So we’ve been notoriously quiet about what the x86 VM will allow in Qtum, beyond just more programming language support. This is basically because the design process is easy to make a mediocre version on, but hard to build a well-optimized, efficient, and easy to use version. So here I won’t dip into the details of the design just yet, but I’d like to announce the goals we have in mind.

Programming Language Support

Of course, programming language support is a great reason to build this x86 VM. I personally would like to make 2018 the year of smart contracts written in Rust. Rust is incredibly efficient, lightweight, and above all, focused on safety and avoidance of programmer mistakes. There is a lot more than just Rust of course though. Bringing easy to use languages like C# or Go is also a goal.

The basic gist of the x86 VM’s power is that you can take pretty much any existing compiler or programming language, and just make some modifications so that it can run on Qtum’s operating system like environment. Almost every compiler out there already has x86 support, so that actual bytecode and architecture support is already there.

Standard Library

One of the common complaints about the EVM is a lack of a standard library. This is not only a developer annoyance, but also is a direct consumer of precious blockchain space. Providing a standard library allows not only for Qtum’s blockchain to be made slimmer and more efficient, but also it allows for these standard library functions to have special internal code, similar to Ethereum’s pre-compiled contracts. This functionality can happen without needing to add special support for a new pre-compiled contract, and then relying on contracts to begin using this special functionality. Instead, contracts can use the same old unoptimized code, and when they call it, that code is opaque and can be optimized at will without needing to make any change to consensus. Optimization of the standard library like this is an implementation detail. However, as the ecosystem’s implementations become efficient, the gas model can be tuned for these functions to make their gas cost reflect their true resource cost.

Additionally, the standard library need not require a fork to extend. Common functions could easily enter the specialized standard library memory space by using the Decentralized Governance Protocol. This mechanism also allows for patching bugs in the standard library, though that power must be especially audited, as smart contracts can come to rely on buggy behavior for proper function. And so, potential upgrades to standard library functions may be only by an opt-in function, or it may not exist at all. Our goal with the DGP is always to keep it conservative and to ensure that even in the case of complete compromise, smart contract logic is unaffected and user’s funds are safe.

Optimized Gas Model

This part is very tricky, and just as a forewarning, we will most likely launch the x86 VM initially with a very simple gas model akin to the EVM. However, because of how much more powerful the ISA and features available in x86 are, there is some fairly straightforward ways to advance this space.

One of the simple but powerful solutions will be not only providing a standard library with common functions used by smart contracts and programs in general. But also there is a fairly straightforward path to making these standard library functions have a human-set cost, rather than requiring for these functions to rely on the simplistic and general gas model used for general computation. So, for example, strlen in the simplistic gas model may require 90 gas per character in the string. However, upon developer inspection, it's discovered strlen is extremely cheap to actually execute on the Qtum VM. So, Qtum's Decentralized Governance Protocol is used to propose a special gas rule for this function. So, now the cost of calling this function might be a flat initial cost of 10 gas, plus 1 gas per character. It is impossible to make a perfectly accurate gas model, so, we want to utilize the DGP mechanism in Qtum in order to make this approximation as optimized and efficient as possible.

Unlocking the Full Power of the AAL

Right now, we tend to pitch the Account Abstraction Layer as “what was necessary to make the EVM work”. However, the AAL has a lot more power hidden in it beyond what was needed to make the EVM work on top of Qtum. Qtum was designed from the start to support multiple virtual machines, and the EVM was just the first one to be supported. That being said, the Account Abstraction Layer is currently limited by what can easily be exposed through the EVM. The x86 VM we are designing will not face such limitations. Some of the powerful things we want to expose because of this:

P2SH (ie, Bitcoin style) multi-sig as a first class citizen, for both sending and receiving payments from smart contracts

Raw transaction script support to send custom transactions to take full advantage of the Script functionality in Qtum

Allowing segwit transactions to contain and execute smart contracts

New Possibilities for Smart Contracts

Using x86 we get the Von Neumman architecture of computing. This means that code is data and vice-versa. This feature, as well as things like hardware/software interrupts allow for potential operating-system like constructs and features to be integrated into a single smart contract with multiple semi-trusted participants. This includes things like cooperative-multitasking, pause and resume execution (ie, resuming execution in a later transaction), and watchdog timers (though instead of “time”, it would work on gas). This also of course includes a direct mechanism of updating contract bytecode without needing to transfer funds and data to a new contract.

The x86 instruction set also includes many specialized functions to control things like specialized permissions for certain code spaces, paging and memory mapping, as well as system calls. It is not expected for Qtum to expose most of these specialized system-level instructions. They greatly complicate the gas model design, and make everything significantly harder to optimize.

However, despite that let-down, there are relatively few things relevant to smart contracts within that set of instructions. There is very little practical need on a public blockchain for having separate ring-0 privileged code and ring-3 unprivileged code within a single smart contract’s code. Where the use cases tend to really be prevalent for these features is in privileged and semi-privileged blockchains. So, when we begin to focus on Qtum’s enterprise side, we will of course revisit this.

First-Class Oracles

In the x86 VM model for transactions, there is no need to call a contract if you know the data you need from that contract. It will be possible to load data directly from the external contract’s storage space. This allows for first-class oracles, where contracts can establish their own ABI and API mechanisms to standardize their storage space. Then, a contract can simply load the storage data directly, with no need to do an expensive call that requires loading the entire contract bytecode, creating a new VM environment, etc. This will finally bring Oracles to be first-class citizens on the blockchain, instead of being limited by the functionality of smart contracts. s

Blockchain Analysis

The large memory space available to x86 as well as it’s efficient set of opcodes for general computation allows for the potential of blockchain analysis that is just a pipe-dream with the EVM. It’s possible to expose full blockchain data for contract analysis. This could allow AI-based smart contracts to automatically monitor the blockchain, potentially functioning as an oracle, in order to allow smart contracts to adjust their own behavior so that they operate as efficiently as possible in the current network conditions. This blockchain data could include full transaction data or statistics computed by the blockchain nodes (in a consensus-critical way). There is little downside to exposing this data since it is fully constant and only results in a few Mb of additional memory usage.

Alternative Data Storage

Currently, the EVM forces everyone to use 32-byte keys that point to 32-byte data. This can be quite painful to manage, especially when considering fragmentation and maintenance of that space. Moreover, there is no great reason for this. So, in the x86 machine we intend to give smart contracts a general purpose key-value store. So, you can store anything from 1 to some large number of bytes as a key, and have it point to an equally variant value. The proposed gas model for this functionality so far basically involves a flat-fee for writing/reading to this database, and then a per-byte rate fee for each byte that needs to be touched. This functionality would of course still be covered under the stateRootHash so that SPV wallets can interact with the smart contracts using this database.

Explicit Dependency Trees

Another, somewhat lofty, goal is to allow for dependency trees for smart contracts to be explicitly declared and enforced. This would be an opt-in function only so that contracts touching unknown smart contracts are still possible. However, for contracts that know exactly what dependencies they will rely on, this allows for these contracts to be executed in parallel in some cases, and thus they may received reduced gas costs, among other benefits. This would be a major scaling advantage for x86 based smart contracts that choose to opt-in to this feature.

Why x86? Why not ARM?

I’ve heard many people ask “why x86? Why not ARM?”. This is a very good question. We think that x86 is the most well understood platform for virtual machines and emulators. There has been decades of collective mindshare put forth into making efficient and secure VMs for x86. If you want to really research this point, look no further than the many questions on Stackoverflow about making the Android emulator operate at a reasonable performance level. Basically, the solution in most cases is to use an x86 virtual machine instead of an ARM one. There are of course some projects out there for ARM VMs that arenï¿½t regarded as terrible, like Qemu and I’m sure others I don’t know about. But the point is that x86 emulation is a known problem with a fairly straightforward solution. The famous Intel Manuals are regarded as some of the most well written and clear documents available for a CPU architecture like this. And there are even some kids in high school that write x86 emulators for fun (haha, that’s me!). The compiler support for ARM is always improving, but it is still no where near on par with x86’s support.

Now, all that being said, x86 is by no means a simple ISA. It’s existed since the 70s with the 8008, and has stayed backwards compatible since the 8088/8086. This really takes a toll on it’s design, and is why there are just a vast amount of opcodes available, including some that are arguably useless and actually execute slower on hardware than if you wrote your code to avoid those instructions. My favorite example of that is the cursed Binary Coded Decimal set of instructions which haven’t been popular since the 80s. However, this is an added complexity that is a few hours of extra work. The benefits to using x86 far outweigh the costs.

ARM is still on our radar though, especially for IoT use cases which typically operate natively on ARM processors. Right now we are focused on x86, but after that, who knows, especially for enterprise and permissioned blockchains.