0.8 1.1 1.3 1.4 1.6 2.0 2.2 2.2 2.5 2.9 3.1 3.4 3.9 Female, Social sciences 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.7 0.8 1.1 1.1 1.5 1.5 1.7 1.7 1.8 1.7 2.3 2.7 Female, Engineering 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.3 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.4 0.7 US science, engineering and health doctorate holders employed in part-time positions in academia, by sex and degree field 1973–2008 (thousands). Gender and field 1973 1975 1977 1979 1981 1983 1985 1987 1989 1991 1993 1995 1997 1999 2001 2003 2006 2008 Both sexes, all fields 2.9 3.2 3.4 4.5 4.0 6.0 6.5 5.7 6.2 7.4 5.9 5.5 8.9 8.2 9.0 13.3 15.7 15.4 Both sexes, Physical sciences 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.8 0.7 1.1 1.1 0.8 0.7 1.2 1.0 0.9 1.2 1.0 1.0 1.1 1.5 1.6 Both sexes, Mathematics 0.1 0.2 0.2 0.3 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.5 0.7 0.7 0.6 0.9 1.2 1.0 Both sexes, Computer sciences 0 0 0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.1 0.1 Both sexes, Life sciences 0.9 0.9 1.0 1.2 1.2 1.7 1.7 1.6 1.9 2.3 1.6 1.2 2.9 2.6 2.4 4.0 4.4 4.3 Both sexes, Psychology 0.4 0.5 0.6 1.0 0.8 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.2 1.2 1.1 1.1 1.3 1.8 3.2 3.6 3.7 Both sexes, Social sciences 0.7 0.8 0.8 1.0 1.0 1.6 2.2 1.8 1.7 2.0 1.3 1.3 2.6 2.2 2.7 3.1 3.7 3.9 Both sexes, Engineering 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.3 0.2 0.4 0.3 0.3 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.4 0.4 0.8 1.1 0.8 Male, all fields 1.5 1.8 1.8 2.7 1.9 3.5 3.6 2.7 3.1 3.8 2.3 2.4 4.4 3.4 3.8 6.1 7.6 6.9 Male, Physical sciences 0.4 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.4 0.9 0.7 0.5 0.4 0.8 0.7 0.7 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.7 1.1 1.1 Male, Mathematics 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.2 0.1 0.3 0.3 0.4 0.3 0.6 0.9 0.6 Male, Computer sciences 0 0 0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.1 0.1 Male, Life sciences 0.4 0.5 0.4 0.5 0.4 0.7 0.7 0.5 0.8 1.0 0.4 0.3 1.3 0.8 0.7 1.3 1.5 1.4 Male, Psychology 0.1 0.2 0.2 0.5 0.3 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.8 0.9 1.0 Male, Social sciences 0.4 0.5 0.4 0.6 0.5 1.1 1.4 1.0 0.8 1.2 0.5 0.7 1.4 1.0 1.4 1.7 2.2 2.2 Male, Engineering 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.3 0.2 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.5 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.2 0.4 0.7 1.0 0.6 Female, all fields 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.9 2.1 2.5 2.9 3.0 3.1 3.5 3.6 3.1 4.5 4.9 5.1 7.3 8.1 8.5 Female, Physical sciences 0.3 0.3 0.2 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.4 0.4 0.3 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.4 0.4 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.5 Female, Mathematics 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.2 0.4 0.3 0.3 0.2 0.3 0.4 Female, Computer sciences 0 0 0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.1 0.0 0.1 Female, Life sciences 0.5 0.5 0.6 0.6 0.7 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.1 1.3 1.2 0.9 1.6 1.8 1.7 2.7 3.0 2.9 Female, Psychology 0.3 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.9 1.1 1.0 0.8 1.0 1.5 2.4 2.8 2.7 Female, Social sciences 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.5 0.9 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.7 1.2 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.7 Female, Engineering 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.3 US science, engineering and health doctorate holders employed as postdocs in academia, by sex and degree field 1973–2008 (thousands). Gender and field 1973 1975 1977 1979 1981 1983 1985 1987 1989 1991 1993 1995 1997 1999 2001 2003 2006 2008 Both sexes, all fields 4.2 6.2 7.6 8.1 8.5 8.3 8.7 9.3 11.5 9.9 13.3 16.8 18.9 18.5 17.5 15.7 23.3 18.0 Both sexes, Physical sciences 1.8 2.2 2.4 2.0 2.1 1.6 2.1 2.3 2.7 2.2 3.5 4.4 3.8 3.4 3.0 2.6 3.9 3.3 Both sexes, Mathematics 0.0 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.3 0.2 0.1 0.0 0.5 0.5 0.6 0.8 0.5 1.0 0.5 Both sexes, Computer sciences 0 0 0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.0 0.1 0.1 0.2 Both sexes, Life sciences 1.9 3.0 3.9 4.8 5.2 5.1 5.3 5.4 6.8 6.3 8.2 9.1 10.8 11.6 11.0 10.0 12.8 10.5 Both sexes, Psychology 0.2 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.7 0.7 0.8 0.5 0.4 1.1 1.3 1.2 1.2 0.9 1.7 1.0 Both sexes, Social sciences 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.6 0.3 0.1 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.4 0.7 0.5 0.6 0.5 0.9 0.3 Both sexes, Engineering 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.3 0.2 0.5 0.6 0.5 1.0 1.2 1.7 1.1 0.9 1.1 3.0 2.1 Male, all fields 3.5 4.9 6.1 6.3 6.3 5.8 6.0 6.8 8.2 6.8 9.2 11.1 12.1 11.2 10.5 9.8 13.8 10.9 Male, Physical sciences 1.6 2.0 2.1 1.8 1.8 1.4 1.7 1.9 2.2 1.8 2.9 3.7 3.0 2.7 2.3 2.1 2.9 2.5 Male, Mathematics 0.0 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.2 0.0 0.0 0.3 0.3 0.5 0.6 0.3 0.8 0.4 Male, Computer sciences 0 0 0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.1 0.2 Male, Life sciences 1.5 2.2 2.9 3.5 3.6 3.3 3.4 3.8 4.7 4.1 5.2 5.5 6.2 6.6 6.2 5.7 6.7 5.6 Male, Psychology 0.1 0.2 0.4 0.4 0.5 0.3 0.4 0.3 0.4 0.3 0.1 0.3 0.6 0.2 0.4 0.4 0.5 0.5 Male, Social sciences 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.2 0.1 0.4 0.2 0.1 0.2 0.2 0.1 0.2 0.5 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.4 0.1 Male, Engineering 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.3 0.2 0.5 0.5 0.4 0.9 1.0 1.4 0.9 0.7 0.9 2.4 1.7 Female, all fields 0.6 1.3 1.6 1.8 2.2 2.5 2.6 2.6 3.3 3.0 4.1 5.7 6.8 7.3 6.9 6.0 9.5 7.1 Female, Physical sciences 0.2 0.2 0.3 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.3 0.3 0.4 0.3 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.8 0.7 0.5 1.0 0.8 Female, Mathematics 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.1 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.1 Female, Computer sciences 0 0 0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 Female, Life sciences 0.4 0.8 1.1 1.2 1.6 1.8 1.8 1.8 2.2 2.3 3.0 3.7 4.6 5.1 4.7 4.3 6.1 4.9 Female, Psychology 0.0 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.3 0.3 0.7 0.8 0.9 0.8 0.5 1.1 0.6 Female, Social sciences 0.0 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.3 0.2 0.5 0.2 Female, Engineering 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.6 0.4 Data source: National Science Foundation http://www.nsf.gov/statistics/seind12/append/c5/at05-17.pdf Median annual salary of scientists and engineers employed full time in all occupations, by highest degree, age and sex (2008). Highest degree, occupation and age Female Male All degrees, all ages 60000 84000 All degrees, 29 and younger 44000 53000 All degrees, 30 to 39 59000 79000 All degrees, 40 to 49 68000 95000 All degrees, 50 to 75 63000 91000 Bachelor’s, all ages 52000 75000 Bachelor’s, 29 and younger 40000 50000 Bachelor’s, 30 to 39 54000 73000 Bachelor’s, 40 to 49 60000 85000 Bachelor’s, 50 to 75 56000 80000 Master’s, all ages 63000 90000 Master’s, 29 and younger 49000 62000 Master’s, 30 to 39 60000 85000 Master’s, 40 to 49 71000 100000 Master’s, 50 to 75 66000 91000 Doctorate, all ages 77000 100000 Doctorate, 29 and younger 52000 75000 Doctorate, 30 to 39 69000 80000 Doctorate, 40 to 49 80000 100000 Doctorate, 50 to 75 86000 110000 Median annual salary of scientists and engineers employed full time in S&E occupations, by highest degree, age and sex (2008). Highest degree, occupation and age Female Male All degrees, all ages 70000 85000 All degrees, 29 and younger 50000 60000 All degrees, 30 to 39 70000 82000 All degrees, 40 to 49 80000 95000 All degrees, 50 to 75 78000 95000 Bachelor’s, all ages 68000 80000 Bachelor’s, 29 and younger 47000 56000 Bachelor’s, 30 to 39 70000 80000 Bachelor’s, 40 to 49 80000 90000 Bachelor’s, 50 to 75 71000 90000 Master’s, all ages 74000 92000 Master’s, 29 and younger 54000 68000 Master’s, 30 to 39 70000 89000 Master’s, 40 to 49 86000 100000 Master’s, 50 to 75 80000 98000 Doctorate, all ages 75000 96000 Doctorate, 29 and younger 49000 75000 Doctorate, 30 to 39 67000 80000 Doctorate, 40 to 49 78000 99000 Doctorate, 50 to 75 89000 105000 Median annual salary of scientists and engineers employed full time as scientists, by highest degree, age and sex (2008). Highest degree, occupation and age Female Male All degrees, all ages 70000 83000 All degrees, 29 and younger 45000 55000 All degrees, 30 to 39 66000 80000 All degrees, 40 to 49 80000 92000 All degrees, 50 to 75 75000 90000 Bachelor’s, all ages 65000 80000 Bachelor’s, 29 and younger 40000 53000 Bachelor’s, 30 to 39 67000 80000 Bachelor’s, 40 to 49 79000 89000 Bachelor’s, 50 to 75 70000 85000 Master’s, all ages 72000 90000 Master’s, 29 and younger 52000 65000 Master’s, 30 to 39 68000 87000 Master’s, 40 to 49 84000 100000 Master’s, 50 to 75 79000 89000 Doctorate, all ages 73000 91000 Doctorate, 29 and younger 43000 65000 Doctorate, 30 to 39 63000 72000 Doctorate, 40 to 49 76000 91000 Doctorate, 50 to 75 86000 100000 Median annual salary of scientists and engineers employed full time as biological life scientists, by highest degree, age and sex (2008). Highest degree, occupation and age Female Male All degrees, all ages 54000 65000 All degrees, 29 and younger 35000 30000 All degrees, 30 to 39 55000 56000 All degrees, 40 to 49 70000 73000 All degrees, 50 to 75 69000 82000 Bachelor’s, all ages 45000 50000 Bachelor’s, 29 and younger 30000 28000 Bachelor’s, 30 to 39 50000 54000 Bachelor’s, 40 to 49 52000 64000 Bachelor’s, 50 to 75 54000 56000 Master’s, all ages 58000 63000 Master’s, 29 and younger 48000 28000 Master’s, 30 to 39 56000 56000 Master’s, 40 to 49 69000 66000 Master’s, 50 to 75 71000 72000 Doctorate, all ages 70000 86000 Doctorate, 29 and younger 39000 60000 Doctorate, 30 to 39 55000 60000 Doctorate, 40 to 49 80000 86000 Doctorate, 50 to 75 92000 104000 Median annual salary of scientists and engineers employed full time as computer and information scientists, by highest degree, age and sex (2008). Highest degree, occupation and age Female Male All degrees, all ages 79000 86000 All degrees, 29 and younger 60000 61000 All degrees, 30 to 39 75000 85000 All degrees, 40 to 49 85000 96000 All degrees, 50 to 75 80000 91000 Bachelor’s, all ages 75000 82000 Bachelor’s, 29 and younger 56000 59000 Bachelor’s, 30 to 39 72000 82000 Bachelor’s, 40 to 49 80000 92000 Bachelor’s, 50 to 75 74000 88000 Master’s, all ages 84000 96000 Master’s, 29 and younger 66000 75000 Master’s, 30 to 39 80000 95000 Master’s, 40 to 49 89000 104000 Master’s, 50 to 75 92000 94000 Doctorate, all ages 95000 101000 Doctorate, 29 and younger 0 0 Doctorate, 30 to 39 100000 94000 Doctorate, 40 to 49 94000 103000 Doctorate, 50 to 75 95000 110000 Median annual salary of scientists and engineers employed full time as mathematical scientists, by highest degree, age and sex (2008). Highest degree, occupation and age Female Male All degrees, all ages 70000 80000 All degrees, 29 and younger 55000 49000 All degrees, 30 to 39 68000 74000 All degrees, 40 to 49 84000 90000 All degrees, 50 to 75 70000 91000 Bachelor’s, all ages 67000 61000 Bachelor’s, 29 and younger 57000 40000 Bachelor’s, 30 to 39 0 61000 Bachelor’s, 40 to 49 0 0 Bachelor’s, 50 to 75 0 98000 Master’s, all ages 73000 85000 Master’s, 29 and younger 53000 36000 Master’s, 30 to 39 70000 84000 Master’s, 40 to 49 83000 90000 Master’s, 50 to 75 70000 80000 Doctorate, all ages 80000 90000 Doctorate, 29 and younger 49000 82000 Doctorate, 30 to 39 80000 80000 Doctorate, 40 to 49 80000 97000 Doctorate, 50 to 75 93000 95000 Median annual salary of scientists and engineers employed full time physical scientists, by highest degree, age and sex (2008). Highest degree, occupation and age Female Male All degrees, all ages 60000 76000 All degrees, 29 and younger 38000 40000 All degrees, 30 to 39 59000 67000 All degrees, 40 to 49 70000 85000 All degrees, 50 to 75 74000 90000 Bachelor’s, all ages 55000 64000 Bachelor’s, 29 and younger 33000 40000 Bachelor’s, 30 to 39 60000 64000 Bachelor’s, 40 to 49 70000 70000 Bachelor’s, 50 to 75 69000 75000 Master’s, all ages 60000 80000 Master’s, 29 and younger 41000 29000 Master’s, 30 to 39 47000 63000 Master’s, 40 to 49 77000 94000 Master’s, 50 to 75 69000 98000 Doctorate, all ages 74000 93000 Doctorate, 29 and younger 55000 54000 Doctorate, 30 to 39 64000 76000 Doctorate, 40 to 49 80000 100000 Doctorate, 50 to 75 96000 104000 Median annual salary of scientists and engineers employed full time as psychologists, by highest degree, age and sex (2008). Highest degree, occupation and age Female Male All degrees, all ages 60000 69000 All degrees, 29 and younger 38000 33000 All degrees, 30 to 39 58000 55000 All degrees, 40 to 49 70000 70000 All degrees, 50 to 75 73000 80000 Bachelor’s, all ages 34000 0 Bachelor’s, 29 and younger 0 0 Bachelor’s, 30 to 39 0 0 Bachelor’s, 40 to 49 0 0 Bachelor’s, 50 to 75 0 0 Master’s, all ages 58000 58000 Master’s, 29 and younger 45000 0 Master’s, 30 to 39 55000 50000 Master’s, 40 to 49 67000 0 Master’s, 50 to 75 65000 63000 Doctorate, all ages 72000 85000 Doctorate, 29 and younger 0 0 Doctorate, 30 to 39 68000 60000 Doctorate, 40 to 49 72000 80000 Doctorate, 50 to 75 80000 99000 Median annual salary of scientists and engineers employed full time as social scientists, by highest degree, age and sex (2008). Highest degree, occupation and age Female Male All degrees, all ages 68000 83000 All degrees, 29 and younger 46000 46000 All degrees, 30 to 39 73000 80000 All degrees, 40 to 49 73000 95000 All degrees, 50 to 75 80000 95000 Bachelor’s, all ages 62000 66000 Bachelor’s, 29 and younger 45000 43000 Bachelor’s, 30 to 39 0 65000 Bachelor’s, 40 to 49 0 90000 Bachelor’s, 50 to 75 0 75000 Master’s, all ages 70000 91000 Master’s, 29 and younger 46000 47000 Master’s, 30 to 39 75000 83000 Master’s, 40 to 49 75000 100000 Master’s, 50 to 75 80000 100000 Doctorate, all ages 70000 85000 Doctorate, 29 and younger 65000 0 Doctorate, 30 to 39 64000 68000 Doctorate, 40 to 49 69000 81000 Doctorate, 50 to 75 80000 95000 Median annual salary of scientists and engineers employed full time as engineers, by highest degree, age and sex (2008). Highest degree, occupation and age Female Male All degrees, all ages 77000 90000 All degrees, 29 and younger 61000 62000 All degrees, 30 to 39 78000 84000 All degrees, 40 to 49 90000 96000 All degrees, 50 to 75 97000 100000 Bachelor’s, all ages 72000 85000 Bachelor’s, 29 and younger 60000 60000 Bachelor’s, 30 to 39 75000 80000 Bachelor’s, 40 to 49 83000 93000 Bachelor’s, 50 to 75 94000 95000 Master’s, all ages 81000 96000 Master’s, 29 and younger 65000 70000 Master’s, 30 to 39 80000 90000 Master’s, 40 to 49 98000 104000 Master’s, 50 to 75 100000 102000 Doctorate, all ages 92000 106000 Doctorate, 29 and younger 75000 88000 Doctorate, 30 to 39 82000 95000 Doctorate, 40 to 49 109000 112000 Doctorate, 50 to 75 105000 120000 Median annual salary of scientists and engineers employed full time in S&E related occupations, by highest degree, age and sex (2008). Highest degree, occupation and age Female Male All degrees, all ages 62000 95000 All degrees, 29 and younger 48000 48000 All degrees, 30 to 39 60000 80000 All degrees, 40 to 49 68000 100000 All degrees, 50 to 75 67000 100000 Bachelor’s, all ages 58000 75000 Bachelor’s, 29 and younger 45000 45000 Bachelor’s, 30 to 39 55000 71000 Bachelor’s, 40 to 49 63000 80000 Bachelor’s, 50 to 75 60000 85000 Master’s, all ages 66000 82000 Master’s, 29 and younger 52000 53000 Master’s, 30 to 39 60000 70000 Master’s, 40 to 49 70000 90000 Master’s, 50 to 75 70000 85000 Doctorate, all ages 76000 120000 Doctorate, 29 and younger 0 0 Doctorate, 30 to 39 70000 100000 Doctorate, 40 to 49 85000 120000 Doctorate, 50 to 75 88000 126000 Median annual salary of scientists and engineers employed full time in non-S&E occupations, by highest degree, age and sex (2008). Highest degree, occupation and age Female Male All degrees, all ages 51000 78000 All degrees, 29 and younger 40000 47000 All degrees, 30 to 39 52000 72000 All degrees, 40 to 49 60000 92000 All degrees, 50 to 75 56000 82000 Bachelor’s, all ages 45000 67000 Bachelor’s, 29 and younger 37000 44000 Bachelor’s, 30 to 39 48000 65000 Bachelor’s, 40 to 49 50000 80000 Bachelor’s, 50 to 75 47000 68000 Master’s, all ages 57000 90000 Master’s, 29 and younger 45000 59000 Master’s, 30 to 39 54000 85000 Master’s, 40 to 49 65000 104000 Master’s, 50 to 75 62000 90000 Doctorate, all ages 80000 110000 Doctorate, 29 and younger 70000 0 Doctorate, 30 to 39 74000 80000 Doctorate, 40 to 49 85000 110000 Doctorate, 50 to 75 84000 119000 0 means that data are unavailable. Data source: National Science Foundation Table 9-16 http://www.nsf.gov/statistics/wmpd/2013/tables.cfm

As an aspiring engineer in the early 1970s, Lynne Kiorpes was easy to spot in her undergraduate classes. Among a sea of men, she and a handful of other women made easy targets for a particular professor at Northeastern University in Boston, Massachusetts. On the first day of class, “he looked around and said 'I see women in the classroom. I don't believe women have any business in engineering, and I'm going to personally see to it that you all fail'.”

He wasn't bluffing. All but one of the women in the class ultimately left engineering; Kiorpes went on to major in psychology.

Such blatant sexism is almost unthinkable today, says Kiorpes, now a neuroscientist at New York University. But Kiorpes, who runs several mentoring programmes for female students and postdoctoral fellows, says that subtle bias persists at most universities. And it drives some women out of science careers.

By almost any metric, women have made great gains in closing the scientific gender gap, but female scientists around the world continue to face major challenges. According to the US National Science Foundation, women earn about half the doctorates in science and engineering in the United States but comprise only 21% of full science professors and 5% of full engineering professors. And on average, they earn just 82% of what male scientists make in the United States — even less in Europe.

Scientific leaders say that they continue to struggle with ways to level the playing field and entice more women to enter and stay in science. “We are not drawing from our entire intellectual capital,” says Hannah Valantine, dean of leadership and diversity at the Stanford School of Medicine in California. “We've got to put on the accelerator to evoke social change.”

Free podcast interview Uta Frith and Athene Donald reflect on science careers, families, quotas, biases and stereotypes. You may need a more recent browser or to install the latest version of the Adobe Flash Plugin.

One of the most persistent problems is that a disproportionate fraction of qualified women drop out of science careers in the very early stages (see 'Women in science'). A 2006 survey of chemistry doctoral students by the Royal Society of Chemistry in London, for example, found that more than 70% of first-year female students said that they planned a career in research; by their third year, only 37% had that goal, compared with 59% of males1.

Many experts say that a big factor driving this trend is the lack of role models in the upper divisions of academia, which have been slow to change. The Royal Society of Chemistry has found, for instance, that female chemistry students are more likely than males to express low self-confidence and to report dissatisfaction with mentorship2. Female students “conclude consciously and unconsciously that these careers are not for them because they don't see people like them”, suggests Valantine. “That effect is very, very powerful — this sense of not belonging.”

The attrition continues at later stages. In biology, for example, women comprised 36% of assistant professors and only 27% of tenure candidates in a 2010 study by the US National Research Council3. “We're not talking about a lack of talent here. Part of the story is that women leave earlier. In a sense, they give up on an academic career,” says Curt Rice, vice-president of research and development at the University of Tromsø in Norway, who has studied gender equality in US and European universities.

Family values

Many of the UK chemistry students viewed research as an all-consuming endeavour that was incompatible with raising a family. Meeting the demanding schedule of academic research can seem daunting for both mothers and fathers. But family choices seem to weigh more heavily on the career goals of women.

SOurces: NSF/Ref. 12 (graduate); ref. 4 (postgraduate); NSF/WebCASPAR (early career); Ref. 3/ref. 12

Law professor Mary Ann Mason at the University of California, Berkeley, and her colleagues have found4 that male and female postdocs without children are equally likely to decide against research careers, each leaving at a rate of about 20%. But female postdocs who become parents or plan to have children abandon research careers up to twice as often as men in similar circumstances.

“The plan to have children in the future, or already having them, is responsible for an enormous drop-off in the women who apply for tenure-track jobs,” says Wendy Williams, a psychologist at Cornell University in Ithaca, New York. Furthermore, women who do become faculty members in astronomy, physics and biology tend to have fewer children than their male colleagues — 1.2 versus 1.5, on average — and also have fewer children than they desire5.

In response to these concerns, many universities have taken steps to establish family-friendly policies such as providing child-care assistance and extending tenure clocks for new parents. Shirley Tilghman, president of Princeton University in New Jersey, believes that such initiatives provide crucial support for women, but that other solutions are still needed. “I don't think there's a single obstacle,” she says. “I think there's a whole series of phenomena that add up.”

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At Yale University in New Haven, Connecticut, microbiologist Jo Handelsman is one of many researchers who think that gender discrimination continues to be a significant part of the problem. In a much-talked-about experiment last year6, her team showed that science faculty members of both sexes exhibit unconscious biases against women. Handelsman's group asked 127 professors of biology, chemistry and physics at 6 US universities to evaluate the CVs of two fictitious college students for a job as a laboratory manager. The professors said they would offer the student named Jennifer US$3,730 less per year than the one named John, even though the CVs were identical. The scientists also reported a greater willingness to mentor John than Jennifer. “If you extrapolate that to all the interactions that faculty have with students, it becomes very frightening,” says Handelsman.

Her findings match well with the results of a survey7 done in 2010 by the American Association for the Advancement of Science. Of the 1,300 or so people who responded, 52% of women said that they had encountered gender bias during their careers, compared with just 2% of men.

Still, other concrete evidence of bias is hard to find. Some measures show female scientists outperforming male rivals in landing interviews and job offers early in their careers. The National Research Council study3 showed that women accounted for 19% of the interview pool and received 32% of job offers for tenure-track electrical-engineering positions. Women fared just as well as men in tenure evaluations, but female assistant professors in many disciplines seemed less likely to reach tenure consideration compared with men.

Women face even more daunting odds in Spain. Men are 2.5 times more likely to rise to the rank of full professor than female colleagues with comparable age, experience and publication records8.

Disparities can also be found in grant funding in some countries. In one frequently cited study9, Christine Wennerås and Agnes Wold at the University of Gothenburg in Sweden found in 1997 that female applicants for postdoctoral fellowships had to score 2.5 times higher on an index of publication impact to be judged the same as men.

Several groups, such as the UK Medical Research Council and biomedical research charity the Wellcome Trust, have since investigated their grant programmes and found negligible or very subtle effects of gender10. The Canadian Medical Research Council found no differences in success rate in most of its research grant programmes, but reported lower success rates for women in some training grants11. In the United States, women are slightly more successful than men in obtaining grants from the National Science Foundation, but the trend is reversed for the National Institutes of Health (NIH). The NIH also gives women smaller awards on average (see 'The funding gap').

Information provided to Nature by the NIH through a Freedom of Information Act request indicates that the percentage of women on review panels has improved marginally over the past decade, from 25% in 2003 to 30% in 2012. Those figures roughly parallel the percentage of women applying for and receiving grants in that time.

Pay problems

The inequalities also extend to salaries. In the European Union, female scientists earned on average between 25% and 40% less than male scientists in the public sector in 2006 (ref. 12). Although the average pay gap is smaller in the United States, the disparity is particularly large in physics and astronomy, where women earn 40% less than men.

For young academic scientists, however, those differences may be fading. The National Research Council found an 8% pay gap at the level of full science and engineering professors but no significant differences among junior faculty members3. Some experts argue, however, that the salary gap may reflect other continued trends, such as the fact that a disproportionate share of women move into non-tenure positions or faculty jobs at lower-status universities.

Tilghman says that Princeton and many other universities have grown increasingly conscious of the need to track and rectify gender gaps in salary and other institutional support. “Absolutely, it needs eternal vigilance,” she says. “But we're in a much better place.”