Many people surgically alter their physical appearance with the intent of boosting their social and psychological well-being; however, the long-term effectiveness of aesthetic surgery on improving well-being is unconfirmed. The present comparison-controlled study examines outcomes in a sample of 544 patients who underwent aesthetic surgery (surgery group) and 264 participants who were interested in aesthetic surgery but did not undergo it (comparison group). Participants were followed 3, 6, and 12 months after aesthetic surgery or after contacting the clinic (comparisons). Overall, the results reveal positive outcomes of receiving aesthetic surgery across areas, including anxiety, social phobia, depression, body dysmorphia, goal attainment, quality of life, life satisfaction, attractiveness, mental and physical health, well-being, self-efficacy and self-esteem. Among those dissatisfied with a particular physical feature and considering aesthetic surgery, undergoing surgery appears to result in positive self-reported psychological changes.

References

American Society of Plastic Surgeons . ( 2011 ). Report of the 2010 plastic surgery statistics. Retrieved from http://www.plasticsurgery.org/News-and-Resources/Statistics.html

Google Scholar

Bates, D., Mächler, M., Bolker, B. ( 2011 ). lme4: Linear mixed-effects models using S4 classes. Retrieved from http://CRAN.R-project.org/package=lme4

Google Scholar

Beck, A. T., Tiftein, N., Brown, G., Steer, R. A. ( 1988 ). An inventory for measuring clinical anxiety: Psychometric properties . Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 56, 891 – 893 .

Google Scholar Crossref | ISI

Berscheid, E., Walster, E., Bohrnstedt, G. ( 1973 ). The happy American body: A survey report . Psychology Today, 7, 119 – 131 .

Google Scholar

Borah, G., Rankin, M., Wey, P. ( 1999 ). Psychological complications in 281 plastic surgery practices . Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, 104, 1241 – 1246 .

Google Scholar Crossref | Medline | ISI

Bordo, S. ( 2009 ). Twenty years in the twilight zone . In Heyes, C. J., Jones, M. (Eds.), Cosmetic surgery: A feminist primer (pp. 21 – 34 ). Farnham, England : Ashgate .

Google Scholar

Brickman, P., Campbell, D. T. ( 1971 ). Hedonic relativism and planning the good society . In Apley, M. H. (Ed.), Adaptation level theory: A symposium (pp. 287 – 302 ). New York, NY : Academic Press .

Google Scholar

Brooks, R. ( 1996 ). EuroQol: The current state of play . Health Policy, 37, 53 – 72 .

Google Scholar Crossref | Medline | ISI

Cash, T. F. ( 2003 ). Brief manual for the Appearance Schemas Inventory–Revised. Retrieved from http://www.body-images.com

Google Scholar

Cash, T. F., Melnyk, S. E., Hrabosky, J. I. ( 2004 ). The assessment of body-image assessment: An extensive revision of the Appearance Schemas Inventory . International Journal of Eating Disorders, 35, 305 – 316 .

Google Scholar Crossref | Medline | ISI

Cook, S. A., Rosser, R., Salmon, P. ( 2006 ). Is cosmetic surgery an effective psychotherapeutic intervention? A systematic review of the evidence . Journal of Plastic, Reconstructive and Aesthetic Surgery, 59, 1133 – 1151 .

Google Scholar Crossref | Medline | ISI

Davis., K . ( 2003 ). Surgical passing: Or why Michael Jackson’s nose makes us uneasy . Feminist Theory, 4, 73 – 92 .

Google Scholar SAGE Journals

Derogatis, L. R. ( 1994 ). The Symptom Checklist 90–R: Administration, scoring and procedures manual ( 3rd ed. ). Minneapolis, MN : National Computing Systems .

Google Scholar

Diener, E., Lucas, R., Scollon, C. N. ( 2006 ). Beyond the hedonic treadmill: Revising the adaptation theory of well-being . American Psychologist, 61(4), 305 – 314 .

Google Scholar Crossref | Medline | ISI

Diener, E., Wolsic, B., Fujita, F. ( 1995 ). Physical attractiveness and subjective well-being . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 69, 120 – 129 .

Google Scholar Crossref | ISI

Eagly, A. H., Ashmore, R. D., Makhijani, M. G., Longo, L. C. ( 1991 ). What is beautiful is good, but . . . : A meta-analytic review of research on the physical attractiveness stereotype . Psychological Bulletin, 110, 109 – 128 .

Google Scholar Crossref | ISI

EuroQol Group . ( 2007 ). User guide. Retrieved from http://www.euroqol.org

Google Scholar

Ferring, D., Filipp, S.-H. ( 1996 ). Messung des Selbstwertgefühls: Befunde zu Reliabilität, Validität und Stabilität der Rosenberg-Skala [ Measurement of self-esteem: Findings on reliability, validity, and stability of the Rosenberg Scale ]. Diagnostica, 42(3), 284 – 292 .

Google Scholar

Gelman, A., Hill, J. ( 2007 ). Data analysis using regression and multilevel/hierarchical models. Cambridge, England : Cambridge University Press .

Google Scholar

Grob, A. ( 1995 ). Subjective well-being and significant life-events across the life-span . Swiss Journal of Psychology, 54, 3 – 18 .

Google Scholar ISI

Grocholewski, A., Heinrichs, N., Lingnau, A. ( 2007 ). Selektive Aufmerksamkeit im Gesichtsbereich bei Personen mit einem kosmetisch-medizinischen Behandlungswunsch [ Selective visual attention in the facial area in individuals planning cosmetic medical treatment ]. Zeitschrift für Klinische Psychologie und Psychotherapie, 36, 57 – 66 .

Google Scholar Crossref | ISI

Grocholewski, A., Tuschen-Caffier, B., Margraf, J., Heinrichs, N. ( 2011 ). Überzeugungen über das Erscheinungsbild: Eine Fragebogenvalidierung [ Beliefs about appearance: A questionnaire validation ]. Zeitschrift für Klinische Psychologie und Psychotherapie, 40, 85 – 93 .

Google Scholar Crossref | ISI

Grossbart, T. A., Sarwer, D. B. ( 1999 ). Cosmetic surgery: Surgical tools—psychosocial goals . Seminars in Cutaneous Medicine and Surgery , 118, 101 – 111 .

Google Scholar Crossref

Haiken, E. ( 1997 ). Venus envy: A history of cosmetic surgery. Baltimore, MD : Johns Hopkins University Press .

Google Scholar

Heyes, C. J., Jones, M. (Eds.). ( 2009 ). Cosmetic surgery: A feminist primer. Farnham, England : Ashgate .

Google Scholar

Honigman, R. J., Phillips, K. A., Castle, D. J. ( 2004 ). A review of psychosocial outcomes for patients seeking cosmetic surgery . Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, 113, 1229 – 1237 .

Google Scholar Crossref | Medline | ISI

International Society of Aesthetic Plastic Surgery . ( 2011 ). ISAPS International Survey on Aesthetic/Cosmetic Procedures Performed in 2010. Retrieved from http://www.isaps.org/isaps-global-statistics-2011.html

Google Scholar

Jorgensen, L., Castle, D., Roberts, C., Groth-Marnat, G. ( 2001 ). A clinical validation of the Dysmorphic Concerns Questionnaire . Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, 35, 124 – 128 .

Google Scholar SAGE Journals | ISI

Kinnunen, T. ( 2010 ). “A second youth”: Pursuing happiness and respectability through cosmetic surgery in Finland . Sociology of Health and Illness, 32, 258 – 271 .

Google Scholar Crossref | Medline | ISI

Kiresuk, T. J., Sherman, R. E. ( 1968 ). Goal attainment scaling: A general method for evaluating comprehensive community mental health programs . Community Mental Health Journal, 4, 443 – 453 .

Google Scholar Crossref | Medline | ISI

Kościński, K. ( 2007 ). Facial attractiveness: General patterns of facial preferences . Anthropological Review, 70, 45 – 79 .

Google Scholar Crossref

Lane, P. ( 2008 ). Handling drop-out in longitudinal clinical trials: A comparison of the LOCF and MMRM approaches . Pharmaceutical Statistics, 7, 93 – 106 .

Google Scholar Crossref | Medline | ISI

Langlois, J. H., Kalakanis, L., Rubenstein, A. J., Larson, A., Hallam, M., Smoot, M. ( 2000 ). Maxims or myths of beauty? A meta-analytic and theoretical review . Psychological Bulletin, 126, 390 – 423 .

Google Scholar Crossref | Medline | ISI

Liebowitz, M. R. ( 1987 ). Social phobia . Modern Problems in Pharmacopsychiatry, 22, 141 – 173 .

Google Scholar Crossref | Medline

Litner, J. A., Rotenberg, B. W., Dennis, M., Adamson, P. A. ( 2008 ). Impact of cosmetic facial surgery on satisfaction with appearance and quality of life . Archives of Facial Plastic Surgery, 10(2), 79 – 83 .

Google Scholar Crossref | Medline

Margraf, J. ( 1994 ). Kurzfragebogen zur Schnellerkennung behandlungsbedürftiger Angst [ Short screening questionnaire for the assessment of treatment-relevant anxiety ]. In Expertenkreis Angst (Ed.), Angst-Manual der Deutschen Gesellschaft für Allgemeinmedizin. Emsdetten, Germany : Kybermed .

Google Scholar

Margraf, J. ( 1998 ). Kurzfragebogen zur Schnellerkennung von Depressionen [ Short screening questionnaire for the assessment of depression ]. In Expertenkreis Depression (Ed.), Depressions-Manual des Berufsverbandes der Allgemeinärzte Deutschlands. Emsdetten, Germany : Kybermed .

Google Scholar

Margraf, J., Ehlers, A. ( 2007 ). BAI: Beck Angst-Inventar: Manual. Deutsche Bearbeitung. Frankfurt am Main, Germany : Harcourt Test Services GmbH .

Google Scholar

Moss, T., Harris, D. ( 2009 ). Psychological change after aesthetic plastic surgery: A prospective controlled outcome study . Psychology, Health, and Medicine, 14, 567 – 572 .

Google Scholar Crossref | Medline | ISI

Oosthuizen, P., Lambert, T., Castle, D. J. ( 1998 ). Dysmorphic concern: Prevalence and associations with clinical variables . Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, 32, 129 – 132 .

Google Scholar SAGE Journals | ISI

Özgür, F., Tuncali, D., Gürsu, K. G. ( 1998 ). Life satisfaction, self-esteem, and body image: A psychosocial evaluation of aesthetic and reconstructive surgery candidates . Aesthetic Plastic Surgery, 22, 412 – 419 .

Google Scholar Crossref | Medline | ISI

Pinheiro, J. C., Bates, D. M. ( 2002 ). Mixed-effects models in S and S-PLUS (corr. 3rd ed. ). New York, NY : Springer .

Google Scholar

Pinheiro, J., Bates, D., DebRoy, S., Sarkar, D., & the R Development Core Team . ( 2011 ). nlme: Linear and nonlinear mixed effects models. R Package Version 3.1-102.

Google Scholar

Rankin, M., Borah, G. ( 2009 ). Psychological complications: National plastic surgical nursing survey . Plastic Surgery Nursing, 29, 25 – 30 .

Google Scholar Crossref | Medline

R Development Core Team . ( 2011 ). R: A language and environment for statistical computing. Vienna, Austria : R Foundation for Statistical Computing .

Google Scholar

Rohrich, R. J., Adams, W. P., Potter, J. K. ( 2007 ). A review of psychological outcomes and suicide in aesthetic breast augmentation . Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, 119, 401 – 408 .

Google Scholar Crossref | Medline | ISI

Rosenberg, M. ( 1965 ). Society and adolescent self-image. Princeton, NJ : Princeton University Press .

Google Scholar Crossref

Rubenstein, A. J., Langlois, J. H., Roggman, L. A. ( 2002 ). What makes a face attractive and why: The role of averageness in defining facial beauty . In Rhodes, G., Zebrowitz, L. A. (Eds.), Facial attractiveness: Evolutionary, cognitive, and social perspectives (pp. 1 – 33 ). Santa Barbara, CA : Praeger .

Google Scholar

Sanchez-Pages, S., Turiegano, E. ( 2010 ). Testosterone, facial symmetry and cooperation in the prisoners’ dilemma . Physiology and Behavior, 3, 355 – 361 .

Google Scholar Crossref | ISI

Sarwer, D. B., Brown, G. K., Evans, D. L. ( 2007 ). Cosmetic breast augmentation and suicide . American Journal of Psychiatry, 164, 1006 – 1013 .

Google Scholar Crossref | Medline | ISI

Sarwer, D. B., Infield, A. L., Baker, J. L., Casas, L. A., Glat, P. M., Gold, A. H., . . . Young, V. L. ( 2008 ). Two-year results of a prospective, multi-site investigation of patient satisfaction and psychosocial status following cosmetic surgery . Aesthetic Surgery Journal, 28, 245 – 250 .

Google Scholar Crossref | Medline

Sheehan, D. ( 1983 ). The anxiety disease. New York, NY : Scribners .

Google Scholar

Shridharani, S. M., Magarakis, M., Manson, P. N., Rodriguez, E. D. ( 2010 ). Psychology of plastic and reconstructive surgery: A systematic clinical review . Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, 126, 2243 – 2251 .

Google Scholar Crossref | Medline | ISI

Stampf, S. ( 2011 ). nonrandom: Stratification and matching by the propensity score. R Package Version 1.1. http://CRAN.R-project.org/package=nonrandom.

Google Scholar

Trumpf, J., Vriends, N., Meyer, A., Becker, E. S., Neumer, S.-P., Margraf, J. ( 2010 ). The Dresden Predictor Study of anxiety and depression: Objectives, design, and methods . Social Psychiatry and Epidemiology, 45, 853 – 864 .

Google Scholar Crossref | Medline | ISI

van Buuren, S., Groothuis-Oudshoorn, K. ( 2011 ). MICE: Multivariate imputation by chained equations in R . Journal of Statistical Software, 45(3), 1 – 67 .

Google Scholar ISI

Veale, D. ( 2010 ). Cognitive behavioral therapy for body dysmorphic disorder . Psychiatric Annals, 40, 333 – 340 .

Google Scholar Crossref | ISI

von Collani, G., Herzberg, P. Y. ( 2003 ). Eine revidierte Fassung der deutschsprachigen Skala zum Selbstwertgefühl von Rosenberg [ A revised version of the German adaptation of Rosenberg’s Self-Esteem Scale ]. Zeitschrift für Differentielle und Diagnostische Psychologie, 24, 3 – 7 .

Google Scholar