He thought of his own views as “untimely” and called himself “the last anti-political German”. In his hero-worshipping autobiography Ecce Homo, he claimed he was “born posthumously”. Nietzsche scholars and admirers have taken these statements at face value. For them he is a philosopher out of time, wholly detached from the socio-political affairs of his era.

When Friedrich Nietzsche glorifies war, domination, and cruelty, they tell us he is speaking of a “spiritual” struggle, and the merciless suppression of everything that is weak or “resentful” within ourselves. An outspoken critic of German nationalism, Nietzsche was completely at odds, we are told, with the prevalent political ideologies and preoccupations of the day.

But a note in his unpublished papers, known as the Nachlass, casts doubt on these apolitical readings. In a topical entry from 1884, he condemns the emancipatory movements that were transforming Western societies in the 19th century. Nietzsche lists their objects with palpable disdain: women, slaves, workers, “the sick and the corrupt”. The fragment leaves little doubt that its author considers the emancipation of these groups a disastrous mistake bound to exacerbate the “levelling of European man” and the decay of contemporary European culture.

Nietzsche blames the modern demand for democratisation on the rhetoric of the Enlightenment, and especially on the “seductive” concept of universal human goodness propounded by Jean-Jacques Rousseau. He holds Rousseau’s moral fanaticism responsible not just for the French Revolution, but for virtually all the egalitarian and humanitarian politics since then.

When he turns to the emancipation of slaves, however, Nietzsche mentions another name: “Mistress Stowe”. He is referring to Harriet Beecher Stowe, the author of the famous anti-slavery novel Uncle Tom’s Cabin, first published in 1852 and translated into German the same year.

Harriet Beecher Stowe’s anti-slavery novel Uncle Tom’s Cabin (1852) represented flawed 19th-century humanitarian and egalitarian ideals to Netzsche

By the time Nietzsche jotted down his anti-emancipatory musings, Uncle Tom’s Cabin had run through no fewer than 50 editions in Germany and prompted countless reviews – almost without exception positive – in German journals and newspapers. In denouncing Beecher Stowe as a deluded follower of Rousseau’s false gospel of man’s natural goodness and equality, Nietzsche was taking a decidedly unpopular position in the political landscape of late 19th-century Germany.

His reference to Beecher Stowe in the 1884 fragment is significant for a number of reasons. To begin with, it reveals his familiarity with the debates about abolitionism in America, which adds an important transatlantic context to his reflections on masters and slaves and his profound, abiding belief in human inequality.

In 1864, at the height of the American Civil War, the 19-year-old Nietzsche submitted a valedictory thesis on the Greek poet Theognis of Megara. Extremely learned and at the same time subtly partisan, it was a sympathetic reconstruction of Theognis’ staunchly aristocratic world view, including his racist, segregationist views on forced labour. Slaves, Nietzsche remarked, hailed from “useless and harmful stock” and belonged to an altogether different and invariably subordinate species. Approvingly he cites Theognis’s “very accurate” poem:

Never do the enslaved go upright

But the crooked necked are ever gnarled

Just as a squill does not bear roses or hyacinths

A slave woman does not bear a free child.

These comments echo the arguments of Southern apologists of slavery like William Harper, who insisted on the inherent physiological and psychological differences between Africans and Europeans. In his Memoir on Slavery, Harper maintained that “the Negro race, from their temperament and capacity” were “peculiarly suited” to hard labour, not least because they were significantly less susceptible to physical pain than white men. Nietzsche was convinced that Africans, whose constitution he believed closely resembled that of “primeval man”, felt less pain than white people, especially the white “cultural elite”. In Daybreak he pondered the possibility of importing Chinese workers to Europe to carry out menial tasks, because their “modes of life and thought” made them suitable “industrious ants”.

Like George Fitzhugh, the South’s preeminent pro-slavery theorist, Nietzsche frequently invoked Ancient Greece to argue that slavery belonged to “the essence of a culture” and that in order for there to be a “fertile soil for the development of art”, the “overwhelming majority” had to be “slavishly subjected” in the service of a “privileged class”.

In stark contrast to most German philhellenists, including his own one-time friend, mentor, and artistic model Richard Wagner, Nietzsche believed that slavery was the sine qua non of the cultural glory that was Greece. Even if it were true that the Greeks had been “ruined because they kept slaves”, he mused, “the opposite is even more certain, that we will be destroyed by the lack of slavery”.

This certainty, however, had become obscured by contemporary liberal notions such as the “dignity of life” and the “dignity of work”. In his unpublished essay on “The Greek State” (1872), Nietzsche tries to do away with these notions. The most salutary lesson to be learnt from the Greeks, he writes, is that “man as such” possesses “neither dignity, nor rights, nor duties” and that work is little more than “a necessary disgrace”, of which one ought to feel “ashamed”.

Modern Slavery in the UK Show all 13 1 /13 Modern Slavery in the UK Modern Slavery in the UK NCA has launched a touring photographic exhibition which aims to portray the signs of slavery and exploitation. Entitled ‘Invisible People’, the exhibition will tour the country as part of the National Crime Agency’s campaign to raise awareness of modern slavery and human trafficking. National Crime Agency Modern Slavery in the UK Child trafficking Child trafficking for sexual exploitation Traffickers use grooming techniques to gain the trust of a child, family or community. The children are recruited, transported and then sold for sex, often returning to their homes immediately afterwards, only to be picked up by the same people again. This is happening here in the UK, to migrant and British-born children. Spot the signs of child trafficking: Often, children won’t be sure which country, city or town they’re in. They may be orphaned or living apart from their family, in unregulated private foster care, or in substandard accommodation. They may possess unaccounted-for money or goods or repeatedly have new, unexplained injuries. National Crime Agency Modern Slavery in the UK Agriculture Some workers in the farming sector, harvesting grains or root vegetables, tending livestock or fruit picking, are being exploited every day in the UK. Victims of this crime in the agricultural sector are often Eastern European men and women, who were promised a job by traffickers, or they could be individuals on the fringes of society, homeless or destitute. Through threats, violence, coercion or forced drug and alcohol dependency, they’re enslaved, working for little or no money, living in squalid conditions having had their identity documents taken from them. Spot the signs of exploitative labour in agriculture: Agricultural slaves often have their wages paid into the same bank account, meaning an illegal gangmaster is likely collecting all their wages. Exploited agriculture workers often don’t have suitable protective equipment, working instead in cheap sports clothing and trainers, and don’t have a different change of clothes from day-to-day. National Crime Agency Modern Slavery in the UK Food processing Polish or Slovakian men are brought to the UK with the offer of employment and, after arrival, gangmasters seize documents, opening multiple bank and utility accounts in their names – but refuse to handover access to the accounts or bank cards. Hours are long and the work is gruelling and dangerous. Workers are abused and are controlled by threats of harm to their families at home. Spot the signs: Those exploited wear inappropriate clothes and often no safety gear – despite working with dangerous and life-threatening equipment. They may often have untreated injuries and be refused medical attention, and will live and work in agricultural outhouses. National Crime Agency Modern Slavery in the UK Construction Labour-intensive sectors like construction, where temporary and irregular work are common, are high-risk sectors for forced labour. With new homes, offices and buildings being constructed or upgraded in great quantity, labour exploitation is the second most common type of modern slavery, after sexual exploitation. Spot the signs of exploitative labour in construction: Exploited workers are often not provided with protective clothing or equipment, and may show signs of abuse or carry old untreated injuries. Slave workers are also likely to work extremely long work hours for six or seven days a week without any leave. Photographer Rory Carnegie, said: “I wanted this image to communicate that despite being forced to live, eat, wash and sleep – where they’re working, in cramped and unhygienic conditions, that there is a human instinct to domesticate. I wanted to show how there is still hope and dignity in the most squalid and difficult of circumstances.” National Crime Agency Modern Slavery in the UK Maritime In the tough maritime industry young men, often Filipino or Indian, Eastern European or African, are promised a better life, but instead find themselves in a cycle of debt and exploitation. Unable to read, they are offered a job, given papers to sign and begin working on a trial-basis, only to be told they have failed and owe money, and have to work more to settle the debt. They may be forced to work for long hours in intense, hazardous and difficult conditions. Photographer Rory Carnegie, said: “In the 80s, Chris Killip published a series of images called In Flagrante, and these images were at the forefront of my mind while composing this shot. I wanted to show the utter desperation of these men - how passed their limit they are. The broken floats and the entire decaying environment around him, I saw as a metaphor for his existence.” Rory Carnegie/National Crime Agency Modern Slavery in the UK Forced prostitution Each year, women from across Eastern Europe and West Africa are lured to the UK by the dream of a better life. Whether by fake migration services or unscrupulous individuals who befriend and then betray them, women fall into a dark spiral of sexual exploitation and forced, unpaid prostitution, unable to escape. Photographer Rory Carnegie, said: “What I really wanted for this image, was to depict how women are used as commodities, the complete control slavery has over them – the helplessness of having to sit and wait for man after man, until no more men arrive. I wanted the image to show how lonely and eventually numbing that experience is, and for that ugliness to be contrasted against the bright blue of the wig – a fancy dress item that we would usually associate with a fun event – but here is used as a disguise, perhaps of her own identity to herself - to further emphasise how unjust the situation is.” NCA Modern Slavery in the UK Cannabis farming The cannabis industry hides a dark secret in the house next door. Gangs bring young boys to the UK from countries like Vietnam and deliver them to a house where, once in, they won’t be able to leave. Forced to tend cannabis plants that fill specially rigged houses, the boys are often locked in and forced to work, sleep and eat in one confined and dirty room. The chemicals used on the cannabis are poisonous, and often victims don’t know where they are or how to get help if they do escape. The eyes, ears and compassion of the local community are essential. Spot the signs: Aside from the strong and prolonged smell of cannabis, have you noticed a house that looks unusual? Are the windows covered or usual entry points blocked? Buildings might be over-heated – in very cold weather is the roof without frost, because the house is being kept warm to grow plants National Crime Agency Modern Slavery in the UK Agriculture Some workers in the farming sector, harvesting grains or root vegetables, tending livestock or fruit picking, are being exploited every day in the UK. Victims of this crime in the agricultural sector are often Eastern European men and women, who were promised a job by traffickers, or they could be individuals on the fringes of society, homeless or destitute. Through threats, violence, coercion or forced drug and alcohol dependency, they’re enslaved, working for little or no money, living in squalid conditions having had their identity documents taken from them. Spot the signs of exploitative labour in agriculture: Agricultural slaves often have their wages paid into the same bank account, meaning an illegal gangmaster is likely collecting all their wages. Exploited agriculture workers often don’t have suitable protective equipment, working instead in cheap sports clothing and trainers, and don’t have a different change of clothes from day-to-day National Crime Agency Modern Slavery in the UK Forced prostitution Spot the signs of forced prostitution: Victims of this type of crime might appear withdrawn or scared, avoid eye contact, and be untrusting. Poor English language skills could indicate exploitation because it suggests someone else must be arranging the work. A brothel is likely to be an average house on a normal looking street, but may have curtains which are usually closed and many different men coming and going frequently. National Crime Agency Modern Slavery in the UK Maritime Spot the signs of exploitative labour in the maritime sector: Victims might appear withdrawn or frightened, often unable to answer questions directed at them or speak for themselves,. They might be afraid of authorities like police, immigration or the tax office, and may perceive themselves to be in debt to someone else. They may not have been given proper protective equipment so can suffer illness or injury. Photographer Rory Carnegie, said: “Throughout the series of images, I wanted to juxtapose the harshness of the lives of slaves against bright primary colours – colours we traditionally associate with happiness or a feeling of wellbeing – to provoke a reaction. The image, as rich as it is, communicates how completely uncomfortable this person is. I wanted to show how his body is not his own, and how he has no right to avoid hardship, avoid the ice, or wear better shoes, he is utterly controlled.” Rory Carnegie/National Crime Agency Modern Slavery in the UK Food processing Photographer Rory Carnegie, said: “This image communicates utter exhaustion and dejection. We can see how dire his situation is. He has no protective gear on, and we can see the extreme tiredness that leads him to a place of anxiety and distraction, where he doesn’t care about whether he’s operating machinery safely, or putting himself at risk.” National Crime Agency Modern Slavery in the UK The exhibition comprises a series of large, freestanding cubes displaying images capturing snapshots of life within different types of modern slavery - in agriculture, construction, maritime, cannabis farming and food processing, child trafficking for sexual exploitation and forced prostitution. Each image comes with written commentary describing what the viewer is seeing, and information about signs which may indicate someone is a victim. National Crime Agency

His critique of liberalism here reiterates that of Fitzhugh, who had argued that the free-market economy of the North by no means provided its workers with a more dignified or humane existence than the Southern plantation. Nietzsche, too, sees new forms of dependence and servitude lurking behind the facade of “free labour”. The modern industrial worker has become a mere cog within a “mechanical operation”, a human being reduced to a thing owned by someone else. Capitalism, he observes in Daybreak, amounts to “impersonal enslavement”.

If Nietzsche’s reference to Beecher Stowe highlights the transatlantic context of his ideas, it also underscores their fiercely anti-modern political dimensions. The latter are all too conveniently glossed over by those who hail Nietzsche as a quintessentially modern thinker.

Turning him into an intellectual precursor of the great cultural and philosophical movements of the 20th century, from expressionism and surrealism to existentialism, they have isolated him from his own time, with its very distinctive prejudices and preoccupations. These “gentle Nietzscheans” overlook his passionate opposition to the socio-political values and institutions of modernity, and the counter-revolutionary implications of his revolutionary ideas. Praising him as a champion of (self-) liberation, they ignore the severe restrictions he places on the idea of human emancipation.

A closer look at Nietzsche’s views on slavery would bring these restrictions into focus. Yet in the vast and steadily increasing body of literature on Nietzsche (no other philosopher has attracted more commentaries), there is not a single in-depth study on this topic, even though slavery is a recurrent theme in his writings, from his valedictory thesis to the very late works, completed weeks before his mental collapse in January 1889.

There are more than 300 references to slaves, slavery and similar terms in Nietzsche’s works. The vast majority of these affirm the necessity of human bondage.

In Beyond Good and Evil he wrote: “Every enhancement of the type ‘man’ has so far been the work of an aristocratic society – and it will be so again and again – a society that believes in a long scale of orders of rank and differences in value between man and man, and that needs slavery in some sense or other.”

Throughout his oeuvre, Nietzsche adheres to the view that slavery was, is, and will be needed: for the flowering of Ancient Greek civilisation; for the regeneration of contemporary European culture; for the establishment of a new nobility based on a new social “rank-ordering”; and for the future elevation of “man” into “superman”. Nietzsche consistently formulates his most radical ideas about human flourishing and autonomy in the context of their opposites, what he calls “the danger of servitude” and the “incomplete” humanity of the slave. But slavery, for him, is less a foil to than a condition of human greatness. In The Gay Science, he significantly mentions “subhumans” as the natural attendants of heroes and supermen.

Almost without exception, Nietzsche scholars have either ignored his pro-slavery comments or urged us to read them metaphorically. Political theorists eager to claim him as a champion of radical democracy have tiptoed around them. As a result, one of the most singular features of Nietzsche’s thinking remains virtually unexamined, and we still have to account for his peculiar status as the only modern philosopher to fundamentally reject the principal credo of modernity, namely that all are created equal and have an inalienable right to liberty.

A slave family picking cotton in Georgia in the 1860s. Like many Southern anti-abolitionists, Nietzsche believed Africans were better suited to hard physical labour

The failure of the experts to tackle Nietzsche’s defence of slavery has come at a cost. It has left us with an impoverished understanding of his moral and political philosophy, central concepts of which – “master morality”, “aristocratic radicalism” and “discipline” – are closely tied to his ideas about slavery. It also prevents us from appreciating the full force of his critique of liberalism and socialism, both of which Nietzsche regards as products of the grand Enlightenment narratives of progress and emancipation, or of what he calls the “siren songs ”of “equal rights and a free society”.

Among other things, Nietzsche’s justifications of slavery, notably his advocacy of “natural slavery”, provide us with a new perspective on his conception of human nature and psychology. As he writes in Beyond Good and Evil, slavery is the “prerequisite for spiritual discipline and cultivation”, a “moral imperative of nature” addressed to “peoples, races, ages, and classes – but above all to the whole human animal, to man.”

To read Nietzsche’s reflections on slavery historically does not mean to read them literally. Contextualising them, however, reminds us that slavery in the last third of the 19th century was more than a metaphor for lack of individual sovereignty or self-determination. It was a pressing and very current issue, fraught with political and ideological controversies, notably about the rise of capitalism and the so-called social question, but also about race, empire, and the West’s self-proclaimed “civilising mission”. If we approach Nietzsche’s philosophy in this way, we allow it truly to challenge our liberal, humanist assumptions. That would make his “dangerous thinking” even more dangerous.