Abdel Fattah al-Sisi has been sworn in for a second term as Egyptian president amid a crackdown on his opponents, after a landslide victory in a March election in which all serious opponents had withdrawn.

Key points: Mr Sisi has overseen a crackdown on political opponents, struggled to revive the economy

Mr Sisi has overseen a crackdown on political opponents, struggled to revive the economy According to his supporters, his harsh measures were needed to protect the state

According to his supporters, his harsh measures were needed to protect the state In March, Mr Sisi won 97 per cent of the vote after all serious contenders had withdrawn

Egyptian air force fighter planes drew the Egyptian flag across the sky in red, white and black smoke, while helicopters buzzed over the former military chief's motorcade as he approached parliament early on Saturday.

"I assure you that accepting the other and creating common spaces between us will be my biggest concern to achieve consensus, social peace and real political development in addition to our economic development," Mr Sisi said in a speech after he took the oath.

It was followed by a 21-gun salute in celebration, as lawmakers clapped and cheered.

"I will not exclude anyone from this common space except those who chose violence, terrorism and extremist thought as a way to impose their will," Mr Sisi added during the ceremony, broadcast live on television.

'Zero tolerance for critical voices'

Mr Sisi's main challenger in the March elections was arrested. ( Reuters: The Egyptian Presidency )

Mr Sisi has overseen a crackdown on political opponents and an increasingly bloody battle with Islamic State insurgents in the Sinai peninsula during his first term.

He has also struggled to revive the economy while pushing through tough IMF-backed austerity measures tied to a $12 billion ($16 billion) loan program.

His supporters said his harsh measures are needed to protect the state from turmoil unleashed since protests toppled long-serving autocrat Hosni Mubarak in 2011.

His critics said he has stifled the prospect of democracy, while the economic reforms that include subsidy cuts and tax hikes have pushed up prices and eroded his popularity.

A rise in fares on the Cairo metro last month ignited rare displays of public anger, and more subsidy cuts are on the way, including in fuel and electricity.

The 63-year-old former intelligence chief and defence minister led the overthrow of Mohamed Mursi of the Muslim Brotherhood — Egypt's first freely-elected president — after protests against Mr Mursi's rule in 2013.

Mr Sisi was elected to his first four-year term as president a year later.

Main challenger arrested

In March elections, Mr Sisi won 97 per cent of the vote amid low turnout. ( Supplied: Hamada Elrasam )

The election featured only one other candidate, himself an ardent supporter of Mr Sisi, after all serious opposition contenders halted their campaigns in January.

The main challenger was arrested and his campaign manager beaten up, while other hopefuls also pulled out, citing intimidation.

Since the election, dozens of mostly secular or socialist critics of Mr Sisi have been arrested and are being investigated on charges that include spreading fake news and belonging to illegal or terrorist organisations.

Rights groups said Mr Sisi has muzzled political opponents, activists and critical media, while courts have passed death sentences on hundreds of supporters of the Muslim Brotherhood.

The recent wave of arrests has drawn criticism from the European Union, US Vice-President Mike Pence and international rights organisations.

The latest wave of arrests "shows the state has zero tolerance for critical voices and anyone who was expecting a softening of repression in Sisi's second term was mistaken," Timothy Kaldas, non-resident fellow at the Washington-based Tahrir Institute for Middle East Policy, said.

Reuters