In the Foundation’s engineering roadmap for 2020, we overviewed our plans for Zebra, our Rust implementation of Zcash. Announced last summer at Zcon1, Zebra aims to support the core strength of Zcash – its best-in-class cryptography – by placing it on a solid foundation, providing a modern, modular implementation that can be broken into components and used in many different contexts. In that post, we briefly described the new network stack we designed and implemented for Zebra. As a fork of Bitcoin, Zcash inherited Bitcoin’s network protocol; in this post, we’ll do a deep dive on Zebra’s network stack.

Our new stack is designed around the asynchronous RPC abstractions provided by Tower, which is used in Buoyant’s linkerd, and inspired in turn from Twitter’s Finagle. (Many thanks go to Eliza Weisman for pointing us in the right direction and giving design feedback). It isolates the Bitcoin state machine for each peer connection, exposing only a clean request/response API, and then encapsulates all the peer connections behind a connection pool that can load-balance outbound requests over all available peers. The connection pool is dynamically sized in response to backpressure, automatically crawling the network to find new peers when outbound demand (requests from the node to the network) is high, and closing existing connections to shed load when inbound demand (requests from the network to the node) is high.

Bitcoin’s Legacy Network Protocol

Zcash was originally a fork of Bitcoin, adding fully private transactions implemented using zero-knowledge proofs. As the first ever production-scale deployment of zk-SNARKs, it’s understandable that its original development was focused on bringing zk-SNARKs to production, rather than redesigning the Bitcoin blockchain. But this meant that Zcash inherited its network protocol from Bitcoin, which in turn inherited it from a poorly-specified C++ codebase written in 2009 by Satoshi before their disappearance.

The Bitcoin network protocol does not specify any concept of requests or responses. Instead, nodes send each other messages, which are processed one at a time and might or might not cause the recipient to generate other messages. Often, those messages can also be sent unsolicited. For instance, node A might send a getblocks message to node B , and node B might “respond” with an inv message advertising inventory to node A , but B ’s inv message is not connected in any way to A ’s getblocks message. Since B can also send A unsolicited inv messages as part of the gossip protocol, both nodes need to maintain complex connection state to understand each other.

In zcashd , all messages are processed one at a time in this 900-line function in main.cpp , and in bitcoind , which has been refactored since zcashd was forked, this is performed by this 1400-line C++ function. Not only is the required connection state enormous, making it very difficult to exhaustively understand and test, it’s also shared between different peer connections.

When thinking about what we wanted our network layer to look like, we knew this was what we didn’t want. An enormous, complex state machine shared between connections is a sure sign of future trouble for maintainability, security, and performance. So what would be the appropriate foundation?

A tower ing Interlude

Tower is a Rust library providing “modular and reusable components for building robust networking clients and servers”, drawing on the ideas of Your Server as a Function. The core building block of Tower is the tower::Service trait, which defines an abstract RPC interface:

pub trait Service < Request > where < Self :: Future as Future > :: Output == Result < Self :: Response , Self :: Error > , { type Response ; type Error ; type Future : Future ; fn poll_ready ( & mut self , cx : & mut Context ) -> Poll < Result < (), Self :: Error >> ; fn call ( & mut self , req : Request ) -> Self :: Future ; }

If you’re already familiar with async Rust, this might make sense. But if you’re not, it’s worth unpacking this code a little bit. First, it defines a trait, which are Rust’s concept of “interfaces”. The Service trait models an asynchronous function from a Request to a Response , and because Rust is statically typed, these type variables are declared as part of the trait definition. A particular implementation of the Service trait declares the concrete types for these variables as part of the implementation.

Next, let’s look at the call method. This takes a mutable reference to the service, &mut self , and a Request , and returns a future whose eventual output will be a Result<Response, Error> , i.e., either a successful response or an error. Because the call method takes a &mut self , a service is allowed to mutate internal state while processing a request.

The key component of this trait, however, is the poll_ready method, used to propagate backpressure. Backpressure is a term used to describe mechanisms for different parts of a software system to perform flow control by communicating about throughput. This blog post has a more detailed explanation, but as a simple example, consider copying data from a fast SSD to a slower HDD. Because data can only be written to the HDD at a slower rate, reading data from the SSD at a faster rate will only mean larger buffers and more resource consumption.

The Service contract requires that callers MUST call poll_ready to determine readiness before calling call . This mechanism allows correct propagation of backpressure information through an entire tree of Service calls.

There is another important benefit of this design. By formalizing an asynchronous function from a Request to a Response as a trait, tower allows writing middleware that transforms Service s in a generic way. For instance, tower::buffer provides a generic wrapper for adding a bounded buffer to any Service ; tower::timeout provides generic request timeouts; tower::retry provides generic retry behaviour with configurable policies; tower-load provides generic load-measurement instrumentation, etc. And, because these are implemented using zero-cost abstractions, the generic middleware adds no runtime cost beyond the cost required to implement their behaviour.

A Request/Response Protocol for Zcash

To make use of these tools and to simplify our internal architecture, we opted to design an internal request/response protocol for communicating with the Zcash network. We model this communication as a duplexed connection, with inbound requests from remote peers to our node on the one hand and outbound requests from various parts of our node to the Zcash network.

This choice simplifies our internal architecture, because each part of the code that needs to obtain data from the network can create an appropriate request and obtain a response future, without having to keep track of any other state. In contrast, zcashd processes all messages in a single function, making it complicated to isolate state. And because our request/response protocol is internally defined, we can evolve it to cleanly factor responsibility between different parts of the code without compatibility issues.

However, Zebra needs to talk to zcashd nodes that communicate using the legacy Bitcoin wire protocol, which is not request/response based. To handle this, we perform per-peer protocol translation between the legacy Bitcoin wire protocol and our internal protocol. At a high level, when we connect to a remote node, we create a Connection object with a per-connection event loop, together with a Client object (implementing the Service trait) that can make requests to that Connection .

The Connection maintains a reference to a Service that handles inbound requests, as well as state determining whether there is currently an outbound request awaiting a response. If there is, it waits for incoming messages from the remote peer, checks if they should be interpreted as a response to the pending request, and if not, interprets them as a request from the remote peer to our node. Otherwise, it waits for either an incoming message from the remote peer or for a request from the corresponding Client .

Each Bitcoin message type corresponds to a variant of an internal Message enum, and we use a Tokio codec to transform a generic AsyncRead + AsyncWrite byte source into a Stream and Sink of Messages . The incoming stream of peer messages is instrumented to fire a timestamp event into a channel that allows non-blocking collection of per-peer last-seen information.

This design ensures that each connection’s message handling state is completely isolated from each other connection’s state. For instance, it is invulnerable to the ping attack, since each connection’s heartbeat messages are fired from independent timers.

It also supports backpressure. The service handling inbound requests from the network to our node handles backpressure by load shedding, causing the connection to close to reduce inbound request load. Outbound requests to the remote peer are sent by its Client handle, which reports backpressure based on whether the Connection has a pending request (plus a small buffer).

Finally, although we have no immediate plans in this direction, on a much longer time horizon, this provides a pathway to gradually sunset the Bitcoin wire protocol in Zcash by stabilizing some part of Zebra’s internal protocol, defining a wire format (e.g., ProtoBufs) for it, and then pushing that protocol across the wire to compatible nodes.

Building a Connection Pool

One downside of the design above is that we lose some throughput communicating with individual peers, because we make requests one at a time and cannot do message pipelining. To compensate, we connect to many peers simultaneously, and provide a connection pool that tracks readiness information of all connections and load-balances outbound requests over ready peers. This connection pool allows us to model “the network” rather than individual peer connections. Our implementation is adapted with Zcash-specific behaviour from a fork of tower-balance , which provides a generic connection pool. As described in that crate’s documentation, it

Distributes requests across inner services using the Power of Two Choices. As described in the Finagle Guide: The algorithm randomly picks two services from the set of ready endpoints and selects the least loaded of the two. By repeatedly using this strategy, we can expect a manageable upper bound on the maximum load of any server. The maximum load variance between any two servers is bound by ln(ln(n)) where n is the number of servers in the cluster.

Note that there are two levels of endpoint selection here: first, whether an endpoint (in our case, a peer connection) is ready, and second, a notion of loading. We use tower-load to wrap every client handle with an load measurement instrument. Currently, we measure its peak exponentially-weighted moving average of response latency to prioritize faster peers.

This design works well for basic requests independent of peer selection, but many requests required for Zcash, e.g., a request for some particular inventory item, can only be made to a subset of connected peers, e.g., the ones that have recently advertised that inventory hash, and other requests require specialized logic (e.g., transaction diffusion). This specialized routing logic can be implemented inside the connection pool, so that it continues to abstract away “the rest of the network” into one endpoint.

The connection pool reports backpressure based on whether it has ready peer connections to service a request. If it does not, in addition to signaling unreadiness to its caller, it also fires a demand signal to a peer crawler task to request additional peers, described in more detail below.

Crawling the Network

The connection pool begins with a set of initial seed peers specified in a config file, and when remote peers handshake with our node, the resulting Client handles are passed through a channel to the connection pool. To find additional peers to connect to, we spawn a task that automatically crawls the network and assembles a set of candidate peers. Crawling begins as soon as the network comes online, and continues periodically while it is live. The candidate set is filtered according to last-seen timestamps and heartbeat intervals to avoid duplicate connections to existing peers without the need for synchronized state.

Unlike zcashd , which maintains a fixed number of outbound connections, we attempt to connect to as many peers as possible, subject to resource limits and backpressure. Increasing the number of peer connections is a double-edged sword: it increases the capacity for outbound requests from our node to the network, but it also increases the demand of inbound requests from the network to our node. We handle backpressure from inbound requests by shedding load, closing the corresponding peer connections and immediately reducing the volume of inbound requests.

Outbound connections are initiated in response to either a demand signal from the connection pool, or a long-running timer. This grows the connection pool gradually over time, or more rapidly in response to spikes in outbound demand.

All of this machinery is completely encapsulated inside of the connection pool, so the entire networking API used by the rest of the node fits on one page. The relationships of the internal components are summarized in this diagram.

Summing Up & Next Steps

This post described our networking stack. Since finishing up its basic architecture at the end of November, we’ve been busy working on a bunch of other fronts, to be described in future blog posts:

implementing structured generation to allow integrating property-based testing throughout the entire codebase, led by Deirdre Connolly;

producing a standalone implementation of RedJubjub signatures, into which we can integrate support for FROST, a round-optimized threshold Schnorr multisignature scheme designed by the Foundation’s own Chelsea Komlo;

working through the Zcash specification, identifying mismatches between the spec and the implementation;

writing careful definitions of core data structures using algebraic datatypes, so that structurally invalid data cannot be represented internally.

We’re excited to share more details on these and other projects on our way to shipping Zebra in time for NU3 activation!