Sexually Transmitted Diseases Treatment Guidelines, 2015

Please note: An erratum has been published for this article. To view the erratum, please click here.

Prepared by

Kimberly A. Workowski, MD1,2

Gail A. Bolan, MD1

1Division of STD Prevention

National Center for HIV/AIDS, Viral Hepatitis, STD, and TB Prevention

2Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia

Summary

These guidelines for the treatment of persons who have or are at risk for sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) were updated by CDC after consultation with a group of professionals knowledgeable in the field of STDs who met in Atlanta on April 30–May 2, 2013. The information in this report updates the Sexually Transmitted Diseases Treatment Guidelines, 2010 (MMWR Recomm Rep 2010;59 [No. RR–12]). These updated guidelines discuss 1) alternative treatment regimens for Neisseria gonorrhoeae; 2) the use of nucleic acid amplification tests for the diagnosis of trichomoniasis; 3) alternative treatment options for genital warts; 4) the role of Mycoplasma genitalium in urethritis/cervicitis and treatment-related implications; 5) updated HPV vaccine recommendations and counseling messages; 6) the management of persons who are transgender; 7) annual testing for hepatitis C in persons with HIV infection; 8) updated recommendations for diagnostic evaluation of urethritis; and 9) retesting to detect repeat infection. Physicians and other health-care providers can use these guidelines to assist in the prevention and treatment of STDs.

Introduction

The term sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) refers to a variety of clinical syndromes and infections caused by pathogens that can be acquired and transmitted through sexual activity. Physicians and other health-care providers play a critical role in preventing and treating STDs. These guidelines for the treatment of STDs are intended to assist with that effort. Although these guidelines emphasize treatment, prevention strategies and diagnostic recommendations also are discussed.

This document updates CDC's Sexually Transmitted Diseases Treatment Guidelines, 2010 (1). These recommendations should be regarded as a source of clinical guidance rather than prescriptive standards; health-care providers should always consider the clinical circumstances of each person in the context of local disease prevalence. These guidelines are applicable to any patient-care setting that serves persons at risk for STDs, including family-planning clinics, HIV-care clinics, correctional health-care settings, private physicians' offices, Federally Qualified Health Centers (FQHCs), and other primary-care facilities. These guidelines focus on treatment and counseling and do not address other community services and interventions that are essential to STD/HIV prevention efforts.

Methods

These guidelines were developed by CDC staff and an independent workgroup for which members were selected on the basis of their expertise in the clinical management of STDs. Members of the multidisciplinary workgroup included representatives from federal, state, and local health departments; public- and private-sector clinical providers; clinical and basic science researchers; and numerous professional organizations. All workgroup members disclosed potential conflicts of interest; several members of the workgroup acknowledged receiving financial support for clinical research from commercial companies. All potential conflicts of interest are listed at the end of the workgroup member section.

In 2012, CDC staff and workgroup members were charged with identifying key questions regarding treatment and clinical management that were not addressed in the 2010 STD Treatment Guidelines (1). To answer these questions and synthesize new information available since publication of the 2010 Guidelines, workgroup members collaborated with CDC staff to conduct a systematic literature review using an extensive MEDLINE database evidence-based approach (e.g., using published abstracts and peer-reviewed journal articles). These reviews also focused on four principal outcomes of STD therapy for each individual disease or infection: 1) treatment of infection based on microbiologic eradication; 2) alleviation of signs and symptoms; 3) prevention of sequelae; 4) prevention of transmission, including advantages such as cost-effectiveness and other advantages (e.g., single-dose formulations and directly observed therapy) and disadvantages (e.g., side effects) of specific regimens. The outcome of the literature review informed development of background materials, including tables of evidence from peer-reviewed publications summarizing the type of study (e.g., randomized controlled trial or case series), study population and setting, treatments or other interventions, outcome measures assessed, reported findings, and weaknesses and biases in study design and analysis.

In April 2013, the workgroup's research was presented at an in-person meeting of the multidisciplinary workgroup members. Each key question was discussed, and pertinent publications were reviewed in terms of strengths, weaknesses, and relevance. The workgroup evaluated the quality of evidence, provided answers to the key questions, and rated the recommendations based on the United Services Preventive Services Task Forces (USPSTF) modified rating system (http://www.uspreventiveservicestaskforce.org/uspstf/grades.htm). The discussion culminated in a proposal of recommendations to be adopted for consideration by CDC. (More detailed description of the key questions, search terms, and systematic search and review process is available at http://www.cdc.gov/std/tg2015/evidence.htm). Following the April meeting, the literature was searched periodically by CDC staff to identify subsequently published articles warranting consideration by the workgroup either through e-mail or conference calls.

CDC developed draft recommendations based on the workgroup's proposal. To ensure development of evidence-based recommendations, a second independent panel of public health and clinical experts reviewed the draft recommendations. The recommendations for STD screening during pregnancy, cervical cancer screening, and HPV vaccination were developed after CDC staff reviewed the published recommendations from other professional organizations, including the American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists (ACOG), USPSTF, American Cancer Society (ACS), American Society for Colposcopy and Cervical Pathology (ASCCP), and the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP) as part of the initial review process. The sections on hepatitis B virus (HBV) and hepatitis A virus (HAV) infections are based on previously published recommendations (2–4).

Throughout this report, the evidence used as the basis for specific recommendations is discussed briefly. More comprehensive, annotated discussions of such evidence will appear in background papers that will be available in a supplement issue of the journal Clinical Infectious Diseases after publication of these treatment guidelines. When more than one therapeutic regimen is recommended, the recommendations are listed alphabetically unless prioritized based on efficacy, tolerance, or costs. For infections with more than one recommended regimen, listed regimens have similar efficacy and similar rates of intolerance or toxicity unless otherwise specified. Recommended regimens should be used primarily; alternative regimens can be considered in instances of notable drug allergy or other medical contraindications to the recommended regimens.

Clinical Prevention Guidance

The prevention and control of STDs are based on the following five major strategies (5):

accurate risk assessment and education and counseling of persons at risk on ways to avoid STDs through changes in sexual behaviors and use of recommended prevention services;

pre-exposure vaccination of persons at risk for vaccine-preventable STDs;

identification of asymptomatically infected persons and persons with symptoms associated with STDs;

effective diagnosis, treatment, counseling, and follow up of infected persons; and

evaluation, treatment, and counseling of sex partners of persons who are infected with an STD.

STD/HIV Risk Assessment

Primary prevention of STDs includes performing an assessment of behavioral risk (i.e., assessing the sexual behaviors that may place persons at risk for infection) as well as biologic risk (i.e., testing for risk markers for HIV acquisition or transmission). As part of the clinical encounter, health-care providers should routinely obtain sexual histories from their patients and address risk reduction as indicated in this report. Guidance for obtaining a sexual history is available on the CDC Division of STD Prevention resource page (http://www.cdc.gov/std/treatment/resources.htm) and in the curriculum provided by CDC's STD/HIV Prevention Training Centers (http://nnptc.org/clinical-ptcs). Effective interviewing and counseling skills characterized by respect, compassion, and a nonjudgmental attitude toward all patients are essential to obtaining a thorough sexual history and delivering effective prevention messages. Effective techniques for facilitating rapport with patients include the use of 1) open-ended questions (e.g., "Tell me about any new sex partners you've had since your last visit," and "What has your experience with using condoms been like?"); 2) understandable, nonjudgmental language ("Are your sex partners men, women, or both?""Have you ever had a sore or scab on your penis?"); and 3) normalizing language ("Some of my patients have difficulty using a condom with every sex act. How is it for you?"). The "Five P's" approach to obtaining a sexual history is one strategy for eliciting information concerning five key areas of interest (Box 1). For additional information about gaining cultural competency when working with certain populations (e.g., gay, bisexual, or other men who have sex with men [MSM], women who have sex with women [WSW], or transgender men and women) see MSM, WSW, and Transgender Men and Women.

In addition to obtaining a behavioral risk assessment, a comprehensive STD/HIV risk assessment should include STD screening, because STDs are biologic markers of risk, particularly for HIV acquisition and transmission among some MSM. STD screening is an essential and underutilized component of an STD/HIV risk assessment in most clinical settings. Persons seeking treatment or evaluation for a particular STD should be screened for HIV and other STDs as indicated by community prevalence and individual risk factors (see prevention section and sections on chlamydia, gonorrhea, and syphilis). Persons should be informed about all the STDs for which they are being tested and notified about tests for common STDs (e.g., genital herpes and human papillomavirus [HPV]) that are available but not being performed. Efforts should be made to ensure that all persons receive care regardless of individual circumstances (e.g., ability to pay, citizenship or immigration status, language spoken, or specific sex practices).

STD/HIV Prevention Counseling

After obtaining a sexual history from their patients, all providers should encourage risk reduction by providing prevention counseling. Prevention counseling is most effective if provided in a nonjudgmental and empathetic manner appropriate to the patient's culture, language, gender, sexual orientation, age, and developmental level. Prevention counseling for STD/HIV should be offered to all sexually active adolescents and to all adults who have received an STD diagnosis, have had an STD in the past year, or have multiple sexual partners.

USPSTF recommends high-intensity behavioral counseling for all sexually active adolescents and for adults at increased risk for STDs and HIV (6,7). Such interactive counseling, which can be resource intensive, is directed at a person's risk, the situations in which risk occurs, and the use of personalized goal-setting strategies. One such approach, known as client-centered STD/HIV prevention counseling, involves tailoring a discussion of risk reduction to the individual situation. While one large study in STD clinics (Project RESPECT) demonstrated that this approach was associated with lower acquisition of curable STDs (e.g., trichomoniasis, chlamydia, gonorrhea, and syphilis) (8), another study conducted 10 years later in the same settings but different contexts (Project AWARE) did not replicate this result (9). Briefer provider-delivered prevention messages have been shown to be feasible and to decrease subsequent STDs in HIV primary-care settings (10). Other approaches use motivational interviewing to move clients toward achievable risk-reduction goals. Client-centered counseling and motivational interviewing can be used effectively by clinicians and staff trained in these approaches. CDC provides additional information on these and other effective behavioral interventions at http://effectiveinterventions.org. Training in client-centered counseling is available through the CDC STD/HIV National Network of Prevention Training Centers (http://nnptc.org).

In addition to one-on-one STD/HIV prevention counseling, videos and large-group presentations can provide explicit information concerning STDs and reducing disease transmission (e.g., how to use condoms correctly and the importance of routine screening). Group-based strategies have been effective in reducing the occurrence of STDs among persons at risk, including those attending STD clinics (11).

Because the incidence of some STDs, notably syphilis, is higher in persons with HIV infection, the use of client-centered STD counseling for persons with HIV infection continues to be strongly encouraged by public health agencies and other health organizations. A recent federal guideline recommends that clinical and nonclinical providers assess an individual's behavioral and biologic risks for acquiring or transmitting STD and HIV, including having sex without condoms, recent STDs, and partners recently treated for STDs. This guideline also recommends that clinical and nonclinical providers offer or make referral for 1) regular screening for several STDs, 2) onsite STD treatment when indicated, and 3) risk-reduction interventions tailored to the individual's risks (12). Brief risk-reduction counseling delivered by medical providers during HIV primary-care visits coupled with routine STD screening has been shown to reduce STD incidence in persons with HIV infection (10). Several other specific methods have been designed for the HIV care setting (http://effectiveinterventions.org) (13–15).

Prevention Methods

Pre-exposure Vaccination

Pre-exposure vaccination is one of the most effective methods for preventing transmission of human papillomavirus (HPV), HAV, and HBV. HPV vaccination is recommended routinely for boys and girls aged 11 or 12 years and can be administered beginning at 9 years of age. Either bivalent, quadrivalent, or 9-valent HPV vaccine is recommended for females, whereas quadrivalent vaccine or 9-valent vaccine is recommended for males (16) http://www.cdc.gov/vaccines/hcp/acip-recs/vacc-specific/hpv.html. Vaccination is recommended through age 26 years for all females and through age 21 years for all males that have not received any or all of the vaccine doses. For persons with HIV infection and for MSM, vaccination is recommended through age 26 years (16). Further details regarding HPV vaccination are available in another section of this document (see HPV Vaccine), at http://www.cdc.gov/std/hpv, and at http://www.cdc.gov/vaccines/hcp/acip-recs/vacc-specific/hpv.html.

Hepatitis B vaccination is recommended for all unvaccinated, uninfected persons being evaluated or treated for an STD (3,4). In addition, hepatitis A and B vaccines are recommended for MSM, injection-drug users (IDUs), persons with chronic liver disease (CLD), and persons with HIV infection who have not yet been infected with one or both types of hepatitis virus (3,4,17). Details regarding hepatitis A and B vaccination are available at http://www.cdc.gov/hepatitis.

Abstinence and Reduction of Number of Sex Partners

The most reliable way to avoid transmission of STDs is to abstain from oral, vaginal, and anal sex or to be in a long-term, mutually monogamous relationship with a partner known to be uninfected. For persons who are being treated for an STD other than HIV (or whose partners are undergoing treatment), counseling that encourages abstinence from sexual intercourse until completion of the entire course of medication is crucial. A recent trial conducted among women on the effectiveness of counseling messages demonstrated that women whose sexual partners have used condoms may benefit from a hierarchical message that includes condoms, whereas women without such experience might benefit more from an abstinence-only message (18). A more comprehensive discussion of abstinence and other sexual practices than can help persons reduce their risk for STDs is available in Contraceptive Technology, 20th Edition (19).

Male Condoms

When used consistently and correctly, male latex condoms are highly effective in preventing the sexual transmission of HIV infection. In heterosexual HIV serodiscordant relationships (i.e., those involving one infected and one uninfected partner) in which condoms were consistently used, HIV-negative partners were 80% less likely to become infected with HIV compared with persons in similar relationships in which condoms were not used (20,21). Moreover, studies demonstrate that consistent condom use reduces the risk for other STDs, including chlamydia, gonorrhea, and trichomoniasis (22–24). By limiting lower genital tract infections, condoms also might reduce the risk of developing pelvic inflammatory disease (PID) in women (25). In addition, consistent and correct use of latex condoms reduces the risk for HPV infection and HPV-associated diseases, genital herpes, hepatitis B, syphilis, and chancroid when the infected area or site of potential exposure is covered (26–32).

Condoms are regulated as medical devices and are subject to random sampling and testing by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA). Each latex condom manufactured in the United States is tested electronically for holes before packaging. Rate of condom breakage during sexual intercourse and withdrawal is approximately two broken condoms per 100 condoms used in the United States. Rates of breakage and slippage may be slightly higher during anal intercourse (33,34). The failure of condoms to protect against STD or unintended pregnancy usually results from inconsistent or incorrect use rather than condom breakage (35). Users should check the expiration or manufacture date on the box or individual package. Latex condoms should not be used beyond their expiration date or more than 5 years after the manufacturing date. Male condoms made of materials other than latex are available in the United States and can be classified in two general categories: 1) polyurethane and other synthetic and 2) natural membrane.

Polyurethane male condoms provide comparable protection against STDs/HIV and pregnancy to that of latex condoms (19,24). These can be substituted for latex condoms by persons with latex allergy, are generally more resistant to deterioration, and are compatible with use of both oil-based and water-based lubricants. The effectiveness of other synthetic male condoms to prevent sexually transmitted infections has not been extensively studied, and FDA-labeling restricts their recommended use to latex-sensitive or allergic persons. Natural membrane condoms (frequently called "natural skin" condoms or [incorrectly] "lambskin" condoms) are made from lamb cecum and can have pores up to 1,500 nm in diameter. Although these pores do not allow the passage of sperm, they are more than 10 times the diameter of HIV and more than 25 times that of HBV. Moreover, laboratory studies demonstrate that sexual transmission of viruses, including hepatitis B, herpes simplex, and HIV, can occur with natural membrane condoms (19). While natural membrane condoms are recommended for pregnancy prevention, they are not recommended for prevention of STDs and HIV.

Providers should advise that condoms must be used consistently and correctly to be effective in preventing STDs and HIV infection; providing instructions about the correct use of condoms can be useful. Communicating the following recommendations can help ensure that patients use male condoms correctly:

Use a new condom with each sex act (i.e., oral, vaginal, and anal).

Carefully handle the condom to avoid damaging it with fingernails, teeth, or other sharp objects.

Put the condom on after the penis is erect and before any genital, oral, or anal contact with the partner.

Use only water-based lubricants (e.g., K-Y Jelly, Astroglide, AquaLube, and glycerin) with latex condoms. Oil-based lubricants (e.g., petroleum jelly, shortening, mineral oil, massage oils, body lotions, and cooking oil) can weaken latex and should not be used; however, oil-based lubricants can generally be used with synthetic condoms.

Ensure adequate lubrication during vaginal and anal sex, which might require the use of exogenous water-based lubricants.

To prevent the condom from slipping off, hold the condom firmly against the base of the penis during withdrawal, and withdraw while the penis is still erect.

Additional information about male condoms is available at http://www.cdc.gov/condomeffectiveness/index.html.

Female Condoms

Several condoms for females are globally available, including the FC2 Female Condom, Reddy condom, Cupid female condom, and Woman's condom (36). Use of female condoms can provide protection from acquisition and transmission of STDs, although data are limited (36). Although female condoms are more costly compared with male condoms, they offer the advantage of being a female-controlled STD/HIV prevention method, and the newer versions may be acceptable to both men and women. Although the female condom also has been used during receptive anal intercourse, efficacy associated with this practice remains unknown (37). Additional information about the female condom is available at http://www.ashasexualhealth.org/sexual-health/all-about-condoms/female-condoms.

Cervical Diaphragms

In observational studies, diaphragm use has been demonstrated to protect against cervical gonorrhea, chlamydia, and trichomoniasis (38). However, a trial examining the effect of a diaphragm plus lubricant on HIV acquisition among women in Africa showed no additional protective effect when compared with the use of male condoms alone. Likewise, no difference by study arm in the rate of acquisition of chlamydia, gonorrhea, or herpes occurred (39,40). Diaphragms should not be relied on as the sole source of protection against HIV or other STDs.

Topical Microbicides and Spermicides

Nonspecific topical microbicides are ineffective for preventing HIV (41–45). Spermicides containing N-9 might disrupt genital or rectal epithelium and have been associated with an increased risk for HIV infection. Condoms with N-9 are no more effective than condoms without N-9; therefore, N-9 alone or in a condom is not recommended for STD or HIV prevention (41). N-9 use has also been associated with an increased risk for bacterial urinary tract infections in women (46,47). No proven topical antiretroviral agents exist for the prevention of HIV, though trials are underway to evaluate several candidates for vaginal and rectal microbicides using tenofovir and other antiretroviral drugs.

Nonbarrier Contraception, Surgical Sterilization, and Hysterectomy

Contraceptive methods that are not mechanical barriers offer no protection against HIV or other STDs. Sexually active women who use hormonal contraception (i.e., oral contraceptives, patch, ring, implants, injectables, or intrauterine hormonal methods), have nonhormonal intrauterine devices (IUDs), have been surgically sterilized, or have had hysterectomies should be counseled to use condoms to reduce the risk for STDs, including HIV infection. Women who take oral contraceptives and are prescribed certain antimicrobials should be counseled about potential interactions (19).

Whether hormonal contraception raises a woman's risk for acquiring HIV or another STD is unclear. A systematic review of epidemiologic evidence found that most studies showed no association between use of oral contraceptives and HIV acquisition among women. Studies examining the association between progestin-only injectables and HIV acquisition have had mixed results; some studies show a higher risk of acquisition among women using depo-medroxyprogesterone acetate (DMPA), while other studies do not (48). The World Health Organization (WHO) and CDC reviewed the evidence on hormonal contraception and HIV acquisition and concluded that data are insufficient to recommend that women modify their hormonal contraceptive practices, but that women using progestin-only injectables should be strongly advised to also use condoms as an HIV prevention strategy (49,50).

Male Circumcision

Male circumcision reduces the risk for HIV and some STDs in heterosexual men. Three randomized, controlled trials performed in regions of sub-Saharan Africa where generalized HIV epidemics involving predominantly heterosexual transmission were occurring demonstrated that male circumcision reduced the risk for HIV acquisition among men by 50%–60% (51–53). In these trials, circumcision was also protective against other STDs, including high-risk genital HPV infection and genital herpes (54–56). Follow up studies have demonstrated sustained benefit of circumcision for HIV prevention (57) and that the effect is not mediated solely through a reduction in herpes simplex virus type 2 (HSV-2) infection or genital ulcer disease (58).

WHO and the Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS (UNAIDS) have recommended that male circumcision efforts be scaled up as an effective intervention for the prevention of heterosexually acquired HIV infection (59). These organizations also recommend that countries with hyperendemic and generalized HIV epidemics and low prevalence of male circumcision expand access to safe male circumcision services within the context of ensuring universal access to comprehensive HIV prevention, treatment, care, and support. In the United States, the American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) recommends that newborn male circumcision be available to families that desire it, as the benefits of the procedure, including prevention of penile cancers, urinary tract infections, genital ulcer disease, and HIV outweigh the risks (60). ACOG has also endorsed the AAP's policy statement (60). In light of these benefits, the American Urological Association states that male circumcision should be considered an option for risk reduction, among other strategies (61).

No definitive data exist to determine whether male circumcision reduces HIV acquisition in MSM, although one randomized trial is ongoing in China (62). A review found a modest protective effect among men who were the insertive partner for anal intercourse, but the evidence was rated as poor. Further higher quality studies are needed to confirm any potential benefit of male circumcision for this population (62).

Emergency Contraception

Unprotected intercourse exposes women to risks for STDs and unplanned pregnancy. Providers managing such women should offer counseling about the option of emergency contraception (EC) if pregnancy is not desired. The options for EC in the United States include the copper IUD and emergency contraceptive pills (ECPs) (63). ECPs are available in the following formulations: ulipristal acetate in a single dose (30 mg), levonorgestrel in a single dose (1.5 mg) or as a split dose (0.75 mg each taken 12 hours apart), or combined estrogen and progestin (Yuzpe regimen). Some ECPs can be obtained over the counter; ECPs can also be provided through advance prescription or supply from providers (64,65). Emergency insertion of a copper IUD up to 5 days after sex can reduce pregnancy risk by more than 99% (66). ECPs are most efficacious when initiated as soon as possible after unprotected sex but have some efficacy up to 5 days later. ECPs are ineffective (but not harmful) if the woman is already pregnant (67). A 2012 Cochrane review summarized the efficacy, safety, and convenience of various methods of emergency contraception (67). More information about EC is available in the 20th edition of Contraceptive Technology (19) or http://www.arhp.org/topics/emergency-contraception.

Postexposure Prophylaxis for HIV and STD

Guidelines for the use of postexposure prophylaxis (PEP) aimed at preventing HIV infection and other STDs as a result of sexual exposure are discussed in another section of this report (see Sexual Assault and STDs). Genital hygiene methods (e.g., vaginal washing and douching) after sexual exposure are ineffective in protecting against HIV and STDs and might increase the risk for bacterial vaginosis (BV), some STDs, and HIV infection (68).

Antiretroviral Treatment of Persons with HIV Infection to Prevent HIV Infection in Partners

The randomized controlled trial HPTN 052 demonstrated that in HIV serodiscordant, heterosexual couples, HIV antiretroviral therapy in the infected partner decreases the risk for transmission to the uninfected partner by 96% (69). Therefore, antiretroviral therapy not only is beneficial to the health of persons with HIV infection, but also reduces the risk for continued transmission. For these reasons, treatment should be offered to all persons with HIV infection. Detailed guidance for prescribing antiretroviral regimens can be found in the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services' HIV treatment guidelines at http://aidsinfo.nih.gov/guidelines (70).

HSV Treatment of Persons with HIV and HSV Infections to Prevent HIV Infection in Uninfected Partners

Providing HSV treatment to persons co-infected with HIV and HSV has not been demonstrated to be beneficial in reducing HIV acquisition in uninfected partners. A large randomized, controlled trial evaluated 3,408 serodiscordant heterosexual couples enrolled at 14 Africa sites in which the partner with HIV infection was also seropositive for HSV-2. The co-infected partner was randomized to receive either placebo or acyclovir 400-mg twice per day, and the primary outcome was HIV transmission to the uninfected partner. Use of acyclovir had no effect on HIV transmission (71). These findings are consistent with those from a previous trial that found no benefit of acyclovir in preventing HIV-1 acquisition in persons who were seropositive for HSV-2 (72).

Preexposure Prophylaxis for HIV

Certain large, randomized, placebo-controlled trials examining daily oral antiretroviral preexposure prophylaxis (PrEP) with a fixed-dose combination of tenofovir disoproxil fumarate (TDF) and emtricitabine (FTC) have demonstrated safety (73) and a substantial reduction in the rate of HIV acquisition for MSM (74), HIV-discordant heterosexual couples (75), and heterosexual men and women recruited as individuals (76). In addition, one clinical trial involving IDUs (77) and one involving heterosexual HIV-discordant couples (75) demonstrated substantial efficacy and safety of daily oral PrEP with TDF alone when combined with repeated condom provision, sexual risk-reduction counseling, and the diagnosis and treatment of STDs. High adherence to oral PrEP with TDF alone or in a fixed-dose combination with FTC was strongly associated with protection from infection. Data suggest that when administered orally, levels of TDF are lower in vaginal tissue than rectal tissue, potentially explaining why high levels of adherence were needed to yield benefits among women in these trials (78). Despite initial concerns about PrEP fostering antiretroviral resistance among persons who become infected, standard tests employed in these studies detected emergence of resistance only in persons inadvertently started on PrEP during acute HIV infection, not in persons who were initially uninfected but later became infected while taking PrEP medication (79).

The U.S. Public Health Service (USPHS) has issued recommendations on the basis of these trial results and the FDA approval of an indication for the use of TDF/FTC for PrEP. USPHS recommends that clinicians evaluate HIV-negative men and women who are sexually active or injecting illicit drugs and consider PrEP as a prevention option for persons whose sexual or injection behaviors and epidemiologic context place them at substantial risk for acquiring HIV infection. Comprehensive guidance for the use of daily PrEP to reduce the risk for acquiring HIV infection can be found at http://www.cdc.gov/hiv/prevention/research/prep/index.html.

HIV Seroadaptation Strategies

Seroadaptive strategies for HIV prevention have largely originated within communities of MSM. They are predicated on knowledge of self and partner HIV-infection status. One specific seroadaptive practice is serosorting, which includes limiting anal sex without a condom to partners with the same HIV status as their own, or choosing to selectively use condoms only with HIV serodiscordant partners. Another practice among serodiscordant couples is seropositioning, in which the person with HIV infection is the receptive partner for anal intercourse. Observational studies have consistently found that serosorting confers greater risk of HIV infection than consistent condom use, but is lower risk compared with anal intercourse without a condom and without serosorting (80–82). Serosorting practices have been associated with increased risk of STDs including chlamydia and gonorrhea (83,84).

Serosorting is not recommended for the following reasons: 1) too many MSM who have HIV do not know they are infected because they have not been tested for HIV recently, 2) men's assumptions about the HIV status of their partners might be wrong, and 3) some men with HIV infection might not disclose or may misrepresent their HIV status. All of these factors increase the risk that serosorting could lead to HIV infection. Additional information is available at http://www.cdc.gov/msmhealth/serosorting.htm or http://www.who.int/hiv/pub/guidelines/msm_guidelines2011/en.

Retesting After Treatment to Detect Repeat Infections

Retesting several months after diagnosis of chlamydia, gonorrhea, or trichomoniasis can detect repeat infection and potentially can be used to enhance population-based prevention (85,86). Any person who tests positive for chlamydia or gonorrhea, along with women who test positive for trichomonas, should be rescreened 3 months after treatment. Any person who receives a syphilis diagnosis should undergo follow-up serologic syphilis testing per current recommendations (see Syphilis). Further details on retesting can be found in the specific sections on chlamydia, gonorrhea, syphilis, and trichomonas within this report.

Partner Services

The term "partner services" refers to a continuum of clinical evaluation, counseling, diagnostic testing, and treatment designed to increase the number of infected persons brought to treatment and to disrupt transmission networks. This continuum includes efforts undertaken by health departments, medical providers, and patients themselves. The term "public health partner services" refers to efforts by public health departments to identify the sex- and needle-sharing partners of infected persons to assure their medical evaluation and treatment.

Clinicians can provide partner services by counseling infected persons and providing them with written information and medication to give to their partners (if recommended and allowable by state law), directly evaluating and treating sex partners, and cooperating with state and local health departments. Clinicians' efforts to ensure the treatment of a patient's sex partners can reduce the risk for reinfection and potentially diminish transmission of STDs (87). Therefore, clinicians should encourage all persons with STDs to notify their sex partners and urge them to seek medical evaluation and treatment. Timespent counseling patients on the importance of notifying partners is associated with improved notification outcomes (88). When possible, clinicians should advise persons to bring their primary sex partner along with them when returning for treatment and should concurrently treat both persons. Although this approach can be effective for a main partner (89,90), it might not be feasible approach for additional sex partners. Some evidence suggests that providing patients with written information to share with sex partners can increase rates of partner treatment (87).

The types and comprehensiveness of public health partner services and the specific STDs for which they are offered vary by public health agency and the geographic burden of STDs. In most areas of the United States, health departments routinely attempt to provide partner services to all persons with early syphilis (primary, secondary, and early latent syphilis) and persons with a new diagnosis of HIV infection. It is also recommended that health departments provide partner services for persons who might have cephalosporin-resistant gonorrhea. In contrast, relatively few U.S. health departments routinely provide partner services to persons with gonorrhea, chlamydial infection, trichomonas, or other STDs (91). Clinicians should familiarize themselves with public health practices in their area, but in most instances, providers should understand that responsibility for ensuring the treatment of partners of persons with STDs other than syphilis and HIV rests with the diagnosing provider and the patient.

Many health departments now use the internet to notify the sex partners of persons with STDs (92), especially MSM and in cases where no other identifying information is available (http://www.ncsddc.org/Internet_Guidelines). Clinical providers are unlikely to participate directly in internet partner notification. Internet sites allowing patients to send anonymous e-mail or text messages advising partners of their exposure to an STD are operational in some areas; anonymous notification via the internet is considered better than no notification at all and might be an option in some instances. However, because the extent to which these sites affect partner notification and treatment is uncertain, patients should be encouraged either to notify their partners in person or by telephone, personal e-mail, or text message; alternatively, patients can authorize a medical provider or public health professional to do so.

Expedited Partner Therapy

Expedited Partner Therapy (EPT), also termed patient-delivered partner therapy (PDPT), is the clinical practice of treating the sex partners of persons who receive chlamydia or gonorrhea diagnoses by providing medications or prescriptions to the patient. Patients then provide partners with these therapies without the health-care provider having examined the partner (see http://www.cdc.gov/std/ept). Unless prohibited by law or other regulations, medical providers should routinely offer EPT to heterosexual patients with chlamydia or gonorrhea infection when the provider cannot confidently ensure that all of a patient's sex partners from the prior 60 days will be treated. If the patient has not had sex in the 60 days before diagnosis, providers should attempt to treat a patient's most recent sex partner. EPT is legal in most states. However, providers should visit http://www.cdc.gov/std/ept to obtain updated information for their state. Providing patients with appropriately packaged medication is the preferred approach to PDPT because data on the efficacy of PDPT using prescriptions is limited and many persons do not fill the prescriptions given to them by a sex partner. Medication or prescriptions provided for PDPT should be accompanied by treatment instructions, appropriate warnings about taking medications (if the partner is pregnant or has an allergy to the medication), general health counseling, and a statement advising that partners seek medical evaluation for any symptoms of STD, particularly PID.

The evidence supporting PDPT is based on three U.S. clinical trials involving heterosexual men and women with chlamydia or gonorrhea (93–95). All three trials reported that more partners were treated when patients were offered PDPT: two reported statistically significant declines in the rate of reinfection and one observed a lower risk of persistent or recurrent infection that was statistically nonsignificant. A fourth trial in the United Kingdom did not demonstrate a difference in the risk of reinfection or in the numbers of partners treated between persons offered PDPT and those advised to notify their sex partners (96).

U.S. trials and a meta-analysis of PDPT revealed that the magnitude of reduction in reinfection of index case-patients compared with patient referral differed according to the STD and the sex of the index case-patient (87,93–95). However, across trials, reductions in chlamydia prevalence at follow-up were approximately 20%; reductions in gonorrhea at follow-up were approximately 50%. Existing data suggest that PDPT also might have a role in partner management for trichomoniasis; however, no single partner management intervention has been shown to be more effective than any other in reducing trichomoniasis reinfection rates (97,98). No data support use of PDPT in the routine management of patients with syphilis. Data on the use of PDPT for gonorrhea or chlamydial infection among MSM are limited (99,100). Published studies suggest that >5% of MSM without a previous HIV diagnosis have a new diagnosis of HIV infection when evaluated as partners of patients with gonorrhea or chlamydial infection (101,102). As a result, PDPT should not be used routinely in MSM. All persons who receive bacterial STD diagnoses and their sex partners, particularly MSM, should be tested for HIV infection.

Reporting and Confidentiality

The accurate and timely reporting of STDs is integral to public health efforts to assess morbidity trends, allocate limited resources, and assist local health authorities in partner notification and treatment. STD/HIV and acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) cases should be reported in accordance with state and local statutory requirements. Syphilis (including congenital syphilis), gonorrhea, chlamydia, chancroid, HIV infection, and AIDS are reportable diseases in every state. Because the requirements for reporting other STDs differ by state, clinicians should be familiar with the reporting requirements applicable within their jurisdictions.

Reporting can be provider- or laboratory-based or both. Clinicians who are unsure of state and local reporting requirements should seek advice from state or local health department STD programs. STDs and HIV reports are kept strictly confidential. In most jurisdictions, such reports are protected by statute or regulation. Before conducting a follow-up of a positive STD-test result, public health professionals should consult the patient's health-care provider if possible to verify the diagnosis and determine the treatments being received.

Special Populations

Pregnant Women

Intrauterine or perinatally transmitted STDs can have severely debilitating effects on pregnant women, their partners, and their fetuses. All pregnant women and their sex partners should be asked about STDs, counseled about the possibility of perinatal infections, and provided access to screening and treatment, if needed.

Recommendations to screen pregnant women for STDs are based on disease severity and sequelae, prevalence in the population, costs, medico-legal considerations (e.g., state laws), and other factors. The screening recommendations in this report are generally broader (i.e., more pregnant women will be screened for more STDs than would by following other screening recommendations) and are consistent with other CDC guidelines.

Recommended Screening Tests

All pregnant women in the United States should be screened for HIV infection at the first prenatal visit, even if they have been previously tested ( 103 , 104 ). Screening should be conducted after the woman is notified of the need to be screened for HIV as part of the routine panel of prenatal tests, unless she declines (i.e., opt-out screening). For women who decline HIV testing, providers should address their objections, and when appropriate, continue to encourage testing. Women who decline testing because they have had a previous negative HIV test should be informed of the importance of retesting during each pregnancy. Testing pregnant women and treating those who are infected are vital not only to maintain the health of the woman, but to reduce perinatal transmission of HIV through available antiretroviral and obstetrical interventions. Retesting in the third trimester (preferably before 36 weeks' gestation) is recommended for women at high risk for acquiring HIV infection (e.g., women who use illicit drugs, have STDs during pregnancy, have multiple sex partners during pregnancy, live in areas with high HIV prevalence, or have partners with HIV infection). Rapid HIV screening should be performed on any woman in labor who has not been screened for HIV during pregnancy unless she declines. If a rapid HIV test result is positive in these women, antiretroviral prophylaxis should be administered without waiting for the results of the confirmatory test ( 105 ).

, ). Screening should be conducted after the woman is notified of the need to be screened for HIV as part of the routine panel of prenatal tests, unless she declines (i.e., opt-out screening). For women who decline HIV testing, providers should address their objections, and when appropriate, continue to encourage testing. Women who decline testing because they have had a previous negative HIV test should be informed of the importance of retesting during each pregnancy. Testing pregnant women and treating those who are infected are vital not only to maintain the health of the woman, but to reduce perinatal transmission of HIV through available antiretroviral and obstetrical interventions. Retesting in the third trimester (preferably before 36 weeks' gestation) is recommended for women at high risk for acquiring HIV infection (e.g., women who use illicit drugs, have STDs during pregnancy, have multiple sex partners during pregnancy, live in areas with high HIV prevalence, or have partners with HIV infection). Rapid HIV screening should be performed on any woman in labor who has not been screened for HIV during pregnancy unless she declines. If a rapid HIV test result is positive in these women, antiretroviral prophylaxis should be administered without waiting for the results of the confirmatory test ( ). A serologic test for syphilis should be performed for all pregnant women at the first prenatal visit ( 106 ). When access to prenatal care is not optimal, rapid plasma reagin (RPR) card test screening (and treatment, if that test is reactive) should be performed at the time that a pregnancy is confirmed. Women who are at high risk for syphilis or live in areas of high syphilis morbidity should be screened again early in the third trimester (at approximately 28 weeks' gestation) and at delivery. Some states require all women to be screened at delivery. Neonates should not be discharged from the hospital unless the syphilis serologic status of the mother has been determined at least one time during pregnancy and preferably again at delivery if at risk. Any woman who delivers a stillborn infant should be tested for syphilis.

). When access to prenatal care is not optimal, rapid plasma reagin (RPR) card test screening (and treatment, if that test is reactive) should be performed at the time that a pregnancy is confirmed. Women who are at high risk for syphilis or live in areas of high syphilis morbidity should be screened again early in the third trimester (at approximately 28 weeks' gestation) and at delivery. Some states require all women to be screened at delivery. Neonates should not be discharged from the hospital unless the syphilis serologic status of the mother has been determined at least one time during pregnancy and preferably again at delivery if at risk. Any woman who delivers a stillborn infant should be tested for syphilis. All pregnant women should be routinely tested for hepatitis B surface antigen (HBsAg) at the first prenatal visit even if they have been previously vaccinated or tested ( 107 ). Women who were not screened prenatally, those who engage in behaviors that put them at high risk for infection (e.g., having had more than one sex partner in the previous 6 months, evaluation or treatment for an STD, recent or current injection-drug use, and an HBsAg-positive sex partner) and those with clinical hepatitis should be retested at the time of admission to the hospital for delivery. Pregnant women at risk for HBV infection also should be vaccinated. To avoid misinterpreting a transient positive HBsAg result during the 21 days after vaccination, HBsAg testing should be performed before vaccine administration. All laboratories that conduct HBsAg tests should test initially reactive specimens with a licensed neutralizing confirmatory test. When pregnant women are tested for HBsAg at the time of admission for delivery, shortened testing protocols can be used, and initially reactive results should prompt expedited administration of immunoprophylaxis to neonates ( 107 ). Pregnant women who are HBsAg positive should be reported to the local or state health department to ensure that they are entered into a case-management system and that timely and appropriate prophylaxis is provided to their infants. Information concerning the pregnant woman's HBsAg status should be provided to the hospital in which delivery is planned and to the health-care provider who will care for the newborn. In addition, household and sex contacts of women who are HBsAg positive should be vaccinated. Women who are HBsAg positive should be provided with, or referred for, appropriate counseling and medical management.

). Women who were not screened prenatally, those who engage in behaviors that put them at high risk for infection (e.g., having had more than one sex partner in the previous 6 months, evaluation or treatment for an STD, recent or current injection-drug use, and an HBsAg-positive sex partner) and those with clinical hepatitis should be retested at the time of admission to the hospital for delivery. Pregnant women at risk for HBV infection also should be vaccinated. To avoid misinterpreting a transient positive HBsAg result during the 21 days after vaccination, HBsAg testing should be performed before vaccine administration. All laboratories that conduct HBsAg tests should test initially reactive specimens with a licensed neutralizing confirmatory test. When pregnant women are tested for HBsAg at the time of admission for delivery, shortened testing protocols can be used, and initially reactive results should prompt expedited administration of immunoprophylaxis to neonates ( ). Pregnant women who are HBsAg positive should be reported to the local or state health department to ensure that they are entered into a case-management system and that timely and appropriate prophylaxis is provided to their infants. Information concerning the pregnant woman's HBsAg status should be provided to the hospital in which delivery is planned and to the health-care provider who will care for the newborn. In addition, household and sex contacts of women who are HBsAg positive should be vaccinated. Women who are HBsAg positive should be provided with, or referred for, appropriate counseling and medical management. All pregnant women aged <25 years and older women at increased risk for infection (e.g., those who have a new sex partner, more than one sex partner, a sex partner with concurrent partners, or a sex partner who has a sexually transmitted infection) should be routinely screened for Chlamydia trachomatis at the first prenatal visit ( 108 ). Women aged <25 years and those at increased risk for chlamydia also should be retested during the third trimester to prevent maternal postnatal complications and chlamydial infection in the neonate. Pregnant women found to have chlamydial infection should have a test-of-cure to document chlamydial eradication (preferably by nucleic acid amplification testing [NAAT]) 3–4 weeks after treatment and then retested within 3 months. Screening during the first trimester might prevent the adverse effects of chlamydia during pregnancy, but evidence for such screening is lacking.

at the first prenatal visit ( ). Women aged <25 years and those at increased risk for chlamydia also should be retested during the third trimester to prevent maternal postnatal complications and chlamydial infection in the neonate. Pregnant women found to have chlamydial infection should have a test-of-cure to document chlamydial eradication (preferably by nucleic acid amplification testing [NAAT]) 3–4 weeks after treatment and then retested within 3 months. Screening during the first trimester might prevent the adverse effects of chlamydia during pregnancy, but evidence for such screening is lacking. All pregnant women aged <25 years and older women at increased risk for gonorrhea (e.g., those with a new sex partner, more than one sex partner, a sex partner with concurrent partners, or a sex partner who has a sexually transmitted infection) should be screened for N. gonorrhoeae at the first prenatal visit ( 108 ). Additional risk factors for gonorrhea include inconsistent condom use among persons not in mutually monogamous relationships, previous or coexisting sexually transmitted infection, and exchanging sex for money or drugs. Clinicians should consider the communities they serve and might choose to consult local public health authorities for guidance on identifying groups that are at increased risk. Gonococcal infection, in particular, is concentrated in specific geographic locations and communities. Women found to have gonococcal infection should be treated immediately and retested within 3 months. Pregnant women who remain at high risk for gonococcal infection also should be retested during the third trimester to prevent maternal postnatal complications and gonococcal infection in the neonate.

at the first prenatal visit ( ). Additional risk factors for gonorrhea include inconsistent condom use among persons not in mutually monogamous relationships, previous or coexisting sexually transmitted infection, and exchanging sex for money or drugs. Clinicians should consider the communities they serve and might choose to consult local public health authorities for guidance on identifying groups that are at increased risk. Gonococcal infection, in particular, is concentrated in specific geographic locations and communities. Women found to have gonococcal infection should be treated immediately and retested within 3 months. Pregnant women who remain at high risk for gonococcal infection also should be retested during the third trimester to prevent maternal postnatal complications and gonococcal infection in the neonate. All pregnant women at risk for HCV infection should be screened for hepatitis C antibodies at the first prenatal visit. The most important risk factor for HCV infection is past or current injection drug use ( 109 ). Additional risk factors include having had a blood transfusion before July 1992, receipt of an unregulated tattoo, having been on long-term hemodialysis, intranasal drug use, and other percutaneous exposures. No established treatment regimen exists for pregnant women infected with HCV. However, all women with HCV infection should receive appropriate counseling and supportive care as needed (see Hepatitis C, Prevention). No vaccine is available to prevent HCV transmission.

). Additional risk factors include having had a blood transfusion before July 1992, receipt of an unregulated tattoo, having been on long-term hemodialysis, intranasal drug use, and other percutaneous exposures. No established treatment regimen exists for pregnant women infected with HCV. However, all women with HCV infection should receive appropriate counseling and supportive care as needed (see Hepatitis C, Prevention). No vaccine is available to prevent HCV transmission. Pregnant women should undergo a Papanicolau (Pap) test at the same frequency as nonpregnant women, although recommendations for management of abnormal Pap tests in pregnancy differ (110).

Other Tests

Evidence does not support routine screening for BV in asymptomatic pregnant women at high risk for preterm delivery ( 111 ). Symptomatic women should be evaluated and treated (see Bacterial Vaginosis).

). Symptomatic women should be evaluated and treated (see Bacterial Vaginosis). Evidence does not support routine screening for Trichomonas vaginalis in asymptomatic pregnant women. Women who report symptoms should be evaluated and treated appropriately (see Trichomonas).

in asymptomatic pregnant women. Women who report symptoms should be evaluated and treated appropriately (see Trichomonas). Evidence does not support routine HSV-2 serologic screening among asymptomatic pregnant women. However, type-specific serologic tests might be useful for identifying pregnant women at risk for HSV infection and guiding counseling regarding the risk for acquiring genital herpes during pregnancy. In the absence of lesions during the third trimester, routine serial cultures for HSV are not indicated for women in the third trimester who have a history of recurrent genital herpes.

For a more detailed discussion of STD screening and treatment among pregnant women, refer to the following references: Screening for HIV in Pregnant Women: Systematic Review to Update the 2005 U.S. Preventive Services Task Force Recommendation (103); Screening for HIV: U.S. Preventive Services Task Force Recommendation Statement (104); ACOG/AAP Guidelines for Perinatal Care (112); Rapid HIV Antibody Testing During Labor and Delivery for Women of Unknown HIV Status: A Practical Guide and Model Protocol (113); Viral Hepatitis in Pregnancy (114); Hepatitis B Virus: A Comprehensive Strategy for Eliminating Transmission in the United States — Recommendations of the Immunization Practices Advisory Committee (ACIP) (4); Screening for Chlamydia and Gonorrhea: U.S. Preventive Services Task Force Recommendation Statement (108); Canadian guidelines on sexually transmitted infections (115); USPSTF recommendations for STI screening (116); and Screening for Bacterial Vaginosis in Pregnancy to Prevent Preterm Delivery: U.S. Preventive Services Task Force Recommendation Statement (111).

Adolescents

In the United States, prevalence rates of many sexually acquired infections are highest among adolescents and young adults (117,118). For example, the reported rates of chlamydia and gonorrhea are highest among females during their adolescent and young adult years, and many persons acquire HPV infection at this time.

Persons who initiate sex early in adolescence are at higher risk for STDs, along with adolescents residing in detention facilities, those who use injection drugs, adolescents attending STD clinics, and young men who have sex with men (YMSM). Factors contributing to this increased risk during adolescence include having multiple sexual partners concurrently, having sequential sexual partnerships of limited duration, failing to use barrier protection consistently and correctly, having increased biologic susceptibility to infection, and facing multiple obstacles to accessing health care (118).

All 50 states and the District of Columbia explicitly allow minors to consent for their own health services for STDs. No state requires parental consent for STD care, although some states restrict a minor's ability to provide consent on the basis of age or type of service (i.e., prevention, diagnosis, or treatment only). No state requires that providers notify parents that an adolescent minor has received STD services, except in limited or unusual circumstances. However, many states authorize parental notification of a minor's receipt of STD services, even where the minor can legally provide his or her own consent to the service (http://www.guttmacher.org/statecenter/spibs/spib_OMCL.pdf; http://www.cahl.org/state-minor-consent-laws-a-summary-third-edition). Protecting confidentiality for such care, particularly for adolescents enrolled in private health insurance plans, presents multiple problems. After a claim has been reported, many states mandate that health plans provide a written statement to the beneficiary indicating the service performed, the charges covered, what the insurer allows, and the amount for which the patient is responsible (i.e., explanation of benefit [EOB]) (119). In addition, federal laws obligate notices to beneficiaries when claims are denied, including alerting beneficiaries who need to pay for care until the allowable deductible is reached. For STD detection- and treatment-related care, an EOB or medical bill that is received by a parent might disclose services provided and list STD laboratory tests performed or treatment given.

Despite the high rates of infections documented in the adolescent population, providers frequently fail to inquire about sexual behaviors, assess STD risks, provide risk-reduction counseling, and ultimately, screen for asymptomatic infections during clinical encounters. Discussions concerning sexual behavior should be appropriate for the patient's developmental level and should be aimed at identifying risk behaviors (e.g., multiple partners; unprotected oral, anal, or vaginal sex; and drug-use behaviors). Careful, nonjudgmental, and thorough counseling is particularly vital for adolescents who might not feel comfortable acknowledging their engagement in behaviors that place them at high risk for STDs.

Screening Recommendations

Routine laboratory screening for common STDs is indicated for sexually active adolescents. The following screening recommendations summarize published federal agency and medical professional organizations' clinical guidelines for sexually active adolescents.

Routine screening for C. trachomatis on an annual basis is recommended for all sexually active females aged <25 years ( 108 ). Evidence is insufficient to recommend routine screening for C. trachomatis in sexually active young men based on efficacy and cost-effectiveness. However, screening of sexually active young males should be considered in clinical settings serving populations of young males with a high prevalence of chlamydia (e.g., adolescent clinics, correctional facilities, and STD clinics) and should be offered to YMSM (see Special Populations, MSM) ( 120,121 ).

on an annual basis is recommended for all sexually active females aged <25 years ( ). Evidence is insufficient to recommend routine screening for in sexually active young men based on efficacy and cost-effectiveness. However, screening of sexually active young males should be considered in clinical settings serving populations of young males with a high prevalence of chlamydia (e.g., adolescent clinics, correctional facilities, and STD clinics) and should be offered to YMSM (see Special Populations, MSM) ( ). Routine screening for N. gonorrhoeae on an annual basis is recommended for all sexually active females <25 years of age ( 108 ). Gonococcal infection is concentrated in specific geographic locations and communities. Clinicians should consider the communities they serve and might choose to consult local public health authorities for guidance on identifying groups that are at increased risk. Screening should be offered to YMSM (see MSM section).

on an annual basis is recommended for all sexually active females <25 years of age ( ). Gonococcal infection is concentrated in specific geographic locations and communities. Clinicians should consider the communities they serve and might choose to consult local public health authorities for guidance on identifying groups that are at increased risk. Screening should be offered to YMSM (see MSM section). HIV screening should be discussed and offered to all adolescents. Frequency of repeat screenings of those who are at risk for HIV infection should be based on level of risk ( 122,123 ). Persons who test positive for HIV should receive prevention counseling and referral to care before leaving the testing site.

). Persons who test positive for HIV should receive prevention counseling and referral to care before leaving the testing site. The routine screening of adolescents who are asymptomatic for certain STDs (e.g., syphilis, trichomoniasis, BV, HSV, HPV, HAV, and HBV) is not generally recommended. However, YMSM and pregnant adolescent females should be screened for syphilis.

Guidelines from USPSTF, ACOG, and ACS recommend that cervical cancer screening begin at age 21 years (124–126). This recommendation is based on the low incidence of cervical cancer and limited utility of screening for cervical cancer in adolescents (127).

Primary Prevention Recommendations

Primary prevention and anticipatory guidance to recognize symptoms and behaviors associated with STDs are strategies that can be incorporated into any or all types of health-care visits for adolescents and young adults. The following recommendations for primary prevention of STDs (i.e., vaccination and counseling) are based on published federal agency and medical professional organizations' clinical guidelines for sexually active adolescents and young adults.

The HPV vaccine, bivalent, quadrivalent, or 9-valent, is recommended routinely for females aged 11 and 12 years and can be administered beginning at 9 years of age ( 16 ) http://www.cdc.gov/vaccines/hcp/acip-recs/vacc-specific/hpv.html. Vaccination is also recommended for females aged 13–26 years who have not yet received all doses or completed the vaccine series. The quadrivalent or 9-valent HPV vaccine is recommended routinely for males aged 11 and 12 years and also can be administered beginning at 9 years of age ( 16 ). Vaccination with quadrivalent or the 9-valent HPV vaccine is recommended for males aged 13–21 years who have not yet received all doses or completed the vaccine series, although males aged 22–26 years also can be vaccinated ( 16 ). For persons with HIV infection and for MSM, vaccination is recommended through age 26. HPV vaccination has not been associated with a change in perceptions about risks posed by sexual behavior ( 128 ).

) http://www.cdc.gov/vaccines/hcp/acip-recs/vacc-specific/hpv.html. Vaccination is also recommended for females aged 13–26 years who have not yet received all doses or completed the vaccine series. The quadrivalent or 9-valent HPV vaccine is recommended routinely for males aged 11 and 12 years and also can be administered beginning at 9 years of age ( ). Vaccination with quadrivalent or the 9-valent HPV vaccine is recommended for males aged 13–21 years who have not yet received all doses or completed the vaccine series, although males aged 22–26 years also can be vaccinated ( ). For persons with HIV infection and for MSM, vaccination is recommended through age 26. HPV vaccination has not been associated with a change in perceptions about risks posed by sexual behavior ( ). The HBV vaccination series is recommended for all adolescents and young adults who have not previously received the hepatitis B vaccine ( 3,4 ).

). The HAV vaccination series should be offered to adolescents and young adults who have not previously received the HAV vaccine series.

Information regarding HIV infection, testing, transmission, and implications of infection should be regarded as an essential component of the anticipatory guidance provided to all adolescents and young adults as part of health care ( 122 ).

). Health-care providers who care for adolescents and young adults should integrate sexuality education into clinical practice. Providers should counsel adolescents about the sexual behaviors that are associated with risk for acquiring STDs and educate patients regarding evidence-based prevention strategies, all of which include a discussion about abstinence and other risk-reduction behaviors (e.g., consistent and correct condom use and reduction in the number of sex partners). Interactive counseling approaches, such as high-intensity behavioral counseling (HIBC) and motivational interviewing, are effective STD/HIV prevention strategies. USPSTF recommends high-intensity behavioral counseling for all sexually active adolescents (7) to prevent sexually transmitted infections .* Educational materials (e.g., handouts, pamphlets, and videos) can reinforce office-based educational efforts.

Children

Management of children who have STDs requires close cooperation between clinicians, laboratorians, and child-protection authorities. Official investigations, when indicated, should be initiated promptly. Certain diseases (e.g., gonorrhea, syphilis, and chlamydia), if acquired after the neonatal period, strongly suggest sexual contact. For other diseases (e.g., HPV infections and vaginitis), the association with sexual contact is not as clear (see Sexual Assault and STDs).

Persons in Correctional Facilities

Multiple studies have demonstrated that persons entering correctional facilities have high rates of STDs (including HIV) and viral hepatitis (http://www.cdc.gov/hepatitis/Settings/corrections.htm), especially those aged ≤35 years (118). Incarcerated persons are more likely to have low socioeconomic status, live in urban areas, and be ethnic and racial minorities. Risk behaviors for contracting STDs (e.g., having unprotected sex; having multiple sexual partners; using drugs and alcohol; and engaging in commercial, survival, or coerced sex) are common among incarcerated populations. Before incarceration, many have had limited access to medical care.

Although no comprehensive national guidelines regarding STD care and management have been developed for correctional populations, growing evidence demonstrates the utility of expanded STD screening and treatment services in correctional settings. For example, in jurisdictions with comprehensive, targeted jail screening, more chlamydial infections among females (and males if screened) are detected and subsequently treated in the correctional setting than any other single reporting source (118,129) and might represent the majority of reported cases in certain jurisdictions (130).

Both men and women ≤35 years of age in juvenile and adult detention facilities have been reported to have higher rates of chlamydia (131) and gonorrhea (118) than their nonincarcerated counterparts in the community, and across many studies, rates have been consistently higher among women than men. Syphilis seroprevalence rates, which can indicate previous or current infection, are considerably higher among adult men and women than in adolescents, consistent with the overall national syphilis trends (132). Detection and treatment of early syphilis in correctional facilities might impact rates of transmission (133).

In short-term facilities, including jails and juvenile detention facilities that commonly house entrants for <1 year, up to half of entrants are released back in the community within 48 hours. As a result, treatment completion rates for those screened for STDs and who receive STD diagnoses in short-term facilities might not be optimal. However, because of the mobility of incarcerated populations in and out of the community, the impact of screening in correctional facilities on the prevalence of infections among detainees and subsequent transmission in the community after release might be considerable (134). Moreover, treatment completion rates of ≥95% can be achieved by offering screening at or shortly after intake, facilitating earlier receipt of test results; follow-up of untreated persons can be conducted through public health outreach (130).

Universal screening for chlamydia and gonorrhea in women ≤35 years entering juvenile and adult correctional facilities has been a long-standing recommendation. However, no such recommendation existed for men until 2006, when CDC convened a consultation on male chlamydia screening (121) that resulted in recommendations to screen men <30 years for chlamydia at intake into jails.

Whereas several studies have shown a high prevalence of trichomonas among incarcerated persons, none have demonstrated the impact of trichomonas screening in correctional facilities (135–137). Women who report vaginal discharge should be evaluated and treated appropriately.

Chlamydia and Gonorrhea Screening

Women ≤35 and men <30 years in correctional facilities should be screened for chlamydia and gonorrhea. Chlamydia and gonorrhea screening should be conducted at intake.

Syphilis Screening

Universal screening should be conducted on the basis of the local area and institutional prevalence of early (primary, secondary, and early latent) infectious syphilis. Correctional facilities should stay apprised of syphilis prevalence as it changes over time.

Men Who Have Sex with Men

The term "men who have sex with men" (MSM) describes a heterogeneous group of men who have varied behaviors, identities, and health-care needs (138). Some MSM are at high risk for HIV infection and other viral and bacterial STDs because MSM may practice anal sex, and the rectal mucosa is uniquely susceptible to certain STD pathogens. In addition, multiple sex partners, substance use, and sexual network dynamics of MSM increase risk for HIV and STDs in this population. The frequency of unsafe sexual practices and the reported rates of bacterial STDs and incident HIV infection declined substantially in MSM from the 1980s through the mid-1990s. However, since that time, increased rates of early syphilis (primary, secondary, or early latent), gonorrhea, and chlamydial infection and higher rates of sexual risk behaviors have been documented among MSM in the United States and virtually all industrialized countries.

Approximately two thirds of the cases of primary and secondary syphilis diagnoses in the United States are in MSM, particularly those in ethnic minority groups (118,139,140). Increased syphilis screening in MSM demonstrated a doubling of early syphilis detection; however, 71% of the syphilis diagnoses occurred when the patient sought care for symptoms (141). Acute HIV infection has been associated with a recent or concurrent STD, including syphilis, among men at a municipal STD clinic (142) and in the multisite iPrex study (143), and several studies have demonstrated that early syphilis is associated with HIV infection among MSM (144,145). Factors associated with increases in syphilis among MSM have included substance abuse (e.g., methamphetamine), having multiple anonymous partners, and seeking sex partners through the internet (146,147). One study found that 5.9% of MSM had repeat primary or secondary syphilis infection within 2 years of an initial infection; factors associated with repeat syphilis infection were HIV infection, black race, and having ≥10 recent sexual partners (148). Because of this risk for repeat infection, these data suggest that prevention efforts should include follow up serologic testing.

Gonococcal infection in MSM has been associated with similar risk factors, including having multiple anonymous partners and abuse of substances, particularly crystal methamphetamine (149). Rectal gonococcal rates are increasing among MSM with HIV infection, underscoring the importance of obtaining an accurate, current sexual history and asking about correlates of increased risk (e.g., anonymous sex and substance use) (150). Insertive oral sex has been associated with urethral gonorrhea acquisition (151,152); the prevalence of pharyngeal gonorrhea and pharyngeal chlamydia has been demonstrated to be 7.3% and 2.3%, respectively (153). In a multicity study, rectal gonorrhea and rectal chlamydia prevalence rates among MSM were 5.4% and 8.9%, respectively (154). Rectal gonorrhea and chlamydia infections, especially those that are recurrent, have been associated with increased risk for HIV seroconversion among MSM (155,156). MSM with new HIV infection diagnoses are more likely than HIV-uninfected MSM to receive a diagnosis of asymptomatic gonorrhea (25.9% versus 10.9%, p<0.001) and chlamydia (18.5% vs 7.8%, p<0.001) (157). Thus, rectal gonorrhea and chlamydia screening in MSM might be a cost-effective intervention in certain urban settings (158).

MSM remain at disproportionate risk for HIV acquisition and transmission in the United States, particularly those who are black or Hispanic. Factors that increase the risk for HIV infection in MSM include either receptive or insertive anal sex without a condom, having another STD, having sex with anonymous partners without a condom, and using methamphetamines or drugs that enhance sexual performance (159).

Substantial numbers of MSM remain unaware of their serostatus (up to 44% in one recent survey of young men in minority populations) (160). Unfortunately, many men are not asked about STD-related risks, including the gender of sex partners. Even if gender of sex partners is ascertained, many MSM, including those with HIV infection, are neither asked about risky sexual behaviors nor provided with routine STD testing (especially at anatomic sites of exposure for gonorrhea or chlamydia), often because of the discomfort associated with these discussions (161–163). Clinicians should routinely ask sexually active MSM about symptoms consistent with common STDs, including urethral discharge, dysuria, genital and perianal ulcers, regional lymphadenopathy, skin rash, and anorectal symptoms consistent with proctitis (e.g., discharge and pain on defecation or during anal intercourse) and then perform appropriate diagnostic testing. In addition, providers should offer evidence-based counseling on safer sex using interventions that have been demonstrated to decrease STD incidence in clinical-care settings (10).

Clinicians should be familiar with local resources available to assist MSM with syphilis and HIV partner services as well as HIV linkage and retention in care. In addition, interventions promoting behavior change also might be appropriate. In recent years, medical educational materials have been developed in print (164) and through electronic media (http://www.lgbthealtheducation.org) to increase primary-care provider knowledge and cultural competency regarding the diagnosis and management of STDs and other clinical conditions in the lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender populations. Electronic media is also an important tool for disseminating and collecting information to and from MSM. Because many MSM meet partners online and seek health information from websites, increased use of the internet for STD prevention might be warranted. MSM are amenable to receiving HIV and STD risk-reduction messages online (165) and willing to respond to requests for partner identification from public health authorities through the internet (166).

The following screening tests should be performed at least annually for sexually active MSM, including those with HIV infection.

HIV serology, if HIV status is unknown or negative and the patient himself or his sex partner(s) has had more than one sex partner since most recent HIV test.

Syphilis serology to establish whether persons with reactive tests have untreated syphilis, have partially treated syphilis, are manifesting a slow serologic response to appropriate prior therapy, or are serofast.

A test for urethral infection † with N. gonorrhoeae and C. trachomatis in men who have had insertive intercourse § during the preceding year (testing of the urine using NAAT † is the preferred approach).

with and in men who have had insertive during the preceding year (testing of the urine using NAAT is the preferred approach). A test for rectal infection † with N. gonorrhoeae and C. trachomatis in men who have had receptive anal intercourse § during the preceding year (NAAT of a rectal specimen is the preferred approach).

with and in men who have had receptive anal intercourse during the preceding year (NAAT of a rectal specimen is the preferred approach). A test for pharyngeal infection † with N. gonorrhoeae in men who have had receptive oral intercourse § during the preceding year (NAAT of a pharyngeal specimen is the preferred approach). Testing for C. trachomatis pharyngeal infection is not recommended.

MSM with HIV infection are also at risk for STDs. Data from a study of 557 adults with HIV infection receiving primary care in four U.S. cities demonstrate that 13% had STD at study enrollment, and 7% had incident STD at 6 months; among MSM with HIV infection, STD incidence was 20% (10). Excluding trichomoniasis, 94% of incident STDs were diagnosed in MSM. All MSM with HIV infection entering care should be screened for gonorrhea and chlamydia at appropriate anatomic sites of exposure, as well as for syphilis (17). The frequency of follow-up testing might be dictated by subsequent behavior; screening is recommended annually, at a minimum, to include syphilis serologic testing and chlamydia and gonorrhea screening at exposed anatomic sites (138). STD screening rates in HIV clinics have been suboptimal. In one study involving eight U.S. cities, although syphilis testing was provided to most MSM with HIV infection, <10% were screened for extra-genitourinary gonorrhea or chlamydia, and <20% provided the urine or urethral specimens needed for testing (162). More frequent STD screening (i.e., for syphilis, gonorrhea, and chlamydia) at 3–6-month intervals is indicated for MSM, including those with HIV infection if risk behaviors persist or if they or their sexual partners have multiple partners. Evaluation for HSV-2 infection with type-specific serologic tests also can be considered if infection status is unknown in persons with previously undiagnosed genital tract infection.

HPV infection and HPV-associated conditions (e.g., anogenital warts and anal squamous intraepithelial lesions) are highly prevalent among MSM. The quadrivalent vaccine is recommended routinely for MSM through age 26 years (16,167,168); the efficacy of this vaccine in preventing HPV associated diseases in men aged >26 years is unknown.

Data are insufficient to recommend routine anal-cancer screening with anal cytology in persons with HIV infection or HIV-negative MSM. More evidence is needed concerning the natural history of anal intraepithelial neoplasia, the best screening methods and target populations, safety of and response to treatments, and other programmatic considerations before screening can be routinely recommended. However, some clinical centers perform anal cytology to screen for anal cancer among high-risk populations (e.g., persons with HIV infection and MSM), followed by high-resolution anoscopy for those with abnormal cytologic results (e.g., ASC-US).

All MSM should be tested for HBsAg to detect chronic HBV infection. Prompt identification of chronic infection with HBV is essential to ensure necessary care and services to prevent transmission to others (169). Screening among past or current drug users should include HCV and HBV testing. Vaccination against hepatitis A and B is recommended for all MSM in whom previous infection or vaccination cannot be documented (2,3). Preimmunization serologic testing might be considered to reduce the cost of vaccinating MSM who are already immune to these infections, but this testing should not delay vaccination. Vaccinating persons who are immune to HAV or HBV infection because of previous infection or vaccination does not increase the risk for vaccine-related adverse events (see Hepatitis A and Hepatitis B).

Sexual transmission of HCV can occur, especially among MSM with HIV infection (see Emerging Issues, Hepatitis C). Serologic screening for HCV is recommended at initial evaluation of persons with newly diagnosed HIV infection. Because of accumulating evidence of acute HCV infection acquisition among persons with HIV infection (especially MSM with HIV infection [170–175]) and because regular screening for HCV infection is cost effective (176,177), MSM with HIV infection should be regularly screened for HCV. Screening should be performed at least yearly and more frequently depending on specific circumstances (e.g., local HCV prevalence and incidence, high-risk sexual behavior, and concomitant ulcerative STDs or STD-related proctitis). Screening should be performed using HCV antibody assays followed by HCV RNA testing for those with a positive antibody result (178).

Women Who Have Sex with Women

Women who have sex with women (WSW) are a diverse group with variations in sexual identity, sexual behaviors, sexual practices, and risk behaviors. Recent studies indicate that some WSW, particularly adolescents and young women as well as women with both male and female partners, might be at increased risk for STDs and HIV based on reported risk behaviors (179–183). Certain studies have highlighted the wide diversity of sexual practices and examined use of protective/risk reduction strategies among populations of WSW (184–186). Use of barrier protection with female partners (gloves during digital-genital sex, condoms with sex toys, and latex or plastic barriers [also known as dental dams for oral-genital sex]) was infrequent in all studies. Despite this, few comprehensive and reliable resources of sexual health information for WSW are available (187).

Few data are available on the risk for STDs conferred by sex between women, but transmission risk probably varies by the specific STD and sexual practice (e.g., oral-genital sex; vaginal or anal sex using hands, fingers, or penetrative sex items; and oral-anal sex) (188,189). Practices involving digital-vaginal or digital-anal contact, particularly with shared penetrative sex items, present a possible means for transmission of infected cervicovaginal or anal secretions. This possibility is most directly supported by reports of shared trichomonas infections (190,191) and by concordant drug resistance genotype testing and phylogenetic linkage analysis identifying HIV transmitted sexually between women (192,193). Most self-identified WSW (53%–97%) have had sex with men in the past and might continue this practice, with 5%–28% of WSW reporting male partners within the past year (189,194–196).

HPV, which can be transmitted through skin-to-skin contact, is common among WSW, and sexual transmission of HPV likely occurs between female sex partners (197–199). HPV DNA has been detected through polymerase chain reaction (PCR)-based methods from the cervix, vagina, and vulva in 13%–30% of WSW (197,198). Among WSW who reported never having had a male sexual partner, 26% had antibodies to HPV-16, and 42% had antibodies to HPV-6 (197). High- and low-grade squamous intraepithelial lesions (SIL) have been detected on Pap tests in WSW who reported no previous sex with men (197,198,200,201). WSW are at risk for acquiring HPV from both their female partners and from current or prior male partners, and thus are at risk for cervical cancer. Therefore, routine cervical cancer screening should be offered to all women, regardless of sexual orientation or sexual practices, and women should be offered HPV vaccine as per current guidelines (16).

Genital transmission of HSV-2 between female sex partners is inefficient, but can occur. A U.S. population-based survey among women aged 18–59 years demonstrated an HSV-2 seroprevalence of 30% among women reporting same-sex partners in the past year, 36% among women reporting same-sex partners in their lifetime, and 24% among women reporting no lifetime same-sex behavior (195). HSV-2 seroprevalence among women self-identifying as "homosexual or lesbian" was 8%, similar to a prior clinic-based study of WSW (195,196). The relatively frequent practice of orogenital sex among WSW might place them at higher risk for genital infection with HSV-1, a hypothesis supported by the recognized association between HSV-1 seropositivity and previous number of female partners among WSW. Thus, sexual transmission of HSV-1 and HSV-2 can occur between female sex partners. This information should be communicated to women as part of a larger sexual health counseling and evaluation effort.

Less is known regarding transmission of bacterial STDs between female partners. Transmission of syphilis between female sex partners, probably through oral sex, has been reported. Although the rate of transmission of C. trachomatis between women is unknown, infection also might be acquired from past or current male partners. More recent data suggests that C. trachomatis infection among WSW might be more common than previously believed (179,202). Reports of same-sex behavior in women should not deter providers from offering and providing screening for STDs, including chlamydia, according to current guidelines.

BV is common among women in general and even more so among women with female partners (203,204). Sexual behaviors that facilitate the transfer of vaginal fluid and bacteria between partners may be involved in the pathogenesis of BV. A study including monogamous couples demonstrated that female sex partners frequently share identical genital Lactobacillus strains (205). Within a community-based cohort of WSW, extravaginal (i.e., oral and rectal) reservoirs of BV-associated bacteria were a risk factor for incident BV (206). Several new studies have examined the impact of specific sexual practices on the vaginal microflora (207–209) and on recurrent (210) or incident (211,212) BV among WSW and non-WSW. These studies have continued to support, though have not proven, the hypothesis that sexual behaviors, specific BV-associated bacteria, and possibly exchange of vaginal or extravaginal microbiota (e.g., oral bacterial communities) between partners might be involved in the pathogenesis of BV in WSW.

Although BV is common in WSW, routine screening for BV is not recommended. Results of a randomized trial using a behavioral intervention to reduce persistent BV among WSW through reduced sharing of vaginal fluid on hands or sex toys has been published (213). Although women randomized to the intervention were 50% less likely to report receptive digital-vaginal contact without gloves than controls and reported sharing sex toys infrequently, these women had no reduction in persistent BV at 1 month post-treatment and no reduction in incident episodes of recurrent BV. To date, no reported trials have examined the potential benefits of treating female partners of women with BV; thus, no recommendation can be made regarding partner therapy in WSW. Increasing awareness of signs and symptoms of BV in women and encouraging healthy sexual practices (e.g., avoiding shared sex toys, cleaning shared sex toys, and barrier use) might benefit women and their partners. WSW are at risk for acquiring bacterial, viral, and protozoal STDs from current and prior partners, both male and female. WSW should not be presumed to be at low or no risk for STDs based on sexual orientation. Report of same sex behavior in women should not deter providers from considering and performing screening for STDs and cervical cancer according to current guidelines. Effective screening requires that care providers and their female patients engage in a comprehensive and open discussion of sexual and behavioral risks that extends beyond sexual identity.

Transgender Men and Women

Persons who are transgender identify with a sex that differs from that they were assigned at birth. Transgender women ("trans-women" or "transgender male to female") identify as women but were born with male anatomy. Similarly, transgender men (also referred to as "trans-men" or "transgender female to male") identify as men but were born with female anatomy. However, transgender persons might use different and often fluid terminology to refer to themselves through their life course. Gender identity is independent from sexual orientation. Persons who are transgender might have sex with men, women, or both and consider themselves to be heterosexual, gay, lesbian, or bisexual. Prevalence studies of transgender persons in the overall population have been limited and often based on small convenience samples.

Transgender Women

A systematic review of studies of HIV among transgender women suggests that the prevalence of HIV in the United States is 27.7% among all transgender women and 56.3% among black transgender women (214). Data also suggests high rates of HIV among transgender women globally (215). Bacterial STD prevalence varies among transgender women, but is based largely on convenience samples. Providers caring for transgender women should have knowledge of their patients' current anatomy and patterns of sexual behavior before counseling them about STD and HIV prevention (216). Most transgender women have not undergone genital affirmation surgery and may retain a functional penis (217–219); in this instance, they might engage in insertive oral, vaginal, or anal sex with men and women.

Transgender Men

The few studies of HIV prevalence and incidence in transgender men suggest that although some transgender men engage in risky behaviors, they have a lower prevalence of HIV than transgender women (220). Providers should consider the anatomic diversity among transgender men, because many still have a vagina and cervix and are at risk for bacterial STDs, cervical HPV, and cervical cancer (221).

Recommendations

Clinicians should assess STD- and HIV-related risks for their transgender patients based on current anatomy and sexual behaviors. Because of the diversity of transgender persons regarding surgical affirming procedures, hormone use, and their patterns of sexual behavior, providers must remain aware of symptoms consistent with common STDs and screen for asymptomatic STDs on the basis of behavioral history and sexual practices.

Emerging Issues

Hepatitis C

HCV infection is the most common chronic bloodborne infection in the United States, with an estimated 2.7 million persons living with chronic infection (222). HCV is not efficiently transmitted through sex (170,223). Studies of HCV transmission between heterosexual or homosexual couples have yielded mixed results, but generally have found either no or very minimally increased rates of HCV infection in partners of persons with HCV infection compared with those whose partners are not HCV-infected (223–230). However, data indicate that sexual transmission of HCV can occur, especially among persons with HIV infection. Increasing incidence of acute HCV infection among MSM with HIV infection has been reported in New York City (231,232) and Boston (175,177), along with multiple European cities (233–235). These men usually engage in high-risk and traumatic sexual practices and might have concurrent genital ulcerative disease or STD-related proctitis (233,235). Other common practices associated with new cases of HCV infection include group sex and use of cocaine and other nonintravenous drugs during sex. Certain studies have revealed that risk increases commensurate with increasing numbers of sex partners among heterosexual persons with HIV infection (225,226,236–238) and MSM (239–242), especially if their partners are also coinfected with HIV (234,235,239–243).

Persons newly infected with HCV typically are either asymptomatic or have a mild clinical illness. HCV RNA can be detected in blood within 1–3 weeks after exposure. The average time from exposure to antibody to HCV (anti-HCV) seroconversion is 8–9 weeks, and anti-HCV can be detected in >97% of persons by 6 months after exposure. Chronic HCV infection develops in 70%–85% of HCV-infected persons; 60%–70% of chronically infected persons develop evidence of active liver disease. Most infected persons remain unaware of their infection because they are not clinically ill. However, infected persons serve as a source of transmission to others and are at risk for CLD and other HCV-related chronic diseases decades after infection.

HCV is primarily transmitted parenterally, usually through shared drug-injection needles and paraphernalia. HCV also can be transmitted through exposures in health-care settings as a consequence of inadequate infection-control practices (244). Transmission following receipt of blood, tissues, and organs from donors with HCV infection has occurred only rarely since 1992, when routine screening of these donated products was mandated in the United States. Tattoos applied in regulated settings have not been associated with HCV transmission, although those obtained in unregulated settings have been linked to such transmission (224). Occupational and perinatal exposures also can result in transmission of HCV, but such transmission is uncommon.

Acute hepatitis C is a reportable condition in 49 states, and matching viral hepatitis and HIV surveillance registries can facilitate early detection of social networks of HCV transmission among MSM with HIV infection. Suspected clusters of acute HCV infection should be reported to the appropriate public health authorities.

HCV screening is recommended by CDC and USPSTF for all persons born during 1945–1965 and others based on their risk for infection or on a recognized exposure, including past or current injection drug use, receiving a blood transfusion before 1992, long-term hemodialysis, being born to a mother with HCV infection, intranasal drug use, receipt of an unregulated tattoo, and other percutaneous exposures (109,224,245).

Diagnosis

Testing for HCV infection should include use of an FDA-cleared test for antibody to HCV (i.e., immunoassay, EIA, or enhanced chemiluminescence immunoassay and, if recommended, a supplemental antibody test) followed by NAAT to detect HCV RNA for those with a positive antibody result (178). Persons with HIV infection with low CD4-positive cell count might require further testing by NAAT because of the potential for a false-negative antibody assay.

Persons determined to be anti-HCV positive should be evaluated (by referral or consultation, if appropriate) for the presence of acute infection; presence, severity, or development of CLD; and eligibility for treatment. Nucleic acid testing, including reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) to detect HCV RNA, is necessary to confirm the diagnosis of current HCV infection, and testing of liver function (alanine aminotransferase level) provides biochemical evidence of CLD.

Treatment

Providers should consult with specialists knowledgeable about management of hepatitis C infection. Further, they can consult existing guidelines to learn about the latest advances in the management of hepatitis C (http://www.hcvguidelines.org).

Management of Sex Partners

Because incident HCV has not been demonstrated to occur in heterosexual couples followed over time (223,227–229), condom use might not be necessary in such circumstances. Persons with HCV infection with one long-term, steady sex partner do not need to change their sexual practices. However, they should discuss the low but present risk for transmission with their partner and discuss the need for testing (170,245). Heterosexuals and MSM with HCV infection and more than one partner, especially those with concurre