Voter turnout is high in the Netherlands as the country's parliamentary elections unfold under blue skies and warm spring temperatures.

Research bureau Ipsos, which is conducting an exit poll, says that turnout at 1:45 p.m. (8:45 a.m. ET) was 33 per cent, up from 27 per cent at the same stage in the last parliamentary election.

Major cities were also publishing turnout figures. In Amsterdam, turnout at 1 p.m. (8 a.m. ET) was 25.1 per cent, compared to 14.1 per cent at the last national elections, in 2012.

In Rotterdam, around 38 per cent had voted at 3 p.m. (10 a.m. ET), compared to 30 per cent at the last national elections.

National broadcaster NOS reports that extra voting booths are being added at some popular locations, such as a high-rise tower in Amsterdam.

Litmus test for populism in Europe

Prime Minister Mark Rutte and anti-Islam lawmaker Geert Wilders cast the elections as a litmus test for populism in Europe, only months ahead of crucial votes in France and Germany.

Two-term premier Rutte's right-wing VVD party was leading in the latest polls, with the anti-Islam Party for Freedom of firebrand lawmaker Geert Wilders a close second.

Coming after last's year British vote to leave the European Union and the election of U.S. President Donald Trump — two stunning successes for populists — Rutte now hopes to slow the momentum of what he called the "wrong sort of populism."

"This is a chance for a big democracy like the Netherlands to make a point to stop this toppling over of the domino stones of the wrong sort of populism," Rutte said after his vote.

Despite positive poll results in recent days Rutte was wary of the results.

"There is still a risk that we wake up Thursday morning and seeing that Geert Wilders is leading the biggest party," he said.

People cast their ballots as they vote in the Dutch general election at a polling station in The Hague, Netherlands, on Wednesday. (Peter Dejong/Associated Press)

Wilders sought to dampen expectations for himself — but insisted that whatever the result of Wednesday's election, the kind of populist politics he and others in Europe represent will be here to stay.

"The genie will not go back into the bottle. People feel misrepresented," he said, predicting this would show in elections later this year in France and Germany too.

"Despite what the elite wants, politicians are getting strong who have a totally different concept of what the people want them to do," he said.

Framed as continuity vs chaos by Rutte

Rutte has framed the election as a choice between continuity and chaos, portraying himself as a safe custodian of the nation's economic recovery, while casting Wilders as a far-right radical who would not be prepared to make tough decisions.

Dutch Prime Minister Mark Rutte of the VVD party is narrowly leading in the polls. (Michael Kooren/Reuters)

The chance of Wilders becoming leader in this country where the proportional representation voting system all but guarantees coalition governments is small — all mainstream parties, including Rutte's VVD, have ruled out working with Wilders.

Wilders' one-page election manifesto includes pledges to close borders to immigrants from Muslim nations, shuttering mosques and banning the Quran, as well as taking the Netherlands out of the European Union.

The final days of campaigning were overshadowed by a diplomatic crisis between the Dutch and Turkish governments over the refusal of the Netherlands to let two Turkish government ministers address rallies about a constitutional reform referendum next month that could give President Recep Tayyip Erdogan more powers. It showed Rutte as refusing to bow to pressure from outside, a stance which has widespread backing in the nation.

"It is my task to keep the nation safe and stable and deal with these kind of people," said Rutte.

Polls close at 4 p.m. ET

The 12.9 million Dutch voters can cast their ballots until 9 p.m. local time (4 p.m. ET). They have plenty to choose from; there are 28 parties fielding candidates in the splintered political landscape.

Voting in Amsterdam, Sam Godfried said he tried to turn the tide away from the far right. "The thing is, I think the whole world around us is getting more extreme and it is just getting more polarized," he said.

Dutch far-right politician Geert Wilders of the PVV party has said that if he wins, he will close borders to immigrants from Muslim countries, shutter mosques and ban the Quran. (Yves Herman/Reuters)

During a final televised debate Tuesday night among leaders from the parties vying for seats and control of the government, Wilders piled on the anti-Islam invective while Rutte played up his leadership experience.

Rutte has driven through unpopular austerity measures over the last four years, but the Dutch economic recovery has gathered pace and unemployment has fallen fast. So the prime minister is urging voters to stick with him.

Wilders, meanwhile, is tapping into discontent among voters who say they are not benefiting from economic recovery.

With such a knife-edge vote expected, only one thing appeared certain: Talks to form the next ruling coalition will take a while.

"The longest coalition formation was seven months," said Amsterdam Free University political analyst Andre Krouwel. "It wouldn't surprise me if this results leads to a very complicated and long formation process."