This blog post is adapted from a talk I gave at Strange Loop 2014 with the same title. Watch the video!

When I started Hacker School, I wanted to learn how the Linux kernel works. I’d been using Linux for ten years, but I still didn’t understand very well what my kernel did. While there, I found out that:

the Linux kernel source code isn’t all totally impossible to understand

kernel programming is not just for wizards, it can also be for me!

systems programming is REALLY INTERESTING

I could write toy kernel modules, for fun!

and, most surprisingly of all, all of this stuff was useful.

I hadn’t been doing low level programming at all – I’d written a little bit of C in university, and otherwise had been doing web development and machine learning. But it turned out that my newfound operating systems knowledge helped me solve regular programming tasks more easily.

I also now feel like if I were to be put on Survivor: fix a bug in my kernel’s USB driver, I’d stand a chance of not being immediately kicked off the island.

This is all going to be about Linux, but a lot of the same concepts apply to OS X. We’ll talk about

what even is a kernel?

why bother learning about this stuff?

A few strategies for understanding the Linux kernel better, on your own terms: strace all the things! Read some kernel code! Write a fun kernel module! Write an operating system! Try the Eudyptula challenge Do an internship.



What even is a kernel?

In a few words:

A kernel is a bunch of code that knows how to interact with your hardware.

Linux is mostly written in C, with bit of assembly. Let’s say you go to http://google.com in your browser. That requires typing, sending data over a network, allocating some memory, and maybe writing some cache files. Your kernel has code that

interprets your keypresses every time you press a key

speaks the TCP/IP protocol, for sending information over the network to Google

communicates with your hard drive to write bytes to it

understands how your filesystem is implemented (what do the bytes on the hard drive even mean?!)

gives CPU time to all the different processes that might be running

speaks to your graphics card to display the page

keeps track of all the memory that’s been allocated

and much, much more. All of that code is running all the time you’re using your computer!

This is a lot to handle all at once! The only concept I want to you to understand for the rest of this post is *system calls. System calls are your kernel’s API – regular programs that you write can interact with your computer’s hardware using system calls. A few example system calls:

open opens files

opens files sendto and recvfrom send and receive network data

and send and receive network data write writes to disk

writes to disk chmod changes the permissions of a file

changes the permissions of a file brk and sbrk allocate memory

So when you call the open() function in Python, somewhere down the stack that eventually uses the open system call.

That’s all you need to know about the kernel for now! It’s a bunch of C code that’s running all the time on your computer, and you interact with it using system calls.

Why learn about the Linux kernel, anyway?

There are some obvious reasons: it’s really fun! Not everyone knows about it! Saying you wrote a kernel module for fun is cool!

But there’s a more serious reason: learning about the interface between your operating system and your programs will make you a better programmer. Let’s see how!

Reason 1: strace

Imagine that you’re writing a Python program, and it’s meant to be reading some data from a file /user/bork/awesome.txt . But it’s not working!

A pretty basic question is: is your program even opening the right file? You could start using your regular debugging techniques to investigate (print some things out! use a debugger!). But the amazing thing is that on Linux, the only way to open a file is with the open system call. You can get a list of all of these calls to open (and therefore every file your program has opened) with a tool called strace.

Let’s do a quick example! Let’s imagine I want to know what files Chrome has opened!

$ strace -e open google-chrome [... lots of output omitted ...] open("/home/bork/.config/google-chrome/Consent To Send Stats", O_RDONLY) = 36 open("/proc/meminfo", O_RDONLY|O_CLOEXEC) = 36 open("/etc/opt/chrome/policies/managed/lastpass_policy.json", O_RDONLY) = 36

This is a really powerful tool for observing the behavior for a program that we wouldn’t have if we didn’t understand some basics about system calls. I use strace to:

see if the file I think my program is opening is what it’s really opening (system call: read )

) find out what log file my misbehaving poorly documented program is writing to (though I could also use lsof ) (system call: write )

) (system call: ) spy on what data my program is sending over the network (system calls: sendto and recvfrom )

and ) find out every time my program opens a network connection (system call: socket )

I love strace so much I gave a lightning talk about just strace: Spying on your programs with strace.

Reason 2: /proc

/proc lets you recover your deleted files, and is a great example of how understanding your operating system a little better is an amazing programming tool.

How does it do that? Let’s imagine that we’ve written a program smile.c, and we’re in the middle of running it. But then we accidentally delete the binary!

The PID of that process right now is 8604 . I can find the executable for that process at /proc/8604/exe :

/proc/8604/exe -> /home/bork/work/talks/2014-09-strangeloop/smile (deleted)

It’s (deleted) , but we can still look at it! cat /proc/8604/exe > recovered_smile will recover our executable. Wow.

There’s also a ton of other really useful information about processes in /proc . (like which files they have open – try ls -l/proc/<pid>/fd )

You can find out more with man proc .

Reason 3: ftrace

ftrace is totally different from strace. strace traces system calls and ftrace traces kernel functions.

I honestly haven’t had occasion to do this yet but it is REALLY COOL so I am telling you about it. Imagine that you’re having some problems with TCP, and you’re seeing a lot of TCP retransmits. ftrace can give you information about every time the TCP retransmit function in the kernel is called!

To see how to actually do this, read Brendan Gregg’s post Linux ftrace TCP Retransmit Tracing.

There also appear to be some articles about ftrace on Linux Weekly News!

I dream of one day actually investigating this :)

Reason 4: perf

Your CPU has a whole bunch of different levels of caching (L1! L2!) that can have really significant impacts on performance. perf is a great tool that can tell you

how often the different caches are being used (how many L1 cache misses are there?)

how many CPU cycles your program used (!!)

profiling information (how much time was spent in each function?)

and a whole bunch of other insanely useful performance information.

If you want to know more about awesome CPU cycle tracking, I wrote about it in I can spy on my CPU cycles with perf!.

Convinced yet?

Understanding your operating system better is super useful and will make you a better programmer, even if you write Python. The most useful tools for high-level programming I’ve found strace and /proc . As far as I can tell ftrace and perf are mostly useful for lower-level programming. There’s also tcpdump and lsof and netstat and all kinds of things I won’t go into here.

Now you’re hopefully convinced that learning more about Linux is worth your time. Let’s go over some strategies for understanding Linux better!

Strategy 1: strace all the things!

I mentioned strace before briefly. strace is literally my favorite program in the universe. A great way to get a better sense for what your kernel is doing is – take a simple program that you understand well (like ls ), and run strace on it.

This will show you at what points the program is communicating with your kernel. I took a 13 hour train ride from Montreal to New York once and straced killall and it was REALLY FUN. Let’s try ls !

I ran strace -o out ls to save the output to a file. strace will output a WHOLE BUNCH OF CRAP. It turns out that starting up a program is pretty complicated, and in this case most of the system calls have to do with that. There’s a lot of

opening libraries: open("/lib/x86_64-linux-gnu/libc.so.6", O_RDONLY|O_CLOEXEC)

putting those libraries into memory: mmap(NULL, 2126312, PROT_READ|PROT_EXEC, MAP_PRIVATE|MAP_DENYWRITE, 3, 0) = 0x7faf507fc000

and a bunch of other things I don’t really understand. My main strategy when stracing for fun is to ignore all the crap at the beginning, and just focus on what I understand. It turns out that ls doesn’t need to do a lot!

openat(AT_FDCWD, ".", O_RDONLY|O_NONBLOCK|O_DIRECTORY|O_CLOEXEC) = 3 getdents(3, /* 5 entries */, 32768) = 136 getdents(3, /* 0 entries */, 32768) = 0 close(3) = 0 fstat(1, {st_mode=S_IFCHR|0620, st_rdev=makedev(136, 12), ...}) = 0 mmap(NULL, 4096, PROT_READ|PROT_WRITE, MAP_PRIVATE|MAP_ANONYMOUS, -1, 0) = 0x7faf5104a000 write(1, "giraffe out penguin

", 22) = 22 close(1) = 0 munmap(0x7faf5104a000, 4096) = 0 close(2) = 0 exit_group(0) = ?

This is awesome! Here’s what it needed to do:

Open the current directory: openat(AT_FDCWD, ".", O_RDONLY|O_NONBLOCK|O_DIRECTORY|O_CLOEXEC) Get the contents of that directory: getdents(3, /* 5 entries */, 32768) = 136 . Looks like it was 136 bytes of stuff! Close the directory: close(3) Write the files to standard out: write(1, "giraffe out penguin

", 22) = 22 Close a bunch of things to clean up.

That was really simple, and we already learned a new system call! That mmap in the middle there? No idea what that does. But it’s totally fine! STRACE IS THE BEST.

So! Running strace on random processes and looking up the documentation for system calls you don’t recognize is an easy way to learn a ton!

Warning: Don’t strace processes that you actually need to run efficiently! strace is like putting a huge stopsign in front of your process every time you use a system call, which is all the time. Brendan Gregg has a great post about strace which you should read. Also you should probably read everything he writes.

Strategy 2: Read some kernel code!

Okay, let’s imagine that we’ve gotten interested in getdents (the system call to list the contents of a directory), and we want to understand better what it actually does. There’s this fantastic tool called livegrep that lets you search through kernel code. It’s by Nelson Elhage who is pretty great.

So let’s use it to find the source for getdents , which lists all the entries in a directory! I searched for it using livegrep, and found the source.

On line 211, it calls iterate_dir . So let’s look that up! It’s here. Honestly this code makes no sense to me (maybe res = file->f_op->iterate(file, ctx) is what’s iterating over the directory?).

But it’s neat that we can look at it!

If you want to know about current Linux kernel development, Linux Weekly News is a great resource. For example, here’s an interesting article about the btrfs filesystem!

Strategy 3: Write a fun kernel module!

Kernel modules sound intimidating but they’re actually really approachable! All a kernel module is fundamentally is

An init function to run when the module is loaded A cleanup function to run when the module is unloaded

You load kernel modules with insmod and unload them with rmmod . Here’s a working “Hello world” kernel module!

#include <linux/module.h> // included for all kernel modules #include <linux/kernel.h> // included for KERN_INFO #include <linux/init.h> // included for __init and __exit macros static int __init hello_init(void) { printk(KERN_INFO "WOW I AM A KERNEL HACKERl!!!

"); return 0; // Non-zero return means that the module couldn't be loaded. } static void __exit hello_cleanup(void) { printk(KERN_INFO "I am dead.

"); } module_init(hello_init); module_exit(hello_cleanup);

That’s it! printk writes to the system log, and if you run dmesg , you’ll see what it printed!

Let’s look at another fun kernel module! I gave a talk about kernel hacking at CUSEC in January, and I needed a fun example. My friend Tavish suggested “hey julia! What if you made a kernel module that rick rolls you every time you open a file?” And my awesome partner Kamal said “that sounds like fun!” and inside a weekend he’d totally done it!

You can see the extremely well-commented source here: rickroll.c. Basically what it needs to do when loaded is

find the system call table (it turns out this is not trivial!)

Disable write protection so that we’re actually allowed to modify it (!!)

Save the old open so we can put it back

so we can put it back Replace the open system call with our own rickroll_open system call

That’s it!

Here’s the relevant code:

sys_call_table = find_sys_call_table(); DISABLE_WRITE_PROTECTION; original_sys_open = (void *) sys_call_table[__NR_open]; sys_call_table[__NR_open] = (unsigned long *) rickroll_open; ENABLE_WRITE_PROTECTION; printk(KERN_INFO "Never gonna give you up!

");

The rickroll_open function is also pretty understandable. Here’s a sketch of it, though I’ve left out some important implementation details that you should totally read: rickroll.c

static char *rickroll_filename = "/home/bork/media/music/Rick Astley - Never Gonna Give You Up.mp3"; asmlinkage long rickroll_open(const char __user *filename, int flags, umode_t mode) { if(strcmp(filename + len - 4, ".mp3")) { /* Just pass through to the real sys_open if the extension isn't .mp3 */ return (*original_sys_open)(filename, flags, mode); } else { /* Otherwise we're going to hijack the open */ fd = (*original_sys_open)(rickroll_filename, flags, mode); return fd; } }

SO FUN RIGHT. The source is super well documented and interesting and you should go read it. And if you think “but Kamal must be a kernel hacking wizard! I could never do that!“, it is not so! Kamal is pretty great, but he had never written kernel code before that weekend. I understand that he googled things like “how to hijack system call table linux”. You could do the same!

Kernel modules are an especially nice way to start because writing toy kernel modules plays nicely into writing real kernel modules like hardware drivers. Or you could start out writing drivers right away! Whatever floats your boat :) The reference for learning about writing drivers is called Linux Device Drivers or “LDD3”. The fabulous Jessica McKellar is writing the new version, LDD4.

Strategy 4: Write an operating system!

This sounds really unapproachable! And writing a full-featured operating system from scratch is a ton of work. But the great thing about operating systems is that yours don’t need to be full-featured!

I wrote a small operating system that basically only has a keyboard driver. And doesn’t compile for anyone except me. It was 3 weeks of work, and I learned SO MUCH. There’s a super great wiki with lots of information about making operating system.

A few of the blog posts that I wrote while working on it:

I learned about linkers and bootloaders and interrupts and memory management and how executing a program works and so many more things! And I’ll never finish it, and that’s okay.

Strategy 5: Do the Eudyptula challenge

If you don’t have an infinite number of ideas for hilarious kernel module pranks to play on your friends (I certainly don’t!), the Eudyptula Challenge is specifically built to help you get started with kernel programming, with progressively harder steps. The first one is to just write a “hello world” kernel module, which is pretty straightforward!

They’re pretty strict about the way you send email (helping you practice for the linux kernel mailing list, maybe!). I haven’t tried it myself yet, but Alex Clemmer tells me that it is hard but possible. Try it out!

Strategy 6: Do an internship

If you’re really serious about all this, there are a couple of programs I know of:

Google Summer of Code, for students

The GNOME outreach program for women

The GNOME outreach program for women (OPW) is a great program that provides mentorship and a 3-month paid internship for women who would like to contribute to the Linux kernel. More than 1000 patches from OPW interns and alumni have been accepted into the kernel.

In the application you submit a simple patch to the kernel (!!), and it’s very well documented. You don’t need to be an expert, though you do need to know some C.

You can apply now! The application deadline for the current round is October 31, 2014, and you can find more information on the kernel OPW website.

Resources

To recap, here are a few super useful resources for learning that I’ve mentioned:

You can be a kernel hacker

I’m not a kernel hacker, really. But now when I look at awesome actual kernel hackers like Valerie Aurora or Sarah Sharp, I no longer think that they’re wizards. I now think those are people who worked really hard on becoming better at kernel programming, and did it for a long time! And if I spent a lot of time working on learning more, I could be a kernel hacker too.

And so could you.