Phonological Features of African American Vernacular English (AAVE) (Pollock, Bailey, Berni, Fletcher, Hinton, Johnson, Roberts, & Weaver, 1998) Last updated: March 17, 2001

This page will be updated as information becomes available. Features Involving Unstressed Syllables

Initial and Medial Unstressed Syllable Deletion (IM-USD)

Description Internal Constraints Examples Deletion of unstressed syllables;

initial and medial word position only unstressed syll = V only > unstressed syll = CV

closed grammatical class > open grammatical class Scope and Direction Geographical or Rural/Urban References Occurs in most varieties of English, most frequent in AAVE, possibly more common in older speakers Rural: +

Urban: + General: Bailey & Thomas, 1998; Cukor-Avila, 1989; Rickford, 1999; Vaughn-Cooke, 1987

Children: Vaughn-Cooke, 1976, 1986

Haplology (HAP)

Description Internal Constraints Examples Deletion of reduplicated syllable. Scope and Direction Geographical or Rural/Urban References Occurs in most varieties of English,

more frequent in AAVE Bailey & Thomas, 1998; Wolfram, 1994

Prevocalic Voicing of /p/ Initial Unstressed Syllables (PV-IUP)

Description Internal Constraints Examples Voicing of initial singleton /p/ in initial unstressed syllables. Scope and Direction Geographical or Rural/Urban References Also occurs in SWVE Reported in Memphis data Pollock & Berni, 1996, 1997a, 1997b

Features Involving Clusters

Final Cluster Reduction (F-CR)

Description Internal Constraints Examples Deletion of second consonant in final consonant cluster; both consonants must share voicing single morpheme > double morpheme

unstressed > stressed

following consonant > following vowel

alveolar plosive > other consonant Scope and Direction Geographical or Rural/Urban References Occurs in all varieties of English, more frequent in AAVE Rural: +

Urban: + Bailey & Thomas, 1998; Rickford, 1999

Metathesis (FsC-MET)

Description Internal Constraints Examples Metathesis of final /s/ + stop

clusters may be lexically determined - primarily "ask" Scope and Direction Geographical or Rural/Urban References Also occured in earlier forms of SWVE Bailey & Thomas, 1998; Rickford, 1999

Backing in /str/ Clusters (BK-str)

Description Internal Constraints Examples Substitution of /k/ for /t/ in

initial /str/clusters Scope and Direction Geographical or Rural/Urban References Apparently unique to AAVE Bailey & Thomas, 1998; Rickford, 1999

Initial /r/ Cluster Reduction (ICR-r)

Description Internal Constraints Examples most often with unstressed "thr" or

in unstressed syllables Scope and Direction Geographical or Rural/Urban References Occurs in other non-standard varieties

of English, esp. in the South Hinton & Pollock, 2000; Wolfram, 1994

Initial /j/ cluster Reduction (ICR-j)

Description Internal Constraints Examples Deletion of /j/ in /Cj/ sequences usually followed by /u/ vowel Scope and Direction Geographical or Rural/Urban References Apparently unique to AAVE Bailey & Thomas, 1998

Initial /j/ Cluster Rhotacization (Irhot-J)

Description Internal Constraints Examples Rhotacization of /j/ in /Cj/ sequences usually followed by /u/ vowel

possibly a regional variant of ICR-J Scope and Direction Geographical or Rural/Urban References Apparently unique to AAVE

(may be limited to Southern AAVE) Reported in Memphis data

Features Involving Final Consonants

Final Consonant Deletion (FCD)

Description Internal Constraints Examples Deletion of singleton consonants in

syllable-final position

Note: When final nasals deleted, nasality maintained on preceding vowel. When voiced obstruents deleted, length of preceding vowel maintained. Consonants remaining from reduced final clusters may be eligible for deletion. Nasal>non-nasal

coronal>non-coronal

voiced>voiceless

may be lexically determined Scope and Direction Geographical or Rural/Urban References Apparently unique to AAVE Bailey & Thomas, 1998; Rickford, 1999; Wolfram, 1994

Final Obstruent Devoicing (FDV-Ob)

Description Internal Constraints Examples Syllable-final obstruents are devoiced;

length of preceding vowel maintained Scope and Direction Geographical or Rural/Urban References Apparently unique to AAVE

Note: Fasold (1981) points out that although devoicing of final /d/ also occurs in Southern white vernaculars, the devoiced /d/ in AAVE is different because it is also glottalized (see F-Glot-d). Bailey & Thomas, 1998; Fasold, 1981; Fasold & William, 1970; Wolfram, 1994

Final /d/ Glottalization (F-Glot-d)

Description Internal Constraints Examples Final devoiced /d/ becomes a glottal stop or a glottalized /t/. (an extension of FDV-Ob) Scope and Direction Geographical or Rural/Urban References Apparently unique to AAVE Bailey & Thomas, 1998; Fasold, 1981

Features Involving Interdentals

Labialization of Interdental Fricatives (LAB-th)

Description Internal Constraints Examples Interdental fricatives replaced with

labiodental fricatives Syllable-final and intervocalic>syllable intial

voiceless>voiced Scope and Direction Geographical or Rural/Urban References Also occured in earlier forms of

SWVE Bailey & Thomas, 1998; Rickford, 1999

Stopping of Interdental Fricatives (ST-th)

Description Internal Constraints Examples Interdental fricatives replaced with stops voiced>voiceless; initial > final Scope and Direction Geographical or Rural/Urban References Also occurs in Northern non-standard varieties Bailey & Thomas, 1998; Rickford, 1999

Stopping of Interdental Voiceless Fricatives Near Nasals (ST-th-N)

Description Internal Constraints Examples Scope and Direction Geographical or Rural/Urban References Also occurs in Northern non-standard varieties Bailey & Thomas, 1998

Alveolarization of Voiceless Interdental Fricatives (ALV-th)

Description Internal Constraints Examples Scope and Direction Geographical or Rural/Urban References Reported in Memphis data

Features Involving Other Fricatives

Stopping of Voiced Fricatives Before Syllabic Nasals (ST-Vd-N)

Description Internal Constraints Examples Voiced fricatives preceding syllabic nasals may

be stopped.

Note: /d/ may actually go to a glottal stop through

FDV-Ob and American English allophonic rule of /t/ realized as a glottal stop before syllabic nasals Scope and Direction Geographical or Rural/Urban References Also occurs in SWVE Bailey & Thomas, 1998; Wolfram, 1994

Features Involving Lateral Liquids

Vocalization of /l/ (VOC-l)

Description Internal Constraints Examples

Note: After mid back vowels, vocalized /l/ may coalesce with

vowel, as in "ball" becomes "ba" or "bowl" becomes "bo" Scope and Direction Geographical or Rural/Urban References Occurs in many varieties of English, frequent in AAVE Bailey & Thomas, 1998; Fasold & Wolfram, 1970

Deletion of /l/ Before Labials(DEL-l)

Description Internal Constraints Examples When /l/ comes after a vowel and before a labial consonant in the same syllable, /l/ may be deleted Scope and Direction Geographical or Rural/Urban References Fasold & Wolfram, 1970; Rickford, 1999

Features Involving Vocalic & Postvocalic /r/

Derhotacization or Deletion of Vocalic and Postvocalic /r/ (DeRhot)

Description Internal Constraints Examples Vocalic /r/ (also known as syllabic /r/ or a rhotic vowel) produced as a non-rhotic vowel. Postvocalic /r/ (also known as a rhotic diphthong) produced as non-rhotic vowel or deleted. Following front vowels, most often replaced by non-rhotic vowel. Following back vowels, most often deleted. Intervocalic /r/ may also be affected, esp. when following mid back vowel. Scope and Direction Geographical or Rural/Urban References Historically well-recognized feature of SWVE, but now rapidly disappearing from this dialect; now may occur primarily in older speakers in rural areas Bailey & Thomas, 1998; Pollock & Berni, 1996, 1997a, 1997b; Rickford, 1999

Schwa Offglide (Schwa-off)

Description Internal Constraints Examples A schwa offglide may follow vocalic or

postvocalic /r/. Scope and Direction Geographical or Rural/Urban References Unique to AAVE Reported in Memphis data Pollock & Berni, 1996, 1997a, 1997b

Vowel Centralization Before /r/ (VC-r)

Description Internal Constraints Examples Front vowels preceding /r/ may be

centralized, deleted, or rhotacized VC-r and Schwa-off frequently co-occur Scope and Direction Geographical or Rural/Urban References Unique to AAVE Reported in Memphis data Pollock & Berni, 1996, 1997a, 1997b

Raised Onglide to Stressed Syllabic /r/ (RO-3^)

Description Internal Constraints Examples Addition of -like quality as

onglide to stressed syllabic /r/ Scope and Direction Geographical or Rural/Urban References Unique to AAVE Reported in Memphis data Pollock & Berni, 1996, 1997a, 1997b

Features Involving Diphthongs (non-rhotic)

Description Internal Constraints Examples Second element of diphthong / aI/ deleted; first element typically lengthened Only in open syllables or before nasals or voiced obstruents Scope and Direction Geographical or Rural/Urban References Found in SWVE Bailey & Thomas, 1998; Rickford, 1999; Wolfram, 1994

Description Internal Constraints Examples Second element of diphthong deleted typically in multisyllablic words before voiced obstruents Scope and Direction Geographical or Rural/Urban References Reported in Memphis data

Description Internal Constraints Examples Second element of diphthong deleted or centralized Mostly in open syllables or multisyllablic words before voiced obstruents Scope and Direction Geographical or Rural/Urban References Rickford, 1999; Wolfram, 1994

Monophthongization & Syllable Reduction Before Liquid (MSR-L)

Description Internal Constraints Examples Scope and Direction Geographical or Rural/Urban References Found in SWVE Bailey & Thomas, 1998

Features Involving Vowels (non-rhotic)

Tensing of Lax Vowels (Tns)

Description Internal Constraints Examples Lax vowels are produced as tense vowels esp. before liquids & velars Scope and Direction Geographical or Rural/Urban References Found in SWVE Reported in Memphis data

Description Internal Constraints Examples Coronal > Non-Coronal (pin/pen > him/hem) The words "pin" and "pen"

become homonymous.

Scope and Direction Geographical or Rural/Urban References Widespread in AAVE and SWVE after 1875 Bailey & Thomas, 1998; Brown, 1991; Labov, 1968; Wolfram, 1994

Tense/Lax Merger Before /l/ (MRG-T/L)

Description Internal Constraints Examples Before tautosyllablic /l/, tense front vowels

are laxed (e.g., the words "wheel" and "will" are homonymous) Scope and Direction Geographical or Rural/Urban References Widespread in SWVE and AAVE after 1875 Bailey & Thomas, 1998; Wolfram, 1994

Raised /ae/ (Rs-ae)

Description Internal Constraints Examples Scope and Direction Geographical or Rural/Urban References Also occurs in many Northern cities dialects, but probably unrelated to AAVE; does not occur in SWVE; widespread in AAVE after 1875 Bailey & Thomas, 1998

Rhotacization of / I / (Rhot- I )

Description Internal Constraints Examples Rhotacization of / I / in words with

following postvocalic or syllabic /l/ Scope and Direction Geographical or Rural/Urban References Unique to AAVE Reported in Memphis data Pollock & Berni, 1996, 1997a, 1997b

Features that Existed in Earlier Forms of AAVE

Long Offglides of /ae/ (Off-ae)

Description Internal Constraints Examples /ae/ produced with long offglide towards [i] Most common before voiceless fricatives Scope and Direction Geographical or Rural/Urban References Only used by older persons in rural areas Southern: +

Rural: +

Urban: - Schremp, 1996

Monophthongal /e/ and /o/ (Mono-e,o)

Description Internal Constraints Examples /e/ and /o/ produced as monophthongs Scope and Direction Geographical or Rural/Urban References Reported in Gullah and Caribbean Creoles. In English dialects, does not occur in speakers born after 1900; in 1800s, occurred only in AAVE Bailey & Thomas, 1998

Prosodic Features

Front Stressing (FrStress)

Description Internal Constraints Examples Stress moved to first syllable of words Lexically determined Scope and Direction Geographical or Rural/Urban References Also in SWVE Rickford, 1999; Wolfram, 1994

References

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Bleile, K., & Wallach, H. (1992). A sociolinguistic investigation of the speech of African American preschoolers. American Journal of Speech-Language Pathology, 1, 54-62.

Brown, V. (1991). Evolution of the merger of /E/ and /I/ before nasals in Tennessee. American Speech, 66, 303-315.

Fasold, R. (1981). The relationship between black and white English in the South. American Speech, 56, 163-189.

Fasold, R. & Wolfram, W. (1970). Some linguistic features of Negro dialect. In R. Fasold & R. Shuy (Eds.), Teaching Standard English in the Inner City. Washington, DC: Center for Applied Linguistics, pp. 41-86.

Haynes, W., & Moran, M. (1989). A cross-sectional developmental study of final consonant production in southern black children from preschool through third grade. Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools, 20, 400-406.

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Stockman, I. (1996). Phonological development and disorders in African American children. In A. Kamhi, K. Pollock, & J. Harris (Eds.), Communication Development and Disorders in African American children: research, Assessment and Intervention. Baltimore: Paul Brookes, pp. 117-153.

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Wolfram, W. (1989). Structural variability in phonological development: Final nasals in vernacular Black English. In R. Fasold & D. Schiffren (Eds.), Current Issues in Linguistic Theory: Language Change and Variation. Amsterdam: John Benjamins, pp. 301-332.

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