There are three classic examples that biblical scholars use to demonstrate the Documentary Hypothesis: the Flood narratives (#14-18), the Joseph story (#72-73), and the crossing of the Red Sea. In fact there are three visible accounts of this story in Exodus 14-15: 1) the original Yahwist account (the Elohist account is no longer wholly visible); 2) the Priestly writer’s account which was later stitched into the Yahwist account; and 3) an old song version now preserved in chapter 15.

The discovery that the Pentateuch was composed of post-Mosaic sources written by different authors at different time periods, and to address the concerns and needs of different audiences, all of which later came to be known as the Documentary Hypothesis, originally rested on the assumption that the Pentateuchal text was a unified narrative written by a single author, which tradition accredited to Moses. This was the traditional “given” or a priori assumption.

Yet the biblical text itself was to make quite a different claim. That is, close attention to the narrative itself, its nuances, inconsistencies, differing styles, vocabulary, and theological emphases largely brought the traditional assumption of Mosaic authorship into question. I’ve outlined the 300 year history of this discovery and the textual data which has supported, and continues to support, this claim in How the Bible was discovered to be a collection of post-Mosaic texts. That’s all I have to say on this topic here.

The reason I bring this up is that we too, in our examination of the crossing of the Red sea narrative, shall start from the assumption that the text is a unified whole, written by a single author. Note that this is a subjective assessment, but I will allow ourselves to start from this assumption in the present example to demonstrate how the text actually negates this assumption. In other words, I’d like to work my readers through the text, slowly and laboriously, showing them how the text itself in this singular case reveals that it is actually three different once separate accounts of the crossing of the Red Sea. This will be a lengthy post and in many regards is a miniature of the aims of this site as a whole. I’ll leave it up for 3 days—alas, a contradiction per day! Still true to my word.

Step 1: Reading the Full Text Closely



We’ll focus our attention on Exodus 14:8-30. Here is the full text. As usual, I use Richard Friedman’s translation. You might want to read it carefully and take notes on what you observe. My notes are at the end of this excerpt.

8And Yahweh strengthened the heart of Pharaoh king of Egypt, and he pursued the children of Israel. And the children of Israel were going out with a high hand. 9And Egypt pursued them. And every chariot horse of Pharaoh and his horsemen and his army caught up to them camping by the sea at Pi-Hahiroth, in front of Baal-Zephon. 10And Pharaoh came close. And the children of Israel raised their eyes, and here was Egypt coming after them, and they were very afraid. And the children of Israel cried out to Yahweh. 11And they said to Moses, “Was it from a lack of no graves in Egypt that you took us to die in the wilderness? What is this that you’ve done to us to bring us out of Egypt? 12Isn’t this the thing that we spoke to you in Egypt, saying ‘Stop! And let’s serve Egypt, because serving Egypt is better for us than dying in the wilderness!'” 13And Moses said to the people: “Don’t be afraid. Stand still and see Yahweh’s salvation that he’ll do for you today! For as you’ve seen Egypt today, you’ll never see them again. 14Yahweh will fight for you, and you’ll keep quiet!” 15And Yahweh said to Moses: “Why do you cry out to me? Speak to the children of Israel that they should move. 16And you, lift your staff and reach your hand out over the sea, and split it! And the children of Israel will come through the sea on dry ground. 17And I am strengthening Egypt’s heart and they will come after them, and I’ll be glorified against Pharaoh and against all his army, his chariots, and his horsemen. 18And Egypt will know that I am Yahweh when I’m glorified against Pharaoh and against his chariots and his horsemen.” 19And the angel of God who was going in front of the camp of Israel moved and went behind them. And the column of cloud went from in front of them and stood behind them. 20And it came between the camp of Egypt and the camp of Israel. And there was the cloud and darkness [for the Egyptians], while the column of fire lit the night [for the Israelites], and one did not come near the other all night. 21And Moses reached his hand out over the sea. And Yahweh drove back the sea with a strong east wind all night and turned the sea into dry ground. And the water was split. 22And the children of Israel came through the sea on dry ground. And the water was a wall to them at their right and at their left. 23And Egypt pursued and came after them, every horse of Pharaoh, his chariots, and his horsemen, through the sea. 24And it was in the morning watch, and Yahweh gazed at Egypt’s camp through a column of fire and cloud and threw Egypt’s camp into tumult 25and turned its chariots’ wheels so that it drove it with heaviness. And Egypt said: “Let me flee from Israel, because Yahweh is fighting for them against Egypt.” 26And Yahweh said to Moses: “Reach your hand out over the sea and the water will go back over Egypt, over his chariots and over his horsemen.” 27And Moses reached his hand out over the sea. And the sea went back to its strong flow toward morning, and Egypt was fleeing toward it. And Yahweh tossed the Egyptians into the sea. 28And the waters went back and covered the chariots and the horsemen, all of Pharaoh’s army who were coming after them in the sea. Not even one of them was left. 29And the children of Israel had gone on the dry ground through the sea, and the water had been a wall to them at their right and at their left. 30And Yahweh saved Israel from Egypt’s hand that day. And Israel saw Egypt dead on the seashore.

Step 2a: Observing and Collecting the Textual Data. Part I: Exodus 14:10-15



The rationale for these markings are given below (wish I could have drawn circles and made lines connecting the words here distinguished by different colors).

10And Pharaoh came close. And the children of Israel raised their eyes, and here was Egypt coming after them, and they were very afraid. And the children of Israel cried out to Yahweh. 11And they said to Moses, “Was it from a lack of no graves in Egypt that you took us to die in the wilderness? What is this that you’ve done to us to bring us out of Egypt? 12Isn’t this the thing that we spoke to you in Egypt, saying ‘Stop! And let’s serve Egypt, because serving Egypt is better for us than dying in the wilderness!'” 13And Moses said to the people: “Don’t be afraid. Stand still! And see Yahweh’s salvation that he’ll do for you today! For as you’ve seen Egypt today, you’ll never see them again. 14Yahweh will fight for you, and you’ll keep quiet!” 15And Yahweh said to Moses: “Why do you cry out to me? Speak to the children of Israel that they should move.

The observable textual data:

The specific theme and vocabulary of the Israelites being “ afraid ” and Moses responding to their fear, “ Don’t be afraid ,” seem to link verses 10b and 13 together. This is reenforced by the criterion of narrative continuity: verses 10b and 13 read as a continuous whole.

And the children of Israel raised their eyes, and here was Egypt coming after them, and they were very afraid. And Moses said to the people: “Do not be afraid. Stand still and see Yahweh’s salvation that he’ll do for you today.” The specific theme and vocabulary of the Israelites “ crying out ” to Yahweh and Yahweh’s response, “Why do you cry out ?” seem to link verses 10c and 15 together. This is reenforced by the criterion of narrative continuity:

And the children of Israel cried out to Yahweh. And Yahweh said to Moses: “Why do you cry out to me? Speak to the children of Israel that they should move.” Separated out, these two thematic responses would seem to solve the fact that the narrative has duplicate responses to the initial crisis: “ And Moses said… ” and “ And Yahweh said… “ Both of these ensembles ( 10b & 13 and 10c & 15 ) not only display different vocabulary but also present contradictory commandments: “Stand still!” and “Move!” Finally, verses 11-12 seem to represent an independent theme, part of the wilderness theme of rebellion, that adds nothing to the present narrative. In fact, it can easily be removed without causing any loss in meaning nor narrative consistency.

I have tried just to note what we observe at the textual level. But tentatively let’s postulate the following textual hypothesis:

10And Pharaoh came close. And the children of Israel raised their eyes, and here was Egypt coming after them, and they were very afraid. And the children of Israel cried out to Yahweh. 11And they said to Moses, “Was it from a lack of no graves in Egypt that you took us to die in the wilderness? What is this that you’ve done to us to bring us out of Egypt? 12Isn’t this the thing that we spoke to you in Egypt, saying ‘Stop! And let’s serve Egypt, because serving Egypt is better for us than dying in the wilderness!'” 13And Moses said to the people: “Don’t be afraid. Stand still! And see Yahweh’s salvation that he’ll do for you today! For as you’ve seen Egypt today, you’ll never see them again. 14Yahweh will fight for you, and you’ll keep quiet!” 15And Yahweh said to Moses: “Why do you cry out to me? Speak to the children of Israel that they should move.

Each colored text reads as a continuous and uninterrupted whole. Let’s momentarily put this aside and look closely at another segment, Exodus 14:13-30.

Step 2b: Observing and Collecting the Textual Data. Part II: Exodus 14:13-30

13And Moses said to the people: “Don’t be afraid. Stand still and see Yahweh’s salvation that he’ll do for you today! For as you’ve seen Egypt today, you’ll never see them again. 14Yahweh will fight for you, and you’ll keep quiet!” 15And Yahweh said to Moses: “Why do you cry out to me? Speak to the children of Israel that they should move. 16And you, lift your staff and reach your hand out over the sea, and split it! And the children of Israel will come through the sea on dry ground (yabbashah). 17And I am strengthening Egypt’s heart and they will come after them, and I’ll be glorified against Pharaoh and against all his army, his chariots, and his horsemen. 18And Egypt will know that I am Yahweh when I’m glorified against Pharaoh and against his chariots and his horsemen.” 19And the angel of God who was going in front of the camp of Israel moved and went behind them. And the column of cloud went from in front of them and stood behind them. 20And it came between the camp of Egypt and the camp of Israel. And there was the cloud and darkness [for the Egyptians], while the column of fire lit the night [for the Israelites], and one did not come near the other all night. 21And Moses reached his hand out over the sea. And Yahweh drove back the sea with a strong east wind all night and turned the sea into dry ground (harabah). And the water was split. 22And the children of Israel came through the sea on dry ground (yabbashah). And the water was a wall to them at their right and at their left. 23And Egypt pursued and came after them, every horse of Pharaoh, his chariots, and his horsemen, through the sea. 24And it was in the morning watch, and Yahweh gazed at Egypt’s camp through a column of fire and cloud and threw Egypt’s camp into tumult 25and turned its chariots’ wheels so that it drove with heaviness. And Egypt said: “Let me flee from Israel, because Yahweh is fighting for them against Egypt.” 26And Yahweh said to Moses: “Reach your hand out over the sea and the water will go back over Egypt, over his chariots and over his horsemen.” 27And Moses reached his hand out over the sea. And the sea went back to its strong flow toward morning, and Egypt was fleeing toward it. And Yahweh tossed the Egyptians into the sea. 28And the waters went back and covered the chariots and the horsemen, all of Pharaoh’s army who were coming after them in the sea. Not even one of them was left. 29And the children of Israel had gone on the dry ground (yabbashah) through the sea, and the water had been a wall to them at their right and at their left. 30And Yahweh saved Israel from Egypt’s hand that day. And Israel saw Egypt dead on the seashore.

First, we should note the inconsistencies in the narrative, reading it under the assumption that it is a single and continuous narrative whole:

Moses reaches out his hand (v. 21a), yet it is Yahweh who drives the sea back with the wind , all night long (presumably Moses holds his hand out all night long too!)

reaches out his hand (v. 21a), yet it is who drives the sea back with the , (presumably Moses holds his hand out all night long too!) the sea is turned into dry ground (Hebrew: harabah , which is different from the earlier, and later, mention of dry ground with the Hebrew yabbashah )

, which is different from the earlier, and later, mention of dry ground with the Hebrew ) the children of Israel pass through on dry ground ( yabbashah ) and the Egyptians pursue on dry ground “through the sea” (v. 23)

) and the on dry ground “through the sea” (v. 23) in the morning Yahweh gazes at the Egyptian camp and throws them into tumult, thus creating a tension with the previous verse where the Egyptians are on the sea bed in pursuit. This verse (24) assumes they are encamped and…

Yahweh gazes at and throws them into tumult, thus creating a tension with the previous verse where the Egyptians are on the sea bed in pursuit. This verse (24) assumes they are encamped and… contrary to verse 23, it is now the Egyptians who flee , since they perceive that Yahweh is fighting for Israel (v. 25)

, since they perceive that for Israel (v. 25) Moses reaches out his hand (v. 27a)

reaches out his hand (v. 27a) the sea goes back to its flow in the morning , where now it is stated that Egypt was heading “toward it” (v. 27b), and not on the sea bed as in verse 23!

to its flow , where now it is stated that Egypt was heading “toward it” (v. 27b), and not on the sea bed as in verse 23! Yahweh tosses the Egyptians into the sea

and the waters go back , a second time!

, a second time! Israel saw Egypt dead on the seashore and saw Yahweh’s salvation . This harkens back to verse 15 where Yahweh commands Israel to Stand still! and see Yahweh’s salvation. What is implied here in verse 30, is that Israel indeed stood still and saw Yahweh’s salvation—that is, they did not move!

Conclusions:

There are 2 accounts about how the sea is turned into dry ground:

1) Moses holds out his hand, rod in hand, and the sea is split exposing its dry ground (yabbashah).



2) Yahweh drives the sea back with the east wind all night long, thereby exposing its dry ground (harabah) in the morning. Here, we have the additional difference in vocabulary, and it is not a coincidence that in the Flood narrative when the Yahwist uses the Hebrew for dry ground it is harabah, and when the Priestly account uses the Hebrew for dry ground it is yabbashah! This attest to different historical eras for each of these terms. Taken together, the chronology implied in 2) means that Moses held out his hand over the sea all night, “until the morning watch.” If 1) and 2) are from two once independent versions, then their stitching together has produced this narrative tension. Likewise there are 2 accounts of how the Egyptians drown:

1) the Egyptians pursue the Israelites through the sea on dry ground, Moses holds out his hand, and the walls of water move back and drown the Egyptians.



2) Yahweh throws the Egyptian camp into a panic and they flee Israel, and blindly (Yahweh’s pillar of cloud) run toward the sea, which Yahweh has returned to its normal flow and they are tossed into it on account of their panic and inability to see the sea. If 1) and 2) are from two once independent accounts, then their stitching together has produced this narrative tension, and doublet. There are 2 contrary accounts of what the Israelites do:

1) They are commanded to move, and do indeed cross the Red sea on dry ground, with the Egyptians in hot pursuit.



2) They are commanded to “Stand still!” and see Yahweh’s salvation, which they do, and the Egyptians are driven into a panic and run into the sea bed which Yahweh had prepared for them. The Israelites remain on the shore and watch Yahweh do his thing (cf. Ex 15:3: “Yahweh is a man of war” and 15:10: “You blew with your wind/breath”) If 1) and 2) are from two once independent accounts, then their stitching together has produced this narrative tension.

In sum, the text itself has revealed that it is a composite of 2 once independent stories about the crossing of the Red sea. Now read them both independently and tell me that they each are not a continuous whole story each on its own terms.

Step 3: Separating the Two Stories, the Two Whole and Continuous Narratives



9And Egypt pursued them. 10bAnd the children of Israel raised their eyes, and here was Egypt coming after them, and they were very afraid. 13And Moses said to the people: “Don’t be afraid. Stand still and see Yahweh’s salvation that he’ll do for you today! For as you’ve seen Egypt today, you’ll never see them again. 14Yahweh will fight for you, and you’ll keep quiet!” 19bAnd the column of cloud went from in front of them and stood behind them. 20bAnd there was the cloud and darkness [for the Egyptians], while the column of fire lit the night [for the Israelites], and one did not come near the other all night. 21bAnd Yahweh drove back the sea with a strong east wind all night and turned the sea into dry ground. 24And it was in the morning watch, and Yahweh gazed at Egypt’s camp through a column of fire and cloud and threw Egypt’s camp into tumult. 25bAnd Egypt said: “Let me flee from Israel, because Yahweh is fighting for them against Egypt.” 27bAnd the sea went back to its strong flow toward morning, and Egypt was fleeing toward it. And Yahweh tossed the Egyptians into the sea. 30And Yahweh saved Israel from Egypt’s hand that day. And Israel saw Egypt dead on the seashore.

8And Yahweh strengthened the heart of Pharaoh king of Egypt, and he pursued the children of Israel. And the children of Israel were going out with a high hand. 9bAnd every chariot horse of Pharaoh and his horsemen and his army caught up to them camping by the sea at Pi-Hahiroth, in front of Baal-Zephon. 10aAnd Pharaoh came close. 10cAnd the children of Israel cried out to Yahweh. 15And Yahweh said to Moses: “Why do you cry out to me? Speak to the children of Israel that they should move. 16And you, lift your staff and reach your hand out over the sea, and split it! And the children of Israel will come through the sea on dry ground. 17And I am strengthening Egypt’s heart and they will come after them, and I’ll be glorified against Pharaoh and against all his army, his chariots, and his horsemen. 18And Egypt will know that I am Yahweh when I’m glorified against Pharaoh and against his chariots and his horsemen.” 21aAnd Moses reached his hand out over the sea. 21cAnd the water was split. 22And the children of Israel came through the sea on dry ground. And the water was a wall to them at their right and at their left. 23And Egypt pursued and came after them, every horse of Pharaoh, his chariots, and his horsemen, through the sea. 26And Yahweh said to Moses: “Reach your hand out over the sea and the water will go back over Egypt, over his chariots and over his horsemen.” 27And Moses reached his hand out over the sea. 28And the waters went back and covered the chariots and the horsemen, all of Pharaoh’s army who were coming after them in the sea. Not even one of them was left. 29And the children of Israel had gone on the dry ground through the sea, and the water had been a wall to them at their right and at their left.

The Sea Green version is from the pen of the Yahwist, and the Blue version is from the Priestly writer. What remains of the Elohist version is in Yellow. A later Redactor stitched these accounts together as follows, giving us the composite account as it now sits in the Bible. Our last section (below) will explore the reasons behind the creation of the Priestly version.

Step 4: The Composite Version, done by a later Redactor

8And Yahweh strengthened the heart of Pharaoh king of Egypt, and he pursued the children of Israel. And the children of Israel were going out with a high hand. 9And Egypt pursued them. And every chariot horse of Pharaoh and his horsemen and his army caught up to them camping by the sea at Pi-Hahiroth, in front of Baal-Zephon. 10And Pharaoh came close. And the children of Israel raised their eyes, and here was Egypt coming after them, and they were very afraid. And the children of Israel cried out to Yahweh. 11And they said to Moses, “Was it from a lack of no graves in Egypt that you took us to die in the wilderness? What is this that you’ve done to us to bring us out of Egypt? 12Isn’t this the thing that we spoke to you in Egypt, saying ‘Stop! And let’s serve Egypt, because serving Egypt is better for us than dying in the wilderness!'” 13And Moses said to the people: “Don’t be afraid. Stand still and see Yahweh’s salvation that he’ll do for you today! For as you’ve seen Egypt today, you’ll never see them again. 14Yahweh will fight for you, and you’ll keep quiet!” 15And Yahweh said to Moses: “Why do you cry out to me? Speak to the children of Israel that they should move. 16And you, lift your staff and reach your hand out over the sea, and split it! And the children of Israel will come through the sea on dry ground. 17And I am strengthening Egypt’s heart and they will come after them, and I’ll be glorified against Pharaoh and against all his army, his chariots, and his horsemen. 18And Egypt will know that I am Yahweh when I’m glorified against Pharaoh and against his chariots and his horsemen.” 19And the angel of God who was going in front of the camp of Israel moved and went behind them. And the column of cloud went from in front of them and stood behind them. 20And it came between the camp of Egypt and the camp of Israel. And there was the cloud and darkness [for the Egyptians], while the column of fire lit the night [for the Israelites], and one did not come near the other all night. 21And Moses reached his hand out over the sea. And Yahweh drove back the sea with a strong east wind all night and turned the sea into dry ground. And the water was split. 22And the children of Israel came through the sea on dry ground. And the water was a wall to them at their right and at their left. 23And Egypt pursued and came after them, every horse of Pharaoh, his chariots, and his horsemen, through the sea. 24And it was in the morning watch, and Yahweh gazed at Egypt’s camp through a column of fire and cloud and threw Egypt’s camp into tumult 25and turned its chariots’ wheels so that it drove it with heaviness. And Egypt said: “Let me flee from Israel, because Yahweh is fighting for them against Egypt.” 26And Yahweh said to Moses: “Reach your hand out over the sea and the water will go back over Egypt, over his chariots and over his horsemen.” 27And Moses reached his hand out over the sea. And the sea went back to its strong flow toward morning, and Egypt was fleeing toward it. And Yahweh tossed the Egyptians into the sea. 28And the waters went back and covered the chariots and the horsemen, all of Pharaoh’s army who were coming after them in the sea. Not even one of them was left. 29And the children of Israel had gone on the dry ground through the sea, and the water had been a wall to them at their right and at their left. 30And Yahweh saved Israel from Egypt’s hand that day. And Israel saw Egypt dead on the seashore.

As is apparent, this was a thought out and clever redaction of these once independent versions. In sum, the biblical text itself tells us, reveals to us, that it was created from different once independent stories of the crossing of the Red sea. It even tells us how these separate stories were combined together. However, the composite text tells us nothing about why they were stitched together and more importantly tells us nothing about why the later Priestly writer rewrote the story. Here we move beyond textual analysis into more speculative areas.

Why Two Versions?

When we look at what the Priestly writer was doing in his rewriting of other Yahwist passages (see particularly Genesis), and we understand a bit about this writer’s beliefs, his ties to the Aaronid cult, his theology, historical era, and audience, we are in a better position to speculate why he felt compelled to rewrite the Yahwist version of the crossing of the Red sea. There is one primary thing (certainly others) which he does, that may have been the reason behind his rewriting.

The Priestly writer eliminates the Yahwist’s anthropomorphic depiction of Yahweh blowing back the sea with the wind. Instead Moses’ arm is used as an extension of the deity’s power and the sea is instantly split rather than implying that Yahweh had to push it back with the wind all night long. In the Priestly version, Yahweh is depicted in non-anthropomorphic terms.

The intention of this new narrative, like other Priestly passages, was to create a new “history” of Israel’s past, an updated version if you like, which addressed better the historical circumstances that the Priestly writer and his audience lived in, and aligned better with the Priestly writer’s own beliefs and wordlview. In all likelihood the Priestly source existed on its own individual scroll and was intended to replace the earlier JE narrative. However, due to an editorial process that started during the exile, it would seem that an attempt was made to preserve all of Israel’s traditions. Thus, in walks our Redactor, who stitched these different texts together. We can also confidently conclude that the Redactor, in his cut-and-paste job of the Yahwist and Priestly versions of the crossing of the Red sea used all the text of both versions. We can conclude this because separated each account reads as a whole continuous story, as we saw above.

The Crossing of the Red Sea: Fact or Fiction according to its Authors?

If the Priestly writer freely and consciously rewrote the crossing of the Red sea and ideally expected his version to replace that of the Yahwist (remember it is only due to a later redactional activity that these two version became stitched together), then did the Priestly writer himself view this as an historical event? If he did, how could he so blatantly have changed its details—that is, at least how it was presented in the earlier Yahwist version? Furthermore, we see, here and in the hundreds of other examples posted on this site, that the Priestly writer’s own ideas, beliefs, theology, conception of Yahweh, etc. inform and shape his narrative. Thus modern readers, Christians predominately, who know nothing about the authors of the Bible’s texts are in no position to even be able to perceive this. But we have seen it here, and in the thousands and thousands of other examples on this site. In other words, the Priestly writer’s beliefs, theology, even ideology informs the “historical” narrative that he is writing. This will be especially visible when we get to the Deuteronomist. Thus, for our biblical writers, faith informs “history” not history informs faith. Hell, we might even say that this author’s faith and theological tenets creates history or the historical narrative! In other words it is historicized theology! And the same holds true for the Yahwist, Elohist, Deuteronomist, and the other 70+ scribes who wrote the texts that later scribes redacted together and even later readers codified together, authenticated as scripture, and marketed as “the Book.” This too the Bible has revealed to us!

This is what I’ve been meaning by the objective study of the Bible. Whether I believe or do not believe the text is historical, true, the word of God, etc. is irrelevant. I won’t even engage in that conversation. It is a subjective conversation and its parameters are defined by its subjects, i.e., readers. This is not what we’re doing here. Our study is defined by the object of study, the biblical text! Studying the text itself leads us to the conclusion that none of these reader-oriented subjective assumptions are valid. Or, the text itself strongly suggests that its authors did not view these stories as history, as true (whatever that means), as the word of God. Remember this is not a conclusion drawn from this one paltry example, but one drawn from literally thousands and thousands! And here is the conversation that we, as a species, must move toward. What if what we’ve been conditioned to believe about the Bible is not supported by the biblical text itself? Where do we go from there?

First, we must be objectively honest to these texts, then grapple with the hows and whys of how we, as a culture, have misunderstood and misconstrued these texts, and what that means about our beliefs, perceptions, and religious ideas. The response that the Bible gives to this question is that we, as a species, have created and continue to create new religious beliefs and recreate God anew. These are done to suit our changing needs, beliefs, concerns, worldviews, etc. Just like the Priestly writer rewrote the Red sea story to have it conform to his own ideas and attitudes about Yahweh—He refashions Yahweh—so too do subsequent generations of readers. In the end, this scribal recreation is authorized by presenting it as an extension of or a reinterpretation of the already existing and authoritative tradition! This whole process is transparent in the objective study of the Bible itself. An new interpretive layer is added, like the Priestly version of the Red sea, and is immediately authenticated as “true” because it presents itself as the very tradition it sought to replace. This is what Christianity has done with the Old Testament, and what modern Christians do with the New Testament—present their new beliefs and conceptions of God as the very tradition that is, in the end, interpreted away. The new interpretive framework replaces the original message of the texts; indeed, it claims to be the original message of the text—just as the title “the Bible” claims to be the voice of these 70+ individual texts but actually drowns them out, and just as the Priestly writer’s Red sea narrative claims to describe the “event” but drowns out the Yahwist’s version and the fact that we actually have 2 or more versions.