When studying Ancient Rome, it is only natural to wonder what the price of everyday items might have been. In order to fully understand the price of an item, you must also consider the wages workers received at the time the item was purchased. Before you study the information below, it is helpful to understand that professions were valued differently in ancient times than they are today. Likewise, the value of items was different then than now. For instance, in today's world, one might spend 20% of their total income on food, but in ancient times the cost may have been 50% or more of one's total income. In fact, during parts of the history of Rome, food costs were so high that without free wheat subsidies from the government, the common people would not have been able to survive! These subsidies were known as ‘doles' and according to AEJ Morris'sHistory of Urban Form[1970 George Godwin LTD], up to 1/3 of the citizens of the capital city received this public assistance. Grain formed the foundation of the common Roman's diet. It was not uncommon for grain to be the only thing a poor Roman ever ate. The cost of baking bread was very high to a poor Roman, so if no access to a communal, public oven could be had, the grain would be crushed and made into a porridge known as ‘puls' that was likely similar in taste and texture to modern polenta. While we take it for granted today, meat was an extravagant luxury that most Romans could not afford to indulge in. Clothing was another expensive proposition. One‘libra'(Roman pound, just under of a modern pound, 326 grams), of fine silk cost more than a dozen human beings. It seems absurd to us today, but such was the case, because ancient Romans lacked the production machines of today that make cheap fabric possible. For the commoners, fashion was not a consideration. Clothing was utilitarian, had to be durable, and was patched until finally the garment became the thing from which patches were taken for its replacement. Historically, the cost of living has expanded to consume all of the income that is available to the majority of the people in the society. As technology has enabled faster production, technology has also introduced new things to consume the income the increased productivity creates. The ancient Romans did not have many things to pay for in comparison to life today, yet it was every bit as much a struggle for them to survive as it is today, and probably, it was even more of a struggle. As you read the data below, consider what you might have been in ancient Rome. Would you have been a carpenter? A mason? Would you have been fortunate enough to receive an education and become an advocate (ancient equivalent of the modern lawyer)? Pick your profession, and then take a look at the kind of food and clothing you would have been able to afford. You might gain a new appreciation for modern life! All the prices and wages are listed indenariicommunes, which were not actually silverdenariias we usually think of when discussing ancient Roman coinage. Denarii communes, or d.c., were notational currency. What this means is, an exchange rate was given, telling how much of the currency in circulation at that time (nummi) it took to equal one d.c. This made it easy to change the value of the money in circulation, without having to rewrite and redistribute the entire edict. A series of exchange tables are at the end of this handout. * FOR YOUNGER STUDENTS - SEE SHORTER VERSION pp 9 and 10 * Wages in 301 AD in theRoman Empire All data based on Diocletian's "Edict of Maximum Prices" issued in 301 AD General Laborers brick maker, for every 4 fired bricks and preparation of the clay....................... 2

brick maker, for every 8 sun dried bricks, and preparation of the clay............... 2 clerk (based on specified bath attendant wage)................................................. 25 farm laborer, with maintenance......................................................................... 25 lime burner, with maintenance........................................................................... 50 mule driver, camel driver, with maintenance...................................................... 25

sewer cleaner, working a full day, with maintenance.......................................... 25 shepherd, with maintenance.............................................................................. 25 water carrier, working a full day, with maintenance........................................... 25 all other general labor....................................................................................... 25 Skilled Laborers barber, per customer....................................................................................... 2 cabinet maker, with maintenance...................................................................... 50 carpenter, with maintenance, daily.................................................................... 50 stone mason, with maintenance......................................................................... 50 figure painter, with maintenance........................................................................ 150 fuller (Wool weaver), per cloak........................................................................ 175 marble paving and walls custodian, with maintenance........................................ 60

wall mosaics worker, with maintenance............................................................ 60

model maker, with maintenance........................................................................ 75 other plaster worker, with maintenance................................................. 50 parchment maker, for a quaternion, white or yellow parchment......................... 40 shipwright of a river vessel, with maintenance.................................................... 50 shipwright of a seagoing vessel, with maintenance............................................. 60 tessellated floormaker , with maintenance......................................................... 50 wagon blacksmith, with maintenance................................................................ 50

wagonwright, with maintenance........................................................................ 50 wall painter, with maintenance.......................................................................... 75



Professionals advocate, for opening a case............................................................................ 250

for pleading a case........................................................................................... 1000 scribe, for the best writing 100 lines.................................................................. 25 for second quality writing..................................................................... 20 secretary......................................................................................................... 35

notary, for writing a petition or legal document.................................................. 10 Teachers in AncientRome A teacher in ancient Rome would have lived in the home of a wealthy patrician, who would have provided the teacher with food and clothing appropriate to the house. The teacher would not have had much spending money, but would have lived comfortably just the same. These are salaries indenariiper month, per student. elementary teacher............................................................................... 50 arithmetic teacher................................................................................. 75 Greek, Latin literature or geometry....................................................... 200 teacher of rhetoric (public speaking)..................................................... 250



Soldiers in Ancient Rome Soldiering was one of the best ways a Roman male could provide for his family. The base wage was low, not enough to live on. Four times a year, a soldier received a "donative" greater than his annual base pay. Additionally, soldiers received an annual "annona" subsidy for grain purchases. The best soldiers hoped to be recruited to the Praetorian Guard, the soldiers who guarded the emperor. These soldiers were paid roughly 3 times the base wage of the average soldier, and likely enjoyed many additional privileges as well. Soldiers had high expenses in their profession, but they still came out much better than the average citizen even after expenses. The soldiers were expected to pay for much of their own equipment, rations, and clothing. They even had to pay part of the cost of burial for their fallen from their unit. Soldiers' Pay: average Roman soldier,annually........................................................................ 1800 Praetorian Guard, annually............................................................................... 5500 annual grain annona (1 per year)....................................................................... 600 donative (4 per year)....................................................................................... 2500 Additionally, every soldier received a grain allotment of 30 modii of wheat per year that would be worth................................... 3000 Total Annual Pay for an average Roman Soldier............................................... 15,400 For a Praetorian Guard.................................................................................... 19,100 Compare that to a general laborer working 305 days a year.................................................. 7625 Soldiers' Costs: boots, without hobnails.................................................................................... 100 shoes, soldiers................................................................................................. 75 saddle............................................................................................................. 500 polisher, for a sword........................................................................................ 25

for a helmet.............................................................................................. 25

for an axe................................................................................................. 6

for a double axe........................................................................................ 8

for a sword scabbard................................................................................ 100 Prices in 301 AD in theRoman Empire All data based on Diocletian's "Edict of Maximum Prices" issued in 301 AD The Edict of Maximum Prices was an attempt to control runaway inflation and poverty in the Empire. The penalty for exceeding the prices of the Edict was severe: death. Not satisfied to execute just the seller, Diocletian decreed that the buyer was to be executed as well. As a final measure, if a seller refused to sell his goods at the stated price, the penalty was death. Food Dry Foods Prices refer to one modius unless otherwise indicated. 1 modius=8 liters dry measure. alfalfa seed...................................................................................................... 150 barley.............................................................................................................. 60 barley, cleaned................................................................................................ 100 beans.............................................................................................................. 60 beans, crushed................................................................................................. 100 chickpeas........................................................................................................ 100 flaxseed........................................................................................................... 150 hayseed........................................................................................................... 30

lentils............................................................................................................... 100 millet, crushed.................................................................................................. 100

millet, whole.................................................................................................... 50 oats................................................................................................................. 30 peas, crushed.................................................................................................. 100

peas................................................................................................................ 60 rice, cleaned.................................................................................................... 200

rye.................................................................................................................. 60 salt.................................................................................................................. 100

sesame............................................................................................................ 200 wheat.............................................................................................................. 100

Fruits & Vegetables cabbage or lettuce, head.................................................................................. 1-2 ½ dessert grapes, libra......................................................................................... 1 fenugreek, modius............................................................................................ 100 peaches, one, up to.......................................................................................... 1-2 ½ Prices in 301 AD in theRoman Empire Food (continued) Meats and Fish Prices refer to one libra unless otherwise noted. 1 libra=326 grams or just under pound. beef................................................................................................................. 8 chicken............................................................................................................ 60 fish, freshwater................................................................................................ 12 second quality...................................................................................... 8 fish, saltwater................................................................................................... 25 second quality...................................................................................... 16 goose, fattened................................................................................................ 200 not fattened......................................................................................... 100 goat................................................................................................................. 12 lamb................................................................................................................ 12 pheasant, depending on variety......................................................................... 125-250 pork................................................................................................................ 12 sausage, depending on variety.......................................................................... 10-16 Wine, Beer & Oil Prices refer to one sextarius. 1 sextarius=1.14 Pints or .546 liters beer, Celtic or Pannonian................................................................................. 4 Egyptian.............................................................................................. 2 Aminean, Falernian, Picene, Sabine, Tiburtine regional wines............................ 30 aged wine........................................................................................................ 24 second quality...................................................................................... 16 chrysattic wine................................................................................................. 24

Maeonian wine, boiled down one-third............................................................. 30

must, boiled down........................................................................................... 16

must, boiled down one-half.............................................................................. 20

rose wine......................................................................................................... 20 spiced wine..................................................................................................... 24

wine with wormwood...................................................................................... 20

vin ordinaire (ordinary wine)............................................................................. 8 olive oil, fresh.................................................................................................. 40 second quality...................................................................................... 24 liquamen (fish sauce seasoning)........................................................................ 16 second quality...................................................................................... 12 vinegar and wine vinegar.................................................................................. 6 Prices in 301 AD in the Roman Empire Clothing Fabric Prices are per item or libra for raw materials. African cloak................................................................................................... 500 Dalmatian tunic................................................................................................ 2000 hooded cloak, Laodicean................................................................................. 4500 soldier's winter tunic........................................................................................ 75 wool from Tarentum........................................................................................ 75 white silk......................................................................................................... 12,000 purple silk†..................................................................................................... 150,000 †Purple silk was to be used only at the direction of the Emperor under penalty of death. Boots and Shoes boots for mule drivers or farm workers, without hobnails.................................. 120

boots for soldiers, without hobnails................................................................... 100 women's boots................................................................................................ 60

patrician's shoes.............................................................................................. 150

senatorial shoes............................................................................................... 100

equestrian's shoes............................................................................................ 70

soldier's shoes................................................................................................. 75 Sandals and Gallic Sandals double-soled Gallic sandals for farm workers................................................... 80

single soled Gallic sandals................................................................................ 50

Gallic sandals for runners................................................................................. 60

women's oxhide sandals double-soled.............................................................. 50



Sketch by Marvin Tameanko of actual Roman Jug found during an excavation inLondon. It is inscribed / addressed to "TheTempleofIsisinLondon" Exchange Rates of Currency toDenarii Communes From 297 to 308 A.D. Number ofDenarii Communesexchanged for: Period Coin (mat'l.) 293-300 300-301 301-307 Aureus(gold) 600 1200 2400 Argenteus(silver)

25 50 100 Nummus‡ (billon)

5 12.5 25 Radiate (billon)

2 2.5 5 Laureate (bronze)

1 1 1 ‡Base Currency Unit To determine the buying power of the currencies above for a given time period, compare the exchange rate of the actual currency to the prices or wages listed on the preceding pages indenarii communesusing the formula below: (Price from list in d.c.) X (Number of coins exchanged perd.c.from chart above) = Cost or Wage in actual currency Suggestions for further reading Tenney Frank,Economic Survey of AncientRome (Baltimore, 1940) Jo-Ann Shelton,As The Romans Did (New York: Oxford Univ. Press, 1998) SHORTER VERSION FOR YOUNGER STUDENTS Wages and Food Costs in AncientRome Common Food Items and their Prices in 301 AD During the reign of Diocletian Barley, Rye 60 Denarii per Modius Beans, Crushed 100 Denaris per Modius Beans, Whole 60 Denarii per Modius Beef, Mutton or Goat 8 Denarii per Libra Beer 2 to 4 Denarii per Libra Cabbage and Lettuce 1 to 2 Quintarius Cheese 8 Denarii per Libra Chickens 30 Denarii Eggs 1 Denarius Fish, River 8 to 10 Denarii per Libra Fish, Sea 15 to 25 Denarii per Libra Goose 100 to 200 Denarii Ham 20 Denarii per Libra Honey 10 to 40 Denarii per Sextarius Lentil Beans 100 Denarii per Modius Sausage 10 to 16 Denarii per Libra Olive Oil 40 Denarii per Sextarius Peaches 1 to 2 Quintarius Pheasant 125 to 250 Denarii Pork or Lamb 12 Denarii per Libra Rice, cleaned 200 Denarii per Modius Salt 100 Denarii per Modius Wheat 100 Denarii per Modius Wine 16 to 30 Denarii per Sextarius Common Professions and Their Wages In Ancient Rome Artist, mosaic worker 50 - 60 Denarii per day Barber 2 Denarii per customer Bath Attendant 20 -25 Denarii per day Carpenter 50 Denarii per day Farm Laborer 25 Denarii per day † Fortune Teller 20 - 25 Denarii per day Fuller (Wool weaver) 175 Denarii per cloak Linen Weaver 20 - 40 Denarii per day † Manual Laborer 25 Denarii per day Messenger 18 - 20 Denarii per day Scribe 1 Denarius per 5 - 7 lines Secretary 30 - 35 Denarii per day Skilled Tradesman 35 - 75 Denarii per day Stone Mason 50 Denarii per day Teacher, elementary 50 Denarii per month ‡ Teacher, advanced 250 Denarii per month ‡ Soldiers in AncientRome: Soldiering was one of the best ways a Roman male could provide for his family. The base wage was low, not enough to live on. Recognizing the importance of the soldiers, the emperors paid what can be equated to a quarterly bonus. Four times a year, a soldier received a "donative" greater than his annual base pay! Additionally, soldiers received an annual "annona" subsidy for grain purchases. Furthermore, the best soldiers may have been recruited to the Praetorian Guard, the soldiers who guarded the emperor. These soldiers were paid roughly 3 times the base wage of the average soldier. Praetorian Guards were respected and feared, even by the emperor himself, and likely enjoyed many additional privileges as well. Soldiers' Base Pay: 1800 Denarii per year Praetorian Guard: 5500 Denarii per year Annual Grain Annona: 600 Denarii per year Donative (4 per year) 2500 Denarii Grain allotment 30 Modii of wheat per year † Some employers supplemented the salaries of these professions with "Keep". That meant that the worker was allowed to retain some of what they produced- usually scrap or in the case of grain, what could be carried from the ground at day's end. This was a huge benefit to the worker... and perhaps the source of the phrase "Earns his keep." ‡ The teaching professions were paid the amount shown per student. Teaching was done in the homes of the wealthy patrons who hired the teacher for one-on-one educating. The style resembled today's tutoring more than the Greek or current models of classrooms of many students. Thus, teachers were paid poorly. It is assumed that room and board were often provided. ©2002 Mike Dalka. Permission is hereby granted to reproduce and distribute this document for any noncommercial educational purpose. Distributed by Ancient Coins for Education, Inc., a nonprofit corporation. PO Box 3115, Burbank, CA 91508