Ballard , K. , & Knutson , B. ( 2009 ). Dissociable neural representations of future reward magnitude and delay during temporal discounting . NeuroImage , 45 , 143 – 150 . doi: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2008.11.004

Barratt , E. S. ( 1985 ). Impulsiveness subtraits: Arousal and information processing . In Spence , J. T. & Izard , C. E. (Eds.), Motivation, emotion and personality (pp. 137 – 146 ). Amsterdam : Elsevier Science .

Bauer , D. J. , & Reyes , H. L. M. ( 2010 ). Modeling variability in individual development: Differences of degree or kind? Child Development Perspectives , 4 , 114 – 122 . doi: 10.1111/j.1750-8606.2010.00129.x

Bechara , A. ( 2005 ). Decision making, impulse control and loss of willpower to resist drugs: A neurocognitive perspective . Nature Neuroscience , 8 , 1458 – 1463 . doi: 10.1038/nn1584

Belin , D. , Mar , A. C. , Dalley , J. W. , Robbins , T. W. , & Everitt , B. J. ( 2008 ). High impulsivity predicts the switch to compulsive cocaine-taking . Science , 320 , 1352 – 1355 . doi: 10.1126/science.1158136

Bickel , W. K. , & Yi , R. ( 2008 ). Temporal discounting as a measure of executive function: Insights from the competing neuro-behavioral decision system hypothesis of addiction . Advances in Health Economics and Health Services Research , 20 , 289 – 309 .

Bobova , L. , Finn , P. R. , Rickert , M. E. , & Lucas , J. ( 2009 ). Disinhibitory psychopathology and delay discounting in alcohol dependence: Personality and cognitive correlates . Experimental and Clinical Psychopharmacology , 17 , 51 – 61 . doi: 10.1037/a0014503

Botvin , G. J. , & Griffin , K. W. ( 2004 ). Life skills training: Empirical findings and future directions . Journal of Primary Prevention , 25 , 211 – 232 . doi: 10.1023/b:jopp.0000042391.58573.5b

Brown , S. A. , & Tapert , S. F. ( 2004 ). Adolescence and the trajectory of alcohol use: Basic to clinical studies . Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences , 1021 , 234 – 244 . doi: 10.1196/annals.1308.028

Buckholtz , J. W. , Treadway , M. T. , Cowan , R. L. , Woodward , N. D. , Li , R. , Ansari , M. S. , et al. ( 2010 ). Dopaminergic network differences in human impulsivity . Science , 329 , 532 . doi: 10.1126/science.1185778

Casey , B. J. , Cohen , J. D. , Jezzard , P. , Turner , R. , Noll , D. C. , Trainor , R. J. , et al. ( 1995 ). Activation of prefrontal cortex in children during a nonspatial working memory task with functional MRI . NeuroImage , 2 , 221 – 229 . doi: 10.1006/nimg.1995.1029

Casey , B. J. , & Jones , R. M. ( 2010 ). Neurobiology of the adolescent brain and behavior: Implications for substance use disorders . Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry , 49 , 1189 – 1201 . doi: 10.1016/j.jaac.2010.08.017

Chassin , L. , Flora , D. B. , & King , K. M. ( 2004 ). Trajectories of alcohol and drug use and dependence from adolescence to adulthood: The effects of familial alcoholism and personality . Journal of Abnormal Psychology , 113 , 483 – 498 . doi: 10.1037/0021-843X.113.4.483

Chassin , L. , Presson , C. C. , Pitts , S. C. , & Sherman , S. J. ( 2000 ). The natural history of cigarette smoking from adolescence to adulthood in a midwestern community sample: Multiple trajectories and their psychosocial correlates . Health Psychology , 19 , 223 – 231 . doi: 10.1037/0278-6133.19.3.223

Colder , C. R. , Campbell , R. T. , Ruel , E. , Richardson , J. L. , & Flay , B. R. ( 2002 ). A finite mixture model of growth trajectories of adolescent alcohol use: Predictors and consequences . Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology , 70 , 976 – 985 . doi: 10.1037/0022-006X.70.4.976

Colder , C. R. , Hawk , L. W. , Lengua , L. J. , Wiezcorek , W. , Eiden , R. D. , & Read , J. P. ( 2013 ). Trajectories of reinforcement sensitivity during adolescence and risk for substance use . Journal of Research on Adolescence , 23 , 345 – 356 . doi: 10.1111/jora.12001

Cools , R. , Sheridan , M. , Jacobs , E. , & D'Esposito , M. ( 2007 ). Impulsive personality predicts dopamine-dependent changes in frontostriatal activity during component processes of working memory . Journal of Neuroscience , 27 , 5506 – 5514 . doi: 10.1523/jneurosci.0601-07.2007

Cyders , M. A. , Flory , K. , Rainer , S. , & Smith , G. T. ( 2009 ). The role of personality dispositions to risky behavior in predicting first-year college drinking . Addiction , 104 , 193 – 202 . doi: 10.1111/j.1360-0443.2008.02434.x

Dalley , J. W. , Everitt , B. J. , & Robbins , T. W. ( 2011 ). Impulsivity, compulsivity, and top-down cognitive control . Neuron , 69 , 680 – 694 . doi: 10.1016/j.neuron.2011.01.020

Dalley , J. W. , Fryer , T. D. , Brichard , L. , Robinson , E. S. J. , Theobald , D. E. H. , Laane , K. , et al. ( 2007 ). Nucleus accumbens D2/3 receptors predict trait impulsivity and cocaine reinforcement . Science , 315 , 1267 – 1270 . doi: 10.1126/science.1137073

Dawes , M. A. , Antelman , S. M. , Vanyukov , M. M. , Giancola , P. , Tarter , R. E. , Susman , E. J. , et al. ( 2000 ). Developmental sources of variation in liability to adolescent substance use disorders . Drug and Alcohol Dependence , 61 , 3 – 14 . doi: 10.1016/S0376-8716(00)00120-4

Dawson , D. A. , & Grant , B. F. ( 1998 ). Family history of alcoholism and gender: Their combined effects on DSM-IV alcohol dependence and major depression . Journal of Studies on Alcohol and Drugs , 59 , 97 – 106 .

DeWit , D. J. , Adlaf , E. M. , Offord , D. R. , & Ogborne , A. C. ( 2000 ). Age at first alcohol use: A risk factor for the development of alcohol disorders . American Journal of Psychiatry , 157 , 745 – 750 .

de Wit , H. , & Richards , J. B. ( 2004 ). Dual determinants of drug use in humans: Reward and impulsivity . Nebraska Symposium on Motivation , 50 , 19 – 55 .

Diamond , A. , & Lee , K. ( 2011 ). Interventions shown to aid executive function development in children 4 to 12 years old . Science , 333 , 959 – 964 . doi: 10.1126/science.1204529

Dick , D. M. , Smith , G. , Olausson , P. , Mitchell , S. H. , Leeman , R. F. , O'Malley , S. S. , et al. ( 2010 ). Understanding the construct of impulsivity and its relationship to alcohol use disorders . Addiction Biology , 15 , 217 – 226 . doi: 10.1111/j.1369-1600.2009.00190.x

Dishion , T. J. , & Owen , L. D. ( 2002 ). A longitudinal analysis of friendships and substance use: Bidirectional influence from adolescence to adulthood . Developmental Psychology , 38 , 480 – 491 . doi: 10.1037/0012-1649.38.4.480

Duckworth , A. L. , & Seligman , M. E. P. ( 2005 ). Self-discipline outdoes IQ in predicting academic performance of adolescents . Psychological Science , 16 , 939 – 944 . doi: 10.1111/j.1467-9280.2005.01641.x

Duncan , S. C. , Duncan , T. E. , & Strycker , L. A. ( 2006 ). Alcohol use from ages 9 to 16: A cohort-sequential latent growth model . Drug and Alcohol Dependence , 81 , 71 – 81 . doi: 10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2005.06.001

Ersche , K. D. , Turton , A. J. , Pradhan , S. , Bullmore , E. T. , & Robbins , T. W. ( 2010 ). Drug addiction endophenotypes: Impulsive versus sensation-seeking personality traits . Biological Psychiatry , 68 , 770 – 773 . doi: 10.1016/j.biopsych.2010.06.015

Everitt , B. J. , Belin , D. , Economidou , D. , Pelloux , Y. , Dalley , J. W. , & Robbins , T. W. ( 2008 ). Neural mechanisms underlying the vulnerability to develop compulsive drug-seeking habits and addiction . Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences , 363 , 3125 – 3135 . doi: 10.1098/rstb.2008.0089

Everitt , B. J. , & Robbins , T. W. ( 2005 ). Neural systems of reinforcement for drug addiction: From actions to habits to compulsion . Nature Neuroscience , 8 , 1481 – 1489 . doi: 10.1038/nn1579

Eysenck , S. B. G. , Easting , G. , & Pearson , P. R. ( 1984 ). Age norms for impulsiveness, venturesomeness and empathy in children . Personality and Individual Differences , 5 , 315 – 321 . doi: 10.1016/0191-8869(84)90070-9

Eysenck , S. B. G. , & Eysenck , H. J. ( 1980 ). Impulsiveness and venturesomeness in children . Personality and Individual Differences , 1 , 73 – 78 . doi: 10.1016/0191-8869(80)90006-9

Flory , K. , Lynam , D. , Milich , R. , Leukefeld , C. , & Clayton , R. ( 2004 ). Early adolescent through young adult alcohol and marijuana use trajectories: Early predictors, young adult outcomes, and predictive utility . Development and Psychopathology , 16 , 193 – 213 . doi: 10.1017/S0954579404044475

George , O. , & Koob , G. F. ( 2010 ). Individual differences in prefrontal cortex function and the transition from drug use to drug dependence . Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews , 35 , 232 – 247 . doi: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2010.05.002

Giancola , P. R. , & Tarter , R. E. ( 1999 ). Executive cognitive functioning and risk for substance abuse . Psychological Science , 10 , 203 – 205 . doi: 10.1111/1467-9280.00135

Goldstein , R. Z. , & Volkow , N. D. ( 2002 ). Drug addiction and its underlying neurobiological basis: Neuroimaging evidence for the involvement of the frontal cortex . American Journal of Psychiatry , 159 , 1642 – 1652 .

Grant , B. F. , & Dawson , D. A. ( 1997 ). Age at onset of alcohol use and its association with DSM-IV alcohol abuse and dependence: Results from the national longitudinal alcohol epidemiologic survey . Journal of Substance Abuse , 9 , 103 – 110 . doi: 16/S0899-3289(97)90009-2

Green , L. , Fry , A. F. , & Myerson , J. ( 1994 ). Discounting of delayed rewards: A life-span comparison . Psychological Science , 5 , 33 – 36 . doi: 10.1111/j.1467-9280.1994.tb00610.x

Greenberg , M. T. , Kusche , C. A. , Cook , E. T. , & Quamma , J. P. ( 1995 ). Promoting emotional competence in school-aged children: The effects of the PATHS curriculum . Development and Psychopathology , 7 , 117 – 136 . doi: 10.1017/S0954579400006374

Gullo , M. J. , & Dawe , S. ( 2008 ). Impulsivity and adolescent substance use: Rashly dismissed as “all-bad”? Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews , 32 , 1507 – 1518 . doi: 16/j.neubiorev.2008.06.003

Hariri , A. R. , Brown , S. M. , Williamson , D. E. , Flory , J. D. , Wit , H. de , & Manuck , S. B. ( 2006 ). Preference for immediate over delayed rewards is associated with magnitude of ventral striatal activity . Journal of Neuroscience , 26 , 13213 – 13217 . doi: 10.1523/jneurosci.3446-06.2006

Hawkins , J. D. , Graham , J. W. , Maguin , E. , Abbott , R. , Hill , K. G. , & Catalano , R. F. ( 1997 ). Exploring the effects of age of alcohol use initiation and psychosocial risk factors on subsequent alcohol misuse . Journal of Studies on Alcohol and Drugs , 58 , 280 .

Heitzeg , M. M. , Nigg , J. T. , Yau , W.-Y. W. , Zucker , R. A. , & Zubieta , J.-K. ( 2010 ). Striatal dysfunction marks preexisting risk and medial prefrontal dysfunction is related to problem drinking in children of alcoholics . Biological Psychiatry , 68 , 287 – 295 . doi: 10.1016/j.biopsych.2010.02.020

Hoyle , R. H. , Stephenson , M. T. , Palmgreen , P. , Lorch , E. P. , & Donohew , R. L. ( 2002 ). Reliability and validity of a brief measure of sensation seeking . Personality and Individual Differences , 32 , 401 – 414 . doi: 10.1016/S0191-8869(01)00032-0

Ivanov , I. , Schulz , K. P. , London , E. D. , & Newcorn , J. H. ( 2008 ). Inhibitory control deficits in childhood and risk for substance use disorders: A review . American Journal of Drug and Alcohol Abuse , 34 , 239 – 258 . doi: 10.1080/00952990802013334

Jackson , K. M. , Sher , K. J. , & Schulenberg , J. E. ( 2008 ). Conjoint developmental trajectories of young adult substance use . Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research , 32 , 723 – 737 . doi: 10.1111/j.1530-0277.2008.00643.x

Jaeggi , S. M. , Buschkuehl , M. , Jonides , J. , & Shah , P. ( 2011 ). Short- and long-term benefits of cognitive training . Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences . doi: 10.1073/pnas.1103228108

Jentsch , J. D. , & Taylor , J. R. ( 1999 ). Impulsivity resulting from frontostriatal dysfunction in drug abuse: Implications for the control of behavior by reward-related stimuli . Psychopharmacology , 146 , 373 – 390 . doi: 10.1007/PL00005483

Johnson , M. W. , & Bickel , W. K. ( 2002 ). Within-subject comparison of real and hypothetical money rewards in delay discounting . Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior , 77 , 129 – 146 . doi: 10.1901/jeab.2002.77-129

Kane , M. J. , Conway , A. R. A. , Hanbrick , D. Z. , & Engle , R. W. ( 2007 ). Variation in working memory capacity as variation in executive attention and control . In Conway , A. R. A. , Jarrold , C. , Kane , M. J. , Miyake , A. , & Towse , J. N. (Eds.), Variation in working memory (pp. 21 – 48 ). New York : Oxford University Press .

Khurana , A. , Romer , D. , Betancourt , L. M. , Brodsky , N. L. , Giannetta , J. M. , & Hurt , H. ( 2013 ). Working memory ability predicts trajectories of early alcohol use in adolescents: The mediational role of impulsivity . Addiction , 108 , 506 – 515 . doi: 10.1111/add.12001

Klingberg , T. ( 2010 ). Training and plasticity of working memory . Trends in Cognitive Sciences , 14 , 317 – 324 . doi: 10.1016/j.tics.2010.05.002

Koob , G. F. , & Volkow , N. D. ( 2010 ). Neurocircuitry of addiction . Neuropsychopharmacology , 35 , 217 – 238 . doi: 10.1038/npp.2009.110

Krueger , R. F. , Hicks , B. M. , Patrick , C. J. , Carlson , S. R. , Iacono , W. G. , & McGue , M. ( 2002 ). Etiologic connections among substance dependence, antisocial behavior and personality: Modeling the externalizing spectrum . Journal of Abnormal Psychology , 111 , 411 – 424 . doi: 10.1037/0021-843X.111.3.411

Kuo , P. H. , Chih , Y. C. , Soong , W. T. , Yang , H. J. , & Chen , W. J. ( 2004 ). Assessing personality features and their relations with behavioral problems in adolescents: Tridimensional personality questionnaire and junior eysenck personality questionnaire . Comprehensive Psychiatry , 45 , 20 – 28 . doi: 10.1016/j.comppsych.2003.09.011

Li , F. , Duncan , T. E. , & Hops , H. ( 2001 ). Examining developmental trajectories in adolescent alcohol use using piecewise growth mixture modeling analysis . Journal of Studies on Alcohol and Drugs , 62 , 199 – 210 .

Littlefield , A. K. , Sher , K. J. , & Wood , P. K. ( 2009 ). Is “maturing out” of problematic alcohol involvement related to personality change? Journal of Abnormal Psychology , 118 , 360 – 374 . doi: 10.1037/a0015125

Madden , G. J. , & Bickel , W. K. (Eds.). ( 2010 ). Impulsivity: The behavioral and neurological science of discounting . Washington, DC : American Psychological Association .

Maggs , J. L. , & Schulenberg , J. E. ( 2005 ). Initiation and course of alcohol consumption among adolescents and young adults . In Galanter , M. , Lowman , C. , Boyd , G. M. , Faden , V. B. , Witt , E. , & Lagressa , D. (Eds.), Recent developments in alcoholism (Vol. 17 , pp. 29 – 47 ). New York : Kluwer Academic/Plenum Press .

Magid , V. , MacLean , M. G. , & Colder , C. R. ( 2007 ). Differentiating between sensation seeking and impulsivity through their mediated relations with alcohol use and problems . Addictive Behaviors , 32 , 2046 – 2061 . doi: 10.1016/j.addbeh.2007.01.015

McClure , S. M. , Laibson , D. I. , Loewenstein , G. , & Cohen , J. D. ( 2004 ). Separate neural systems value immediate and delayed monetary rewards . Science , 306 , 503 – 507 . doi: 10.1126/science.1100907

McGue , M. , Iacono , W. G. , Legrand , L. N. , Malone , S. , & Elkins , I. ( 2001 ). Origins and consequences of age at first drink: I. Associations with substance-use disorders, disinhibitory behavior and psychopathology, and P3 amplitude . Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research , 25 , 1156 – 1165 .

Miller , E. K. , & Cohen , J. D. ( 2001 ). An integrative theory of prefrontal cortex function . Annual Review of Neuroscience , 24 , 167 – 202 . doi: 10.1146/annurev.neuro.24.1.167

Milner , B. ( 1971 ). Interhemispheric differences in the localization of psychological processes in man . British Medical Bulletin , 27 , 272 – 277 .

Miyake , A. , & Shah , P. ( 1999 ). Models of working memory: Mechanisms of active maintenance and executive control . Cambridge : Cambridge University Press .

Moffitt , T. E. ( 1993 ). Adolescence-limited and life-course-persistent antisocial behavior: A developmental taxonomy . Psychological Review , 100 , 674 – 701 . doi: 10.1037/0033-295X.100.4.674

Moffitt , T. E. , Arseneault , L. , Belsky , D. , Dickson , N. , Hancox , R. J. , Harrington , H. , et al. ( 2011 ). A gradient of childhood self-control predicts health, wealth, and public safety . Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences , 108 , 2693 – 2698 . doi: 10.1073/pnas.1010076108

Muthén , B. ( 2004 ). Latent variable analysis: Growth mixture modeling and related techniques for longitudinal data . In Kaplan , D. (Ed.), The SAGE handbook of quantitative methodology for the social sciences (pp. 345 – 368 ). Thousand Oaks, CA : Sage .

Muthén , B. , & Muthén , L. K. ( 2000 ). Integrating person-centered and variable-centered analyses: Growth mixture modeling with latent trajectory classes . Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research , 24 , 882 – 891 . doi: 10.1111/j.1530-0277.2000.tb02070.x

Nigg , J. T. , Wong , M. M. , Martel , M. M. , Jester , J. M. , Puttler , L. I. , Glass , J. M. , et al. ( 2006 ). Poor response inhibition as a predictor of problem drinking and illicit drug use in adolescents at risk for alcoholism and other substance use disorders . Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry , 45 , 468 – 475 . doi: 10.1097/01.chi.0000199028.76452.a9

Odgers , C. L. , Caspi , A. , Nagin , D. S. , Piquero , A. R. , Slutske , W. S. , Milne , B. J. , et al. ( 2008 ). Is it important to prevent early exposure to drugs and alcohol among adolescents? Psychological Science , 19 , 1037 – 1044 . doi: 10.1111/j.1467-9280.2008.02196.x

Owen , A. M. , Downes , J. J. , Sahakian , B. J. , Polkey , C. E. , & Robbins , T. W. ( 1990 ). Planning and spatial working memory following frontal lobe lesions in man . Neuropsychologia , 28 , 1021 – 1034 . doi: 10.1016/0028-3932(90)90137-D

Pattij , T. , & Vanderschuren , L. J. M. J. ( 2008 ). The neuropharmacology of impulsive behaviour . Trends in Pharmacological Sciences , 29 , 192 – 199 . doi: 10.1016/j.tips.2008.01.002

Prescott , C. A. , & Kendler , K. S. ( 1999 ). Age at first drink and risk for alcoholism: A noncausal association . Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research , 23 , 101 – 107 . doi: 10.1111/j.1530-0277.1999.tb04029.x

Quinn , P. D. , & Harden , K. P. ( 2013 ). Differential changes in impulsivity and sensation seeking and the escalation of substance use from adolescence to early adulthood . Development and Psychopathology , 25 ( Supp.1 ), 223 – 239 . doi: 10.1017/S0954579412000284

Raine , A. , Reynolds , C. , Venables , P. H. , & Mednick , S. A. ( 2002 ). Stimulation seeking and intelligence: A prospective longitudinal study . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 82 , 663 – 674 .

Reynolds , B. , & Schiffbauer , R. ( 2005 ). Delay of gratification and delay discounting: A unifying feedback model of delay-related impulsive behavior . Psychological Record , 55 , 439 .

Robbins , T. W. , Gillan , C. M. , Smith , D. G. , de Wit , S. , & Ersche , K. D. ( 2012 ). Neurocognitive endophenotypes of impulsivity and compulsivity: Towards dimensional psychiatry . Trends in Cognitive Sciences , 16 , 81 – 91 . doi: 10.1016/j.tics.2011.11.009

Rogers , R. D. , & Robbins , T. W. ( 2001 ). Investigating the neurocognitive deficits associated with chronic drug misuse . Current Opinion in Neurobiology , 11 , 250 – 257 . doi: 10.1016/S0959-4388(00)00204-X

Romer , D. , Betancourt , L. , Giannetta , J. M. , Brodsky , N. L. , Farah , M. , & Hurt , H. ( 2009 ). Executive cognitive functions and impulsivity as correlates of risk taking and problem behavior in preadolescents . Neuropsychologia , 47 , 2916 – 2926 . doi: 10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2009.06.019

Romer , D. , Betancourt , L. M. , Brodsky , N. L. , Giannetta , J. M. , Yang , W. , & Hurt , H. ( 2011 ). Does adolescent risk taking imply weak executive function? A prospective study of relations between working memory performance, impulsivity, and risk taking in early adolescence . Developmental Science , 14 , 1119 – 1133 . doi: 10.1111/j.1467-7687.2011.01061.x

Romer , D. , Duckworth , A. L. , Sznitman , S. , & Park , S. ( 2010 ). Can adolescents learn self-control? Delay of gratification in the development of control over risk taking . Prevention Science , 11 , 319 – 330 . doi: 10.1007/s11121-010-0171-8

Romer , D. , & Hennessy , M. ( 2007 ). A biosocial-affect model of adolescent sensation seeking: The role of affect evaluation and peer-group influence in adolescent drug use . Prevention Science , 8 , 89 – 101 . doi: 10.1007/s11121-007-0064-7

Shamosh , N. A. , DeYoung , C. G. , Green , A. E. , Reis , D. L. , Johnson , M. R. , Conway , A. R. A. , et al. ( 2008 ). Individual differences in delay discounting . Psychological Science , 19 , 904 – 911 . doi: 10.1111/j.1467-9280.2008.02175.x

Sher , K. J. , Jackson , K. M. , & Steinley , D. ( 2011 ). Alcohol use trajectories and the ubiquitous cat's cradle: Cause for concern? Journal of Abnormal Psychology , 120 , 322 – 335 . doi: 10.1037/a0021813

Smith , G. T. , Fischer , S. , Cyders , M. A. , Annus , A. M. , Spillane , N. S. , & McCarthy , D. M. ( 2007 ). On the validity and utility of discriminating among impulsivity-like traits . Assessment , 14 , 155 – 170 . doi: 10.1177/1073191106295527

Spear , L. ( 2010 ). The behavioral neuroscience of adolescence . New York : Norton .

Squeglia , L. M. , Schweinsburg , A. D. , Pulido , C. , & Tapert , S. F. ( 2011 ). Adolescent binge drinking linked to abnormal spatial working memory brain activation: Differential gender effects . Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research , 35 , 1831 – 1841 . doi: 10.1111/j.1530-0277.2011.01527.x

Squeglia , L. M. , Spadoni , A. D. , Infante , M. A. , Myers , M. G. , & Tapert , S. F. ( 2009 ). Initiating moderate to heavy alcohol use predicts changes in neuropsychological functioning for adolescent girls and boys . Psychology of Addictive Behaviors , 23 , 715 – 722 . doi: 10.1037/a0016516

Steinberg , L. ( 2004 ). Risk taking in adolescence: What changes, and why? Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences , 1021 , 51 – 58 . doi: 10.1196/annals.1308.005

Swendsen , J. , Burstein , M. , Case , B. , Conway , K. P. , Dierker , L. , He , J. , et al. ( 2012 ). Use and abuse of alcohol and illicit drugs in US adolescents: Results of the National Comorbidity Survey—Adolescent Supplement . Archives of General Psychiatry , 69 , 390 – 398 . doi: 10.1001/archgenpsychiatry.2011.1503

Tarter , R. , Vanyukov , M. , Giancola , P. , Dawes , M. , Blackson , T. , Mezzich , A. , et al. ( 1999 ). Etiology of early age onset substance use disorder: A maturational perspective . Development and Psychopathology , 11 , 657 – 683 .

Tarter , R. E. , Kirisci , L. , Habeych , M. , Reynolds , M. , & Vanyukov , M. ( 2004 ). Neurobehavior disinhibition in childhood predisposes boys to substance use disorder by young adulthood: Direct and mediated etiologic pathways . Drug and Alcohol Dependence , 73 , 121 – 132 .

Tucker , J. S. , Ellickson , P. L. , Orlando , M. , Martino , S. C. , & Klein , D. J. ( 2005 ). Substance use trajectories from early adolescence to emerging adulthood: A comparison of smoking, binge drinking, and marijuana use . Journal of Drug Issues , 35 , 307 – 332 . doi: 10.1177/002204260503500205

Wechsler , D. ( 2003 ). Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children—Fourth Edition (WISC-IV) . San Antonio, TX : Psychological Corporation .

White , H. R. , Pandina , R. J. , & Chen , P.-H. ( 2002 ). Developmental trajectories of cigarette use from early adolescence into young adulthood . Drug and Alcohol Dependence , 65 , 167 – 178 . doi: 10.1016/S0376-8716(01)00159-4

Whiteside , S. P. , & Lynam , D. R. ( 2001 ). The Five-Factor Model and impulsivity: Using a structural model of personality to understand impulsivity . Personality and Individual Differences , 30 , 669 – 689 . doi: 10.1016/S0191-8869(00)00064-7

Winstanley , C. A. , Olausson , P. , Taylor , J. R. , & Jentsch , J. D. ( 2010 ). Insight into the relationship between impulsivity and substance abuse from studies using animal models . Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research , 34 , 1306 – 1318 . doi: 10.1111/j.1530-0277.2010.01215.x

Zald , D. H. , Cowan , R. L. , Riccardi , P. , Baldwin , R. M. , Ansari , M. S. , Li , R. , et al. ( 2008 ). Midbrain dopamine receptor availability is inversely associated with novelty-seeking traits in humans . Journal of Neuroscience , 28 , 14372 – 14378 . doi: 10.1523/jneurosci.2423-08.2008