Mars: Evidence of Current and Past Life; Viking LR, Meteor ALH8401, Stromatolites, Methane, Fungi. Rhawn Gabriel Joseph

Cosmology.com





Abstract



The evidence for past and current life on Mars is reviewed. Billions of years ago Mars may have been flush with microbiological activity as based on a detailed analyses of Martian meteor ALH 8401. Fossilized stromatolites have also been identified on the surface of Mars, and which were most likely constructed by cyanobacteria. There is also evidence that Martian microbes continue to flourish as based on the results from the Viking Labeled Release studies. In addition, there is evidence of a waxing and waning of methane within the Martian atmosphere and at ground level within the Gale Crater and whose most plausible source is living organisms. Within the Gale Crater, Martian fungi, some which have been photographed growing out of the ground and littering the surrounding surface with spores, have also been identified by 70 experts in geology and biology who formed a consensus that there is life on Mars. Moreover, fungi have been photographed growing atop the rovers Curiosity and Opportunity, and within the rover Curiosity aluminum wheels which appear to have suffered severe biodeterioration. A multi-tentacled specimen photographed within a Gale Crater crevice, has also been identified as a biological organism, by a majority of geologists; though if the creature is fossilized or alive, is unknown. A fossilized impression of a multi-tentacled specimen has also been photographed in the same general vicinity. Additionally, fungi within and beneath Gale Crater Martian rock shelters not only grow in size, but in some locations, completely disappear which raises the possibility they may have been consumed by parasitic fungi or other organisms. It is concluded that various microorganisms and eukaryotes (fungi) have successfully colonized the Red Planet and that complex Martian life forms may have evolved on Mars.



Key Words Mars, Microbes, Fungi, ALH8401, Viking Labeled Release, Stromatolites



Introduction: Mars, A Wet Living Planet

It is now established that Mars at one time, had a magnetic field, and rivers, streams, and oceans of water (Malin & Edgett 1999; Peron et al. 2007; Villanueva et al. 2015); and that water continues to percolate to the surface (Renno et al., 2009). For example, in 2004 Europe's Mars orbiter also found water ice on the Red Planet's surface. The discovery was based on analysis of vapors of water molecules detected by the infrared camera aboard the Mars Express spacecraft which was circling the Red Planet's south pole.







Figure 1: Martian River Bed







Figure 2: Martian River Channels and tributaries







Figure 3: Martian river bed







Figure 4: Frozen streams of water discovered by The European Space Agency Mars orbiter







Figure 5: Frozen lake of water discovered by The European Space Agency Mars orbiter







Figure 6: Mars South Pole





Its been said "where there is water there is life"; and the Red Planet appears to be no exception, as there is evidence of life including Martian prokaryotes and complex eukaryotes (Dass 2017; Joseph 2016, (Levin 1976, 2010; Levin & Straat 1976, 1977, 1979) as well as life forms which may have begun to evolve billions of years ago on the Red Planet. For example, as based on (1) a detailed analyses of Martian meteor ALH8401 (McKay et al. 1996, 1998; Thomas-Keprta et al. 2002, 2009) it appears that four billion years ago, Mars was home to microbes, including, possibly (2) cyanobacteria (blue-green algae) which may have constructed stromatolites on ancient shores (Rizzo & Cantasano 2009, 2011) and whose descendants continue to flourish (Joseph 2009-2014). In fact, although the Martian oceans long ago disappeared, Mars has remained a living planet, as there is evidence of: (3) Martian microbial reproduction as based on the results from the Viking Labeled Release studies (Levin 1976, 2010; Levin & Straat 1976, 1977, 1979). Moreover, (4) Martian fungi have been identified by experts in geology and biology growing out of the ground within the Gale Crater and littering the surrounding surface with spores (Joseph 2016; Dass 2017). (5). In addition, fungi have been photographed growing atop the rovers Curiosity and Opportunity (Joseph 2016b), and (6) within the rover Curiosity aluminum wheels which appear to have suffered severe biodeterioration (Joseph 2017). (7) There is also evidence that Methane within the Martian atmosphere and at ground level within the Gale Crater and which waxes and wanes in concentration (Mumma et al. 2004, 2009; Webster et al. 2015) and whose most plausible source is living organisms (Joseph 2017) including algae, lichens, and fungi (Joseph 2009-2014). (8) A multi-tentacled specimen photographed within a Gale Crater crevice, has also been identified as a biological organism, by a majority of geologists (Joseph 2016), though if the creature is fossilized or alive, is unknown. A fossilized impression of a multi-tentacled specimen has also been photographed in the same general vicinity. (9) Lastly, there is evidence that something may be consuming those Martian fungi which grow beneath rock shelters, as several of these latter specimens have inexplicably disappeared as revealed when the same location is photographed at a later date. (10) Collectively, this body of evidence indicates that Mars has been, and still is, a living "wet" planet, and that prokaryotes and eukaryotes (fungi) have successfully colonized Mars.







Figure 7: Martian Stromatolites. Stromatolites consist of multiple layers of cyanobacteria (blue green algae), and are commonly formed along lakes, rivers, and ocean shores.







Figure 8: Earth: stromatolites, Sharks' Bay, Australia







Figure 9: Earth Stromatolites (Left). Mars stromatolites (Right)--Rizzo & Cantasano 2009, 2011.







Figure 10: Mars: Sol 305, Martian specimens resembling fungi and extensive growth of blue green algae (Cynobacteria)--Joseph 2014







Figure 11: Meridiani Planum outcrop rocks displaying hundreds of fungal "puff balls" growing along the margins of Erebus Crater which is periodically flooded with water, as indicated by the fine-scale cross-laminations and ripples along the surface--photographed by NASA/Opportunity.







Figure 12: Dozens of Martian "puff ball" fungi--photographed by NASA/Opportunity--specimens which NASA has repeatedly mis-identified as hematite, an oxide of iron. Hematite is an iron ore as well as a waste product produced by a common species of bacteria, shewanella, in the absence of oxygen. Hematite also forms in hot springs when temperatures rise above 950 C (1740 F). Mars has no hot springs or temperatures this high. Moreover, on Earth, hematite does not take the shape of independent ball-shaped structures.







Figure 13: Earth: Hematite--Botryoidal "kidney iron ore" (width ~ 7 cm) from Sahara Desert, Morocco. photo by Stefano Zizzi. Hematite takes a variety of shapes. On rare occasion, and following polishing, hematite may be shaped so as to resemble a conglomeration of half-bubbles joined together. However, even following shaping and polishing, hematite does not resemble the specimens photographed on Mars which are in fact a common fungal species known as "puff balls."







Figure 14: Mars: Fungal "puff balls" with stems growing out of the ground--Photographed by NASA/Opportunity. NASA, based on an examination of photos manipulated by color filters, has misidentified these living organisms as "hematite" even though there is absolutely no resemblance to hematite.





Viking Mission Labeled Release (LR) Experiment Discovers Life on Mars

The Viking Mission Labeled Release (LR) experiment provided the first scientific evidence for life on Mars at two locations, Chryse Planitia and Utopia Planitia, almost four thousand miles apart, (Levin 1976; Levin & Straat, 1976, 1979). The Viking LR experiment was simple and straight forward and involved taking a sample of Martian soil and adding a nutrient that contained radioactive carbon. The purpose was to detect the presence of radioactivity in the gasses released--an indication of biological activity. A control experiment treated a second sample that had been sterilized. In every experiment conducted, positive results were obtained from the unsterilized sample, including evidence of biological reproduction.







Figure 15: Viking Mars Lander







Figure 16: Viking Lander on Mars





Specifically, and as summarized by Levin (2010), the Viking life detection experiments were based on the assumption that even if complex life had evolved on Mars, they would be accompanied by microorganisms which are similar to terrestrial life and would be carbon-based, and that any the biochemical reactions would be aqueous. In the course of developing the LR experiment, and prior to transport to Mars, thousands of laboratory and field tests were performed and the LR proved to capable of detecting a very wide range of microorganisms, including pure and mixed cultures of aerobic, anaerobic and facultative bacteria, as well as algae, fungi, lichen, and sulfur bacteria. Negative LR controls verified the biological nature of the initial responses and a very strong case for reliability of the LR was established.

The LR experiment was therefore included in the Viking biology package, which, paradoxically, included two additional experiments devised by NASA--- the Gas Exchange (GEx) (Oyama et al., 1978) and the Pyrolytic Release (PR) (Horowitz et al., 1977)-- and whose reliability was questionable at best. Indeed, the GEx and the PR had not been calibrated properly, and proved unable to detect the presence of microbes on Earth, which were living in permafrost or frozen tundra. By contrast, and as described by Levin (2010) "the LR approach is unique among life detection systems in that it is not based on static chemical or physical properties in the sample, but on the detection of on-going metabolism. The method is extremely sensitive."

Once on Mars, the Viking sampling arm obtained Martian soil samples which were distributed to all three life detection instruments. As described by Levin (2010), "The LR instruments operated flawlessly on Mars. Both Viking landing sites, some 4,000 miles apart, produced strong responses and met the pre-mission criteria for the detection of life by the LR (Levin & Straat 1976, 1977, 1979) . Thus, the LR experiment proved there was biological activity, and life on Mars.

In a further effort to distinguish between biological and non-biological agents, additional, more defining controls were executed by commands from Earth which again demonstrated on-going Martian metabolism. Seven different LR experiments were conducted, each of which yielded positive results.

Back on Earth, NASA devised several ad hoc experiments, so as to disprove these findings, and injected additional nutrients into those samples already established to be brimming with life. The addition of more nutrients did not increase the already established high levels of Martian biological activity, but caused temporary declines. Did the overdose kill them, or had they already died? According to Levin (2010) "A search of the library of terrestrial soil responses revealed that NASA-bonded Antarctic soil 664 had reacted to its second injection as had the Martian soils" and if not due to death "the decline in gas level was caused by re-adsorption of the evolved gas into the dampened soil."

Levin concluded that the LR experiment had proved there is life on Mars, and that the "amplitudes and kinetics of the Mars LR results were similar to those of terrestrial results, especially close to those of soils in, or from, frigid areas."

NASA, however, disagreed, and NASA scientists, instead, formed a consensus that "the LR had not detected life on Mars, but had detected a chemical or physical agent that had produced false positive results" (Levin 2010).

The consensus, however, was based on the failure of the GEx and PR experiments, which had employed a gas chromotagraph and mass spectometer to test for organic material associated with living organisms. Yet these latter experiments were so poorly designed and so insensitive they were unable to find evidence of life, under similar conditions, on Earth (Levin 2010). To detect life, these experiments required that a gram of soil had to contain over 100 million organisms. When the GEx and PR experiments were tested against Antarctic soil which was brimming with bacteria, they failed to find evidence of life. The failure of the GEx and PR experiments to find evidence of life, therefore, are a reflection of a design flaw. Moreover, the control LR experiment did not show a false positive chemical or physical reaction.

The LR experiment, therefore, detected the presence of life on Mars; life forms which may have included not just archaea, bacteria, as well as algae, lichens, and fungi.

Fossilized Evidence of Biological Activity in Martian Meteorites ALH 84001

It is now established that Mars at one time, had a magnetic field, and a well as rivers, streams, and oceans of water (Malin & Edgett 1999; Peron et al. 2007; Villanueva et al. 2015). What became of the Martian magnetic field and the oceans of Mars is a matter of speculation. However, reports from the European Space Agency and other investigators, indicates that liquid water continues to percolate and to pool upon the surface of Mars (Renno et al., 2009). Its been said, "Where there is water, there is life, and in 1996 (and thereafter) Mckay and his team (1996, 1998; Thomas-Keprta et al. 2002, 2009) provided evidence that Mars was flush with microbial life for the first several hundred millions years after its formation. We know this with certainty, because 4 billion years ago, some of that water, which was highly mineralized, seeped into cracks within Martian rocks and in so doing, fossilized microbial residue and excretions including magneto-fossils surrounded the carbonate globules.

Nearly 4 billion years would pass, and then, 16 million years ago, an asteroid or comet slammed into Mars with the explosive energy of a million nuclear bombs. The impact blasted chunks of Mars into space, which were ejected at 11,000 mph. One of those rocks was 4 billion years old. Its cargo? Fossilized evidence of Martian microbial activity.

For 16 million years that Martian meteor orbited the sun, and then, 13,000 years ago, it collided with Earth. The outer portions of the meteor melted from the heat of entry, forming a black glassy crust. Then it crashed near the south pole. There it lay, exposed to the elements and the frozen wastes. And then, one sunny afternoon, on December 27, 1984, it was discovered, peeping out from beneath the snow, in a desolate region known as the Far Western Ice field, adjacent to a ridge of rocks named Allan Hills. Bobbie Score made the discovery. It drew her attention because the outer black shell had broken off, and the inside looked green. Score labeled it: ALH 84001. "84" for the year, and ALH for Alan Hills. and 001 because she believed it was so unusual it deserved to be the first to be analyzed.

ALH 84001 was placed in a sterilized clean bag. It weighed 4.25 pounds. Her field notes described the meteor as "highly shocked, grayish green. "She identified it as an achondrite, a rare type of meteor which is associated with planets, not asteroids. It was packed into an ice chest, and sent to NASA's Johnson Space Center where it was placed in a nitrogen chamber and freeze dried to remove any snow or ice or water. It was photographed, a chip broken off and examined, and then classified. However, in the lab, it no longer looked green, but more like a piece of broken cement. Then it was sealed in a sanitized bag, and filed away along with other meteors, on the 2nd floor of the space center, and forgotten. Almost 6 years would pass before it true identity, and the secrets it held, would be discovered.

The first indication this meteor was unusual was in 1990, when David "Duck" Mittlefehldt analyzed a small chip with an electron microprobe. The signature of the x-rays ricochet off the meteor indicating it was similar other meteors known as SNCs--an acronym for three meteors (Sherotty, Nakhla and Chassigny) believed to have originated on Mars. ALH would become the 10th SNC.

Donald Bogard and his colleagues, examined the meteor to help determine its origin. They studied the chemical composition of gasses inside black beads of glass-like material that had bubbled up when the rock was ejected from Mars by a violent shock. The gasses matched the Martian atmosphere perfectly as measured by the Viking space craft which sampled the atmosphere in 1976.

It was subsequently determined that ALH 84001 displayed magnetic properties, and could be properly categorized as a cataclastic orthopyroxenite. Various dates have been given for the rock, based on an analysis of radioactive decay. It was finally determined that ALH 84001 crystallized at ~4.5 Ga and was involved in a major impact event at 4.0 Gyr (thereby resetting the Ar/Ar clock). It was during this same time frame (4.5 to 3,8 billion years ago) that Mars still had a magnetic field and was flush with oceans, rivers, lakes and streams.

By measuring the effects of high energy cosmic rays which impacted the rock while it was in space they deduced it must have orbited in space for 16 million years. Further, by analyzing radioactive decay they estimated it must have sat in the Antarctic ice for 13 million years.

Carbon Compounds, Carbonate Globules, Magnetites: Evidence Of Past Martian Life

Mittlefehldt soon discovered ALH 84001 contained high concentrations of carbon compounds. He also observed rounded carbonate globs and spheroids inside the fractured surface which were visible to the naked eye. It was determined that these globules and elongated spheroids had been recycled through water, and were likely biologically produced. Carbonates are typically produced by creatures who live in the ocean, and are found in fossil beds of dead sea life.

It was determined that the orange carbonate globules had to have formed on Mars as the pattern of cracks would not have occurred upon striking the Earth. The globs also had the same isotopes as the Martian atmosphere, whereas the oxygen isotopes indicated they had formed in water. Thus, the Martian carbonate minerals and carbonate globules were most likely formed by Martian microbes when Martian water seeped into the cracks when this rock was still part of Mars. The carbonate residues were formed in water, and where there is water, there is life.

The Martian carbonate globules, were also discovered to contain calcium rich cores coupled with dissolved carbonates and magnetite and iron-sulfides -which were likely produced via biological processes (McKay et al. 1996, 1998, 2009; Thomas-Keprta et al. 2002, 2009); i.e. carbonate and iron-eating bacteria. The outer rims were also oxidized in a pattern that indicated biological activity; that is rusting and reducing.

Everett Gibson and Christ Romanek, alerted by Mittlefehldt, studied the rock and found the carbonates had formed in water within temperatures habitable to life.

Kathie Thomas-Keprta (McKay et al. 1996, 2009; Thomas-Keprta et al. 2002, 2009) began examining the rock and found magnetic crystals. These crystals are typically created by water-living bacteria who use them for navigation. These crystals act like magnetic compasses; the magnetic properties coming from the magnetized iron. The magnetic crystals in the martian rock looked just like those created by water living bacteria. Moreover, the magnetite particles were determined to be similar chemically, morphologically, and structurally to magneto-fossils (McKay et al. 1996, 1998, 2009; Thomas-Keprta et al. 2002, 2009); i.e. the fossil remains of bacterial magnetosomes, including those found in fresh pond water.

These crystals were well-organized, elongated and free of defects--which on Earth are considered as indisputable evidence of biological activity. Crystals which are non-biological have chaotic defects and are filled with impurities. This was not the case for those inside the Martian meteorite.

Microbes create walls and rooms inside their cell, miniature biological laboratories, where they engage in synthesis, including the creation of biological crystals. These crystals, although small enough to fit inside the cell, are large enough to hold an electric charge. Microbes also align their crystals into chains, so that the entire chain works like an electrical circuit, or magnet. This is exactly how the crystals discovered in the Martian meteor were organized.







Figure 17: Carbonate Globules ALH 84001--McKay et al. 1996







Figure 18: Carbonate Globules ALH 84001. The Martian carbonate globules, were discovered to contain calcium rich cores coupled with dissolved carbonates and magnetite and iron-sulfides -which were likely produced via biological processes (McKay et al. 1996); i.e. carbonate and iron-eating bacteria. The outer rims were also oxidized in a pattern that indicated biological activity; that is rusting and reducing. --McKay et al. 1996.







Figure 19: Carbonate globules ALH84001. PAHs were found in association with the outer rims of the carbonate globules and are oxidized in a pattern that indicated biological activity





Employing an electronic microscope, Friedmann et al. (2001, also examined the Martian rock and also found the telltale "choo choo train" crystal magenite formations, which are likewise characteristic of those produced by Earthly bacteria. They were lined up like a string of pearls--like vertebra running up the back, and all were similar in size and shape and did not touch each other, meaning they were flexible and allowed the organism to move. Their purpose could only be to enable their owners to navigate by reacting to a Martian magnetic field. Mars had a very powerful magnetic field for the first 800 million years after the planet began to form.

Subsequently Thomas-Keprta and colleagues (2002, 2009) determined that 28% of the 100s of crystal grains were identical to those produced by earth bacteria. She called these crystals: Martian "magneto-fossils. As reported in PNAS, "unless there is an unknown and unexplained inorganic process on Mars that is conspicuously absent on the Earth and forms truncated hexa-octahendral magnetites, we suggest these magnetic crystals in the Martian meteorites ALH84001, were likely produced by a biogenic process. As such, these crystals are interpreted as martian magnetofossils and constitute evidence of the oldest life yet found."







Figure 20: (Top) Magnetite chains, Earth. (Bottom) Magnetotactic Magnetite chains, ALH 84001





In fact, 28% of the magnetite in ALH 84001 occurs only in association with the biologic activity. They are a byproduct of iron-eating hyperthermophiles who metabolize and convert iron oxide to magnetite. Moreover, these microscopic oxygen and iron mineral grains, were found alongside the carbonate globules adjacent to iron and sulphur grains. These minerals are only found together when they are created biologically and are identical to those produced by bacteria. Moreover, this biological material was found in association with fossilized polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons which were also determined to be biologically produced (McKay et al. 1996, 2009; Thomas-Keprta et al. 2002, 2009).

Specifically, Simon Clemmet at the Zare labs used a laser mass spectrometer to probe the martian rock, and directed the ultraviolet laser beam at molecular targets heated to about 100 million degrees for one 10th of a millionths of a second. By measuring the speed of flight and changes of positively charged molecules as they struck a negatively charged plate, it was determined that many of the molecules consisted of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). PAHs are formed by biological processes and are the byproduct of cellular decay. PAHs are formed when bacteria die and begin to decompose. These PAHs, however, were not from Earth, but from Mars (McKay et al. 1996).

On Earth, PAHs are typically found in fossil molecules, and are derived from biological activity associated with plankton and early plant life. Although PAHs can be formed at very high temperatures from burnt tobacco or petroleum exhaust, these are also biological substances.

However, the Martian PAHs were different than those found in Earth's atmosphere and are unlike 99% of all PAHs found on this planet (McKay et al. 1996). They were also discovered inside but not on or near the outside of the meteor, which rules out contamination. In fact, the density of the PAHs increased in concentration within the interior of the meteor, with the greatest abundance fund next to the carbonate globules, in the same areas where the magnetic crystals were also the most abundant. Moreover, the PAHs were found in association with the the outer rims of the carbonate globules and were oxidized in a pattern that indicated biological activity.

Thus, the highest concentration of PAHs were found in association with those portions of the meteorite rich in carbonates, and were determined to be indigenous. No evidence of laboratory or Earthly contamination was detected (McKay et al. 1996).

Therefore, it can be assumed that the Martian PAHs had been produced by microbes, bacteria, or even plankton and plants; which is not inconceivable as the red planet was awash with Martian oceans and great seas at the time the PAHs were formed (McKay et al. 1996; Thomas-Keprta et al. 2002, 2009).

In response to concerns about Earthly contamination, Richard Zare responded: "On the contamination issue we studied micrometeorites from the same meltwater in Antarctica and found a different pattern than we did in the Martian meteorite, and I don't see how contamination could look so different in two meteorites from the same area." Likewise, Simon Clement (1998) independently reported that he found no evidence of terrestrial contamination and concluded that the PAHs are extra-terrestrial in origin.

The PAHs were produced by Martians. When these creatures died they left PAHs.

In 2009, Thomas-Keprta, Mckay and colleagues, finally put the non-biological, contamination claims to rest: "The Martian meteorite ALH84001 preserves evidence of interaction with aqueous fluids while on Mars in the form of microscopic carbonate disks. Intimately associated within and throughout these carbonate disks are nanocrystal magnetites (Fe 3 O 4 ) with unusual chemical and physical properties, whose origins have become the source of considerable debate. One group of hypotheses argues that these magnetites are the product of partial thermal decomposition of the host carbonate. Alternatively, the origins of magnetite and carbonate may be unrelated.For example, the magnetites might have already been present in the aqueous fluids from which the carbonates were believed to have been deposited. We have sought to resolve between these hypotheses through the detailed characterization of the compositional and structural relationships of the carbonate disks and associated magnetites with the orthopyroxene matrix in which they are embedded. We conclude that the vast majority of the nanocrystal magnetites present in the carbonate disks could not have formed by any of the currently proposed thermal decomposition scenarios. Instead, we find there is considerable evidence in support of an alternative allochthonous origin for the magnetite unrelated to any shock or thermal processing of the carbonates."

Magnetotactic bacteria are now known to be ubiquitous in terrestrial aquatic environments, and they appear to utilize the magnetic properties of magnetite in conjunction with the Earth's global geomagnetic field as an orientation mechanism. This is a process known as magnetotaxis, and when it is coupled with flagellar motility and aerotaxis, it allows an organism to locate and maintain an optimal position in vertical chemical gradients within aquatic environments by reducing a three-dimensional search problem to a one-dimensional search problem.

Perhaps the most profound implication of this study is that approximately one-quarter of the magnetite crystals embedded in the carbonate assemblages in Martian meteorite ALH84001 require the intervention of biology to explain their presence....these magnetites have remarkable morphological and chemical similarities to magnetite particles produced by magnetotactic bacteria, which occur in aquatic habitats on Earth. No single inorganic process or sequence of inorganic processes, however complex, is known that can explain the full distribution of magnetites observed in ALH84001 carbonates. Moreover, these types of magnetite particles are not known or expected to be produced by abiotic means either through geological processes or synthetically in the laboratory. Under these circumstances, our best working hypothesis is that early Mars supported the evolution of Martian biota that had several traits (e.g., truncated hexa-octahedral magnetite and magnetotaxis) consistent with the traits of contemporary magnetotactic bacteria on Earth.... We have therefore argued that these Martian magnetite crystals are in fact magnetofossils" and "constitute evidence of the oldest life forms known."

Methane And Martian Meteorite Eeta 79001

On October 31, 1996, British scientists and planetary geochemists, Colin Pillinger, Ian Wright, and Monica Grady, announced that they too had discovered evidence that life once existed and thrived on the red planet -Martian life that flourished as recently as 600,000 years ago. The British team analyzed two different Martian meteorites, including the fist sized rock scrutinized by NASA scientists. Specifically, they discovered a variety of organic compounds including complex organic molecules produced by and associated with carbon-based life forms in a chunk of Mars (EETA 79001) that had been blasted out some 600,000 years ago. By analyzing the various atomic weights of these chemical substances, the British team also reported that the ratios discovered match those of the oldest fossils and bacteria found on Earth; e.g. archaebacteria.

Moreover, these scientists discovered "microbially produced methane."

Methane and Life on Mars

In 1996, evidence for "microbially produced methane" was discovered in Martian meteorite EETA 79001 (Pillinger et al 1996). In 2003, Europe's Mars Express spacecraft tracked three separate methane plumes consisting of 19,000 metric tons of methane gas, and which were detected in the Martian atmosphere. The Methane levels were also determined by Michael Mumma of the Goddard Space Flight Center who employed infrared spectrometers on three Earth-based telescopes. Several possible emission sources were identified in the northern and southern hemispheres, in the vicinity of Arabia Terra, Nili Fossae and Syrtis Major. (Mumma et al. 2004).

It has since been determined that Martian atmospheric methane levels varies over time and is punctuated by transient and major spikes in concentration, followed by declines, only to increase again (Mumma et al. 2004, 2009; Hand, 2009, Webster et al. 2015). For example, in July of 2013, "an upper limit of 2.7 parts per billion of methane" in the general vicinity of the Gale Crater was reported whereas on September of 2013, methane levels significantly declined, fluctuating between a value of 0.18 ppbv to 1.3 ppbv (Webster et al. 2013). This was followed by a "tenfold spike" in levels of methane in the Martian atmosphere with increases in late 2013 and early 2014, averaging "7 parts of methane per billion in the atmosphere" (Webster et al. 2014).

A variety of life forms and innumerable microbes could easily flourish on Mars, some living in the permafrost, just inches beneath the soil, others hundreds of feet beneath the surface, or as determined by 70 experts in geology and biology these life forms, i.e. fungi, also grow in vast fields upon the surface. As based on the Viking LR experiments, the life forms may include aerobic, anaerobic and sulfur reducing bacteria, as well as algae, lichen, and fungi (Levin 2010) and which obtain energy from minerals, metals, radiation, or the reduction of carbon dioxide. Those who digest carbon dioxide or who feast on other organics would in turn release various gasses including methane as a waste product which would accumulate in the atmosphere only to bleed away into space.

On Earth, 90% of all methane released into the atmosphere is produced biologically by living and decaying organisms. Methane is released as a waste product by bacteria and archae. Other Earthly sources include termites, decay in anaerobic paddy fields, peat bogs and landfill. The other 10% is produced geologically, such as via plate tectonics and the interactions of water with molten lava belched out by volcanoes along with various gasses including methane. Even so, only minute concentration of methane exist in the Earth's atmosphere.

It is highly unlikely, in fact, it is improbable that the cyclic, waxing, waning, waxing Martian methane plumes are produced by non-biological sources. On Mars, whatever seeps into the soil, rock, or which comes to be locked beneath the surface of the planet, remains locked in place, including geologically produced methane. Something would have to cause that methane to leak-out in a cyclic fashion. Biology seems the only reasonable explanation.

Methane produced by Martian organisms would leak out from the surface and into the atmosphere. Even so, on Mars methane is readily destroyed by chemical reactions or leaks into space due to the solar wind, the lack of a magnetosphere, and the sun's UV rays. Thus, the fact that methane has been repeatedly replenished, waxing and waning then waxing in concentration, indicates a living source must be waxing and waning and excreting this gas.

Further, because of seasonal changes in the tilt and orbit of Mars, it would be expected that biological activity would be cyclic, seasonal, and thus the amount of methane released should wax and wane and wax over time--and this corresponds with the data (Joseph 2017).

Although fluctuations in biological activity is a reasonable explanation, it is possible that temperature changes associated with alterations it the tilt and orbit of Mars, trigger the opening and closing of cracks in the surface which effects venting from the planet's interior. However, the methane released would most likely have had a biological source. These same temperature changes could cause various microorganisms, as well as fungi, to grow and to begin digesting and secreting methane; organisms which would die and decompose releasing more methane.

Methane, Martian Fungi, and the Gale Crater

Since the turn of this century, a number of scientist have identified specimens photographed by NASA on the Martian surface, which they believed resemble or are similar to lichens, algae, and fungi (Joseph 2014). Indeed, what appear to be living organisms have been photographed by the Viking Lander, and the rovers Spirit, Opportunity, and Curiosity; and with the most convincing evidence--vast fields of lichens and fungi-- being photographed in the Gale crater (Joseph 2014, 2016), an area in which methane levels wax and wane (Webster et al. 2015) and which may periodically become flooded with water--though current estimates are that there are only trace amounts of moisture beneath the surface.







Figure 21: Mars Gale Crater.jpg







Figure 22: Mars Gale Crater may periodically fill with water--However, the NASA/Curiosity rover team claims there are only trace amounts of moisture beneath the surface







Figure 23: Sol 305, Martian specimens resembling fungi







Figure 24: Sol 304, Martian specimens resembling fungi







Figure 25: Martian Fungi beneath a rock shelter (Compare with Figure Below)







Figure 26: Martian Fungi expanding in size beneath a rock shelter





On Earth, methane is primarily produced via microbial methanogenesis; a form of anaerobic respiration.

Fungi (Lenhart et al. 2012; Liu et al 2015; Mukhin & Voronin, 2007) and other eukaryotes (Bruhn et al. 2012; Kepler et al. 2006; Liu et al 2015) produce methane usually via interactions with methanogenic archaea. However, Saprotrophic fungi produce methane independently of archaea; and production increases in response to increased levels of carbon dioxide and is inhibited by the presence of oxygen (Lenhart et al. 2012); a finding which is true for most methane producing species. Therefore, Mars is an ideal habitat for the growth of methanogens as the atmosphere is 96% carbon dioxide, there are negligible levels of free oxygen (Mahaffy, et al. 2013), and the electron acceptor in methanogenesis is carbon and carbon dioxide.

Given that fungi have been identified growing within the Gale Crater (Joseph 201t, Dass, 2017) the fluctuations in levels of methane within the Gale Crater are most likely due to fungal and other biological activity.

The Growth of Martian Fungi Within the Gale Crater

Vast fields of Martian fungi have been photographed by the rovers Spirit, Opportunity and Curiosity; some of which grow out of the ground over just a few days. Yet others have been photographed growing within the rover Curiosity's tire tracks, alongside those which were crushed just days before.



Figure 27: Martian Mushrooms and Puff Balls, Gale Crater







Figure 28; Sol 2667--Vast fields of Martian Fungi "puff balls".







Figure 29: Sol 2667--Vast fields of Martian Fungi "puff balls".







Figure 30: Sol 183--Vast fields of Martian Fungi "puff balls" photographed by the rover Opportunity







Figure 31: Sol 1232--Crushing and regrowth of Martian "puff balls" within the tread tracks of the rover Opportunity. NASA claims these specimens are "hematite." Hematite is harder than pure iron and usually form in hot springs at temperatures above 950 C (1740 F). Also, hematite does not have an oval structure, is not easily crushed, and does not regrow, shed spores, or have stems.







Figure 33: Brazilian trigonal hematite crystal.







Sol 62. Martian Puff Ball with stem. NASA claims this is hematite.







Figure 32: Sol 1145-(left) and Sol 1148-(right). Dramatic growth of Martian fungi over just three Martian days. A majority of Biologists and Geologists agree these Martian specimens are living organisms, similar to "puffballs" (Basidiomycota) (Joseph 2016).





.

Martian Spider-Crab-Scorpions Parasitic Fungi, and the Gale Crater

There are numerous photos of fungi within and beneath Martian rock shelters; but which disappear without a trace when the same area is photographed just days later (Joseph 2014). This raises the possibility that perhaps these are not fungi, but clumps of ice or frozen carbon dioxide which burns away when temperatures rise.







Figure 33: Sol 20 vs Sol 24. NASA refers to this white substance as "ice", some of which appears to have melted away when photographed four days later.





According to NASA carbon dioxide will freeze at -193 F (-125 C). However, based on data obtained from NASA's Science Laboratory, temperatures in Gale Crater has dropped below -125 C, only once in three years (see also http://cab.inta-csic.es/rems/en/weather-report-anno-2-mense-10/). Instead, average temperature range from -29 C to -63 C--sufficient to freeze water, but not carbon dioxide. Moreover, even when "ice" has been uncovered beneath the surface, it is flattened in appearance and does not resemble fungi. Nor does it completely disappear when photographed days later.

By contrast a comparison of photos taken 19 Martian days apart documents the presence of fungal specimens (Sol 173) which then nearly disappears (Sol 192). In fact, some of these fungal specimens dramatically decrease in size after just two days (Sol 528 vs Sol 530).







Figure 34: Sol 173 (left). Martian specimens resembling fungi. Sol 192 (right). Nineteen Martian days later, the specimens have all but disappeared.







Figure 35: Sol 528 (left) Sol 530 (right). Photos of the same outcrop, just two days apart, demonstrates that the specimens have decreased in size and have all but disappeared (NASA/JPL)





As these Martian specimens all but disappear in just a matter of days, despite temperatures well below the freezing point of water, it is reasonable to ask, what became of them? And in the absence of an obvious answer, then it is permissible to speculate: Perhaps something is eating them?

On Earth, a variety of species, including bacteria, amoeba, nematodes, gastropods, arthropods, insects, birds, and humans, consume fungi. At present, there is no evidence that amoeba, nematodes, gastropods, mollusks, birds, or humans, dwell on Mars. The presence of bacteria, however, can be assumed based on the Viking experiments. Some species of bacteria have the ability attack and consume fungal hyphae (referred to as "bacterial mycophagy"). However, although they obtain nutrition from, they do not consume fungi.

By contrast, that fungi have colonized Mars is well established (Joseph 2916; Dass 2017); and parasitic fungi ("fungivores") eat fungi--referred to as "Mycoparasitism." If Martian fungi are parasitic is unknown. On Earth, parasitic fungi will hunt for and grow toward victims, and then produce a variety of enzymes (e.g. chitinases) and toxins which attack the cellular walls of other fungi causing them to disintegrate and making them easy to digest. Often they will first invade the host, and consume them from the inside-out. Therefore, Martian fungi may be eating other fungi.

Arthropods provide yet another speculative possibility as a multi-tentacled Martian specimen resembling a crab-like spider-scorpion has been identified by geologists who formed a statistically significant consensus (Joseph 2016), agreeing that this is a biological organism:







Figure 36: Biologists reached a statistically significant consensus, agreeing that this multi-tentacled specimen is a Martian organism (Joseph 2016). Photographed in the Gale Crater.





On Earth, Arthropods include centipedes, millipedes, spiders, crabs, and scorpions. And not uncommonly, surface dwelling arthropods consume fungi. If the multi-tentacled organism identified by the experts is a Martian arthropod, is unknown. However, a fossilized impression of another multi-tentacled species was also photographed buried in the sands of the Gale Crater; which raises the possibility that Martian arthropods may have evolved, and, they in turn may consume fungi, as well as other arthropods.



Figure 37: The "skeletal" "fossilized" impression of a multi-tentacled Martian specimen (Joseph 2014) photographed in the Gale Crater.





Experts in Biology and Geology Agree There is a High Probability of Fungal Life on Mars

A number of scientists have identified specimens on Mars which they believe resemble or are similar to lichens, algae, and fungi. However, despite accumulating evidence, it was not until May of 2016, that a large body of scientists reached a statistically significant consensus supporting a high probability of life on Mars. Specifically, in 2016, 30 geologists with an expertise in mineralogy and geomorphology, and 40 biologists with an expertise in fungi, identified vast fields of fungi growing and shedding spores, on the Martian surface (Joseph 2016).

Fungi have the unique ability to flourish in almost any environment (Carlile et al. 2001; Gostincar, et al 2010), including within and surrounding the highly radioactive Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant (Dadachova et al. 2007); the radiation intense environment of space and on the outside windows of the space stations (Cook, 2000, Novikova, 2009, 2016; Vesper 2009). Therefore, perhaps not surprisingly, and as determined by the experts, fungi have also colonized Mars (Joseph 2016; Dass 2017)

Based on photographic evidence provided by NASA, and as will be reviewed here: (1) in 2016, forty biologists and thirty geologists upon examining photographic evidence, agreed there is a high likelihood of life on Mars; and dozens of fungal-experts identified these specimens as "puff balls," "Basidiomycota" and "mushrooms" which grow out of the ground and shed spores (Joseph 2016; Dass 2017).

The Joseph (2016) study was based on a population of approximately 2,000 geologists specializing in mineralogy and geomorphology, and 2,000 biologists specializing in fungi; their email addresses obtained by paid assistants who searched the websites of every American, British, Canadian, Australian, New Zealand, Philippines, and Indian University, for scientists identified as experts in these fields. These experts received at least 3 email invitations over a 3 day period, and were provided secure links to a secure website with 25 photos of Martian specimens photographed by NASA depicting organisms previously judged to resemble fungi (Joseph 2009-2014). Out of this invited sample, a total of 70 scientists--30 Geologists and 40 Biologists--completed the invitation-only online survey.

The study was designed so each expert could "vote by secret ballot" on the probability, on a 4 point scale, that these specimens were alive. Each participant also had the option of typing in the name and identity of the specimen.

Although all experts voted anonymously, their IP address served as the "registration" which (via the system's programming) prevented anyone from voting twice. Each IP address can be traced back to a computer and a generalized location, so as to prove each vote was legitimate. Moreover, the data typed in by each participant was linked to their IP address.

Two independent monitors, and NASA's Planetary Protection Officer and NASA's Director of Astrobiology, were provided the original email lists, copies of the email invitations with email addresses indicated in the BCC section; as well as all the raw data and IP addresses, from the Joseph (2016) study.

Statistical Analyses. A chi square analyses indicated a highly statistically significant consensus among the biologists who agreed there is a high likelihood of life vs non-life for 6 of the specimens (Figures XXX). Chi square, however, provides only an approximation of significance values and becomes increasingly inaccurate with small sample sizes (Larntz 1978).

To maximize statistical power, a Fisher's exact test (Fisher 1922) was performed (by Y.A. of UCLA). The Fisher's exact test provides exact P-values and is more sensitive than other measures which provide only approximations (Fisher 1922; Larntz 1978). The Fisher's exact test is also designed for the analysis of categorical and contingency tables (as employed in the Joseph 2016 study).

Highly significant results were obtained, proving that Geologists and Biologists agreed there is likelihood of life (ratings 2,3,4) vs non-life (rating 1) on Mars, as based on the comparisons for the top 5 pictures chosen by Biologists (p = <0.0008) and Geologists (p = <0.0004); and the same is true of the top 7 photos; Biologists (p = <0.0001); Geologists (p = <0.0001). Dozens of experts also identified these living specimens as "puff balls," "Basidiomycota" and "mushrooms" (Joseph 2016, Dass, 2017).

Typically, the alpha level is set at < 0.05 (5%). However, in this study, the findings were significant well beyond the < 0.001 level. Hence, if one were to continuously redraw a sample from the same population of 2,000 biologists with an expertise in fungi, and 2,000 geologists with an expertise in geomorphology and mineralogy, we would expect to obtain the same exact results over 99.9% of the time.

The following seven photos of Martian specimens photographed by NASA on Mars, were judged by experts in fungi, as depicting life and having a high probability of life. Geologists also formed a statistically significant consensus and gave the highest rankings to five of the top seven chosen by Biologists.







Figure 38: Sol 1162-- *Statistically Significant Consensus Biologists/Geologists. A majority of Biologists and Geologists agree that these are Martian specimens have a high probability of life and are most probably fungi.







Figure 39 : Sol 182-- *Statistically Significant Consensus: Martian fungi sporing. A majority of Biologists report that these Martian specimens are living organisms, and are similar to "puffballs" "Basidiomycota" (Joseph 2016).







Figure 40: Sol 257-- *Statistically Significant Consensus: Martian fungi shedding out skins with white spores littering the Martian surface. A majority of Biologists report that these are Martian specimens are living organisms, and are similar to "puffballs" (Basidiomycota) (Joseph 2016).







Figure 41: Sol 88. *Statistically Significant Consensus: A majority of Biologists and Geologists agree that these Martian mushrooms are living organisms (Joseph 2016).







Figure 42: Sol 1145-(left) and Sol 1148-(right). Dramatic growth of Martian fungi over just three Martian days. *Statistically Significant Consensus: A majority of Biologists and Geologists agree that these are Martian specimens are living organisms, and are similar to "puffballs" (Basidiomycota) (Joseph 2016).







Figure 43: Sol 37--*Statistically Significant Consensus: A majority of Biologists and Geologists agree that these Martian mushrooms are living organisms; i.e. fungi (Joseph 2016).







Figure 44: *Statistically Significant Consensus: A majority of Biologists and Geologists agree that these Martian mushrooms are living organisms; i.e. fungi (Joseph 2016).





Discussion. Thus, the overall pattern of results demonstrated that 40 experts in Biology and fungi and 30 experts in geology, formed a statistically significant consensus supporting a high probability that fungi are growing on Mars (Joseph 2016). Indeed, an examination of these specimens demonstrates these are not fossils, as before and after photos show they grow out of the ground, whereas other photos show they litter the surroundings with spores.

Subsequently, Dass (2017) reviewed these findings and confirmed that Martian "puff balls" "Basidiomycota" and "mushrooms" are growing out of the ground and sporing--evidence which was referred to as "obvious."

A distinguishing characteristic of "puffballs" (Basidiomycota) is they produce spores internally and then form a spheroidal fruitbody cap, the gasterothecium. However, spores are not released into the air, but instead litter the ground in puffs of "dust", and which is evident when examining the photos of these specimens within the Gale Crater. Likewise, Basidiomycota have stalks; and this too is characteristic of these specific Martian fungi.

Melanin, Martian Radiation Basidiomycota are also radiation resistant and can tolerate significant amounts of stress (Singh et al. 2013). They survive high levels of radiation due to their ability to fully repair their DNA if damaged, and as they are able to produce melanin (Gupta et al. 2015) which serves a protective function and which converts radiation into reproductive energy (Drewnowska, et al. 2015). Basidiomycota are therefor well adapted for a life on Mars.

The radiation levels on the Martian surface appears to vary over time and location, but has been estimated to be at least 30 Sv per hour (Cucinotta et al. 2013; Hassler, et al. 2913). It has been determined that melanin-rich species of fungi thrive in radiation intense environments, because ionizing radiation alters and enhances the oxidation-reduction potential of melanin which is then able to produce a continuous electric current (Dadachova et al. 2007)--radiation provides energy to these organisms.

As determined by Dadachova, and colleagues (2007) "Many fungi constitutively synthesize melanin which... confers a survival advantage... by protecting against UV and solar radiation. Melanized microorganisms... and... biological pigments play a major role in photosynthesis by converting the energy of light into chemical energy. Chlorophylls and carotenoids absorb light of certain wavelengths and help convert photonic energy into chemical energy during photosynthesis. Given that melanins can absorb visible and UV light of all wavelengths... exposure to ionizing radiation change the electronic properties of melanin and affect the growth of melanized microorganisms... and enhanced growth of melanized fungi under conditions of radiation flux." In other words, high levels of radiation are a food source which can be turned into energy.

Martian Fungi Contaminate the Mars Rovers Curiosity and Opportunity

A statistically significant consensus among biologists and geologists favoring life on Mars, has been established (Joseph 2016; Dass, 2017). These fungal life forms include "puff balls" "Basidiomycota" and were photographed growing and sporing on the Martian surface.

As fungi can colonize metal, plastics, etc. (Javaherdashti 2010; Little & Ray 2002), and have contaminated and damaged the exterior (as well as the interior) of the space stations (Novikova et al. 2009, 20016, Vesper 2008), it was predicted that NASA's Mars Rovers should be contaminated with Martian fungi. This prediction was confirmed (Joseph 2014, 2017; Joseph 2016b). An examination of the following photos taken by NASA of the rovers Curiosity and Opportunity, indicates that fungi have infiltrated the upper decks of both rovers.



Figure 45: Mars Sol-51-(Before/Top) A portion of the Chem Cam deck of the Rover Curiosity. Photographed on Sol 1089.(After/Below) Contamination of the Rover, Curiosity's Chem Cam deck, by Martian bacteria and Martian mold/fungi 1038 Martian days later (Sol 1089).







Figure 46: A portion of the Chem Cam deck of the Rover Curiosity by Martian bacteria and Martian mold/fungi (Sol 1089).







Figure 47: Mars Sol 840-Contamination of the Rover, Curiosity's Chem Cam deck, by Martian bacteria and Martian mold/fungi.







Figure 48: Mars Sol 1374--Contamination and bio-deterioration of the Rover, Curiosity's Chem Cam deck, by Martian bacteria and Martian mold/fungi.







Figure 49: Mars Sol 2813--Close up: contamination of the Rover, Opportunity, by Martian bacteria and mold/fungi.







Figure 50: Mars Sol 2813--Contamination of the Rover, Opportunity, by Martian bacteria and mold/fungi.







Figure 51: Mars Sol 2718 (left) vs Sol 2813 (right)--Growth of bacteria and fungi on the Rover, Opportunity, after 95 (Martian) days on Mars--







Figure 52: Fungal/Bacterial contamination of the interior of the rover Curiosity's chem cam deck.





DiscussionWith one exception, the fungal-bacterial mats growing on the Opportunity and Curiosity decks, are black in coloration (see Figures 7-13). By contrast, the only specimens detected which are white in color were photographed within the aluminum interior of the Curiosity chem cam deck. Likewise, white colored fungal masses on the surface of Mars were also photographed within interior of rock shelters. In addition, an examination of the interior of the rover Curiosity also reveals the presence of white fungal masses. This raises the possibility that these white amorphous-shaped fungi preferentially seek interior shelters which presumably protect them in some manner. However, like the interior of the chem cam deck, the wheel wells are constructed of aluminum.

Fungal Contamination and Biodeterioration of the Rover's Aluminum Wheels

Each of the rover Curiosity's six wheels were machined from a single, solid block of aluminum (see http://www.jpl.nasa.gov/spaceimages/details.php?id=PIA20334). Aluminum can be severely damaged by fungal colonization (Javaherdashti 2010; Little & Ray 2002). An examination of photos taken of Curiosity's anterior wheel wells, indicates the presence of thick colonies of fungi (see Figures 19 to 24).

As detailed on the NASA website (see http://www.jpl.nasa.gov/spaceimages/details.php?id=PIA20334) despite extensive, rigorous and brutal testing on Earth at nearly three times Mars gravity, once on Mars, and after driving just a few miles in less than 2 years, the Rover, Curiosity's aluminum wheels began to deteriorate, became brittle, and fissures and tears appeared. Some of these tears began to coalesce, with pieces breaking off, and forming large gashes and gaping holes (See Figures 19-24).

The deterioration of the tires accelerated as documented on April 18, 2016 (Sol 1,315) by NASA's engineers and rover project managers (see http://www.jpl.nasa.gov/spaceimages/details.php?id=PIA20334) despite having been driving less than 10 miles in five years. According to media reports, NASA's engineers were dumbfounded, as it had been established these wheels could survive destructive touchdown scenarios as well as extensive driving over rough terrain consisting of hard pointed and spiked-shaped rocks, and suffering only scratches on the surface.

A close inspection of not just the interior of the wheel wells, but the tears, cracks, and holes, also reveals the presence of white fungal colonies (see Figures 19-24). Therefore, given the corrosive power of fungi, it can be predicted that the extensive and unexpected damage to the anterior wheels is largely a consequence of biodeterioration.







Figure 20: White ice-fungi-bacteria surrounding a huge hole with a metal flap protruding within the interior of the wheel well; and more holes, tears as well as mud and specks of white material on the exterior of the wheel. The alternate explanation is the "white" substance is "ice."







Figure 53:







Figure 54. Biological corrosion of Rover Curiosity Wheels







Figure 55. Fungi/bacteria: Biological corrosion of Rover Curiosity Wheels







Figure 56. Fungi/bacteria: Biological corrosion of Rover Curiosity Wheels







Figure 57: White fungal contamination and severe bio-deterioration and damage to the Rover Curiosity's Aluminum wheels despite having been driven less than 10 miles across the surface of the red planet and mostly sitting idle for five years.







Figure 59: Small tears, holes and mud on the outside of the wheel well, and within the interior, white substances which are either ice or fungi. On Earth, a single handful of mud may contain over 10,000 organisms and billions of bacteria and viruses which accompany bacteria on a ratio of 10 to 100 per bacterial cell.







Figure 60: Sol 1162--Fungi growing within the shelter of the rover chem cam deck (Left); fungi growing in the shelter of a Martian rock (Joseph 2017)







Figure 61: Colonies and clumps of Martian fungi and bacteria within the rover Curiosity's wheel wells. The alternate explanation is the "white" substance is "ice."





Ruling Out Frozen Carbon Dioxide If not fungi, the only other possible explanation for the white substances is "ice." But where would the ice come from? As the Martian atmosphere consists of 96% carbon dioxide, with negligible amounts of oxygen and hydrogen even at ground level, if these masses of white substance are "ice" then the "ice" would have to consist of frozen carbon dioxide. This is not likely.

On Mars (according to NASA), carbon dioxide will freeze at -193 F (-125 C). As determined by NASA/JPL, based on data obtained from NASA's Science Laboratory (https://mars.nasa.gov/multimedia/images/seasonal-cycles-in-curiositys-first-two-martian-years-labeled), the average temperatures in Gale Crater, in the vicinity of the Rover Curiosity, have ranged from a high of -29 C to -63 C (see also http://cab.inta-csic.es/rems/en/weather-report-anno-2-mense-10/).







Figure 62: Average temperatures Gale Crater







Figure 63: Range of temperatures, Gale Crater





Since, on Mars, carbon dioxide freezes at -125C, and as temperatures in Gale crater have fallen only to a low of -63C, it is therefore impossible that the white masses of material within the Curiosity Wheel wells, could be frozen carbon dioxide.

Ruling Out Frozen Water-Ice Another possibility is pure frozen water. If the white substances are frozen water, then, liquid water must have poured in through the holes and cracks in the rover wheels, and then froze. If frozen water, then given the large amounts of cloudy white substances in the wheel wells, then there must be a considerable amounts of pure liquid water above and below the surface. And yet, there no evidence of "ice" or standing pools of water on the ground. Moreover, it is believed there are only trace amounts of water are beneath the soil (Squyers et al. 2004).

As can be seen in Figures 23, 24, the rover's wheels are caked with mud, and with masses of whitish substances within the wheel wells. The "mud" supports the likelihood of moisture in the soil. However, if the white substances are frozen water, then why isn't the "ice" "muddy" in coloration? (Figures 19-24).

The evidence does not support the likelihood of frozen water. The only viable explanation is fungi.

Martian Mud On Earth, a single handful of mud or wet sand may contain over 10,000 organisms and billions of bacteria and viruses. There is mud attached to the rover Curosity's outside wheels (Figures 23, 24).

In 1976-1977, the Mars Viking life detection instrument, known as the Labeled Release Experiment, yielded positive results and thus evidence of biological activity and reproduction (Levin 1976; Levin & Straat 1976, 1977, 1979). In 1996 and thereafter David McKay and his team published evidence of fossilized biological residue in ALH 84001 (e.g., McKay et al. 1996, 1998, 2009; Thomas-Keprta et al. 2002, 2009).

Therefore, in addition to fungi (Dass, 2017, Joseph 2014, 2016a,b; 2017), the biological evidence presented by Levin and McKay and his team, indicates that microbes have been living and multiplying on Mars for billions of years continuing into the present. Martian mud and sand, therefore, likely contains numerous microorganisms, including fungi, all of which have contributed to the significant and profound deterioration of the rover curiosity's aluminum wheels

CONCLUSIONS

As based on detailed analyses of Martian meteors (McKay et al. 1996, 1998; Thomas-Keprta et al. 2002, 2009) billions of years ago, (1) Mars was home to Martian microbes. (2) Those microbes may have included cyanobacteria which constructed stromatolites (Rizzo & Cantasano 2009, 2011). Mars has remained a living planet, as there is evidence of: (3) Martian microbial reproduction as based on the results from the Viking LR studies (Levin 1976, 2010; Levin & Straat 1976, 1977, 1979); and the (4) waxing and waning of atmospheric methane (Mumma et al. 2004, 2009; Webster et al. 2015) whose most plausible source is living organisms.

Several investigators have identified specimens photographed on Mars, as putative Martian organisms including lichens, algae and fungi (Joseph 2014). (5) These impressions were confirmed in 2016, when seventy experts in biology and geology formed a statistically significant consensus and identified the presence of fungi growing on the surface of Mars. Mushrooms, puffballs, and amorphous species which prefers to grow beneath the shelter of rocks were identified (Joseph 2016; Dass 2017). (6) These latter species also resemble those growing in the shelter of the rover chem-cam deck and (7) those growing within the aluminum wheel wells of the rover Curiosity; the latter of which have suffered profound damage despite having been driven less than 10 miles in five years.

Given evidence of past and present biological activity on Mars (Levin 1976, 1977, Levin & Straat, 1976; Mckay et al 1996, 1997; Thomas-Keprta et al. 2009), and the consensus of experts that fungi are growing on the Martian surface (Joseph 2016; Dass 2017), (8) it can be concluded that fungi and a variety of microorganisms, have successfully colonized Mars.



First Draft: 5/21/17

Initial Peer Review Completed: 5/22/17

First Revision Completed: 6/16/17

Second Peer Review Complete: 6/27/17

Word Count 12,600

Figures: 63

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