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However, it has been noted that the Middle East and North Africa have the special distinction of providing the world’s first ‘true’ social scientist, Ibn Khaldun, in the 15th century. Notwithstanding this competition over who was the originator of the field, more meaningful is the institutionalisation of social science as a body of study, both for its own sake as well as for the guidance that this subject-matter can provide for policy. It is more relevant to identify the institutionalisation of social science than to cavil over who was its original founding father.



Seen from this perspective, it is clear that the academic study of social science and associated public policy implications came into its own in the 19th century in the West, from which it gradually diffused to other regions of the world. The process by which this occurred was often due to Third World intellectuals studying in the West who then brought back with them their own expertise in this area and encouraged institutions of higher learning to establish the various disciplines associated with social science. To some extent, as well, it was due to knowledge brought into the region by Westerners invited in various capacities to be advisors and instructors in Middle Eastern educational and administrative institutions founded for the advancement of ‘modern’ sciences

sciences.



In the late Ottoman Empire, a group of intellectuals known as the Young Ottomans made it a point to steep themselves in some of these disciplines while students abroad. In Egypt, too, this occurred as, for example, with the Azharite scholar Rifa’ah Rafi’ al-Tahtawi (d. 1873).



Perhaps the championing of the work of Emile Durkheim (especially his concept of ‘conscience collective’) by the Turkish scholar Zia Gok Alp (d. 1924) had as much to do with the spread of the study of the social science disciplines in the Middle East as any other individual initiative. It is instructive that in this case the newly established Turkish Republic under Mustafa Kemal actively promoted Gok Alp’s efforts, since Durkheim’s sociology seemed to be highly relevant to the nationalist project of the young Turkish state. In the later decades of the 1930s and 1940s, the study of social science gained currency, particularly among leftists, in such Arab regions and countries as the Maghrib, Syria, Lebanon and Iraq.



This was a time of anti-colonial nationalism, and social science came to be seen as an instrument in the nationalist efforts for independence. Perhaps, as well, the achievement of independence encouraged the spread of the study of the social sciences in the Arab world, although some caution is in order on this point. Post-independence governments tended to be authoritarian and so would not be expected to sponsor the unregulated study of the social science disciplines, preferring to supervise its diffusion among the academic institutions of their societies so as to avert criticism of their rule that social science analysis might generate.



In the anti-colonial struggles of the 1930s-1960s in the Arab world, social science remained on the “back burner.” The colonialist regimes, seeking to hold on to power, were hardly interested in encouraging its diffusion in higher education institutions. They far preferred to make available educational opportunities for their Arab populations in studies and disciplines that would help them to consolidate their rule.



After gaining independence, the leaders of the Arab world continued to ignore social science, a neglect that they could and did rationalize on grounds that much more pressing matters lay before them that required their attention. Although some regimes – such as that in Egypt after 1952 – instituted dramatic changes in education, especially in opening access to it for the broad masses, the authoritarian imprimatur of their rule continued to weigh very significantly against the cultivation of the social sciences in their countries.



Since the 1970s, when most of them acquired their independence, some modest efforts have been undertaken to encourage social science learning in the universities of the Gulf states.



<b>Progress</b>



In recent decades significant progress has been made in higher education in the Middle East region. Although one should not underestimate the positive changes that have taken place, such as the construction of new campuses and buildings, the expansion of computer laboratories, the effort to diversify faculty recruitment, and the enhancement of faculty exchange programmes in the universities of the Gulf states, the status of the social sciences in these universities leaves much to be desired. Some of the most important reasons for the weakness and marginalisation of social science teaching and research in these countries relates directly to the steadily mounting patterns of globalisation and their attendant trends of neo-liberalism. The emphasis upon these patterns and trends has resulted in the downgrading of teaching and research in the social sciences because of the valorisation, on the contrary, of such bodies of knowledge as market economics, business administration, trade and finance. These trends are not restricted to the Gulf states nor to the Middle East and North Africa as a whole, but in fact pertain to the hegemonic sweep of capitalism and the logic of the market.



To this particular status of the social sciences in the Gulf states should be added their general uncongeniality to the nature of the authoritarian state, as well as, in the first instance, that state’s increasing centralisation of power. This entity is seemingly obsessed with material economic growth and bases its legitimacy upon policing its population. In order to stay the course, these states do not respond to the hearts and minds of their citizens but instead rely upon the mechanisms of co-optation and oppression.



One can hardly miss the expanding role of the market in society and the latter’s compelling need for pure applied sciences, such as engineering, accounting and business management. This has reached the point that these fields have overshadowed other areas of study, not because of the formers’ intrinsic value, but because they are considered crucial to the generation of lucrative profits.



As a matter of fact, it is not surprising that the status of the social sciences in the Gulf region has something in common with their situation in the developed world in that in both regions one notices the effects of hegemonic capitalism in promoting structural adjustment and market privatisation. It is true, however, that in the Gulf region conditions are affected by the nature of the authoritarian state, which may even control market mechanisms.



<b>Arab Spring</b>



Nonetheless, there are some intimations that bode well for Arab universities in general and for social sciences in those institutions in particular. Such intimations are related to the events known under the general rubric of ‘the Arab Spring’. These have not only sent reverberations throughout the region, but also have shaken popular feelings, established institutions and historical developments throughout the world. Especially relevant is the large, extensive and unexpected participation in the public, and more specifically the political, spheres of Arab societies – including those of the Gulf – by great numbers of women and men who hail from different age and class groups. An incontestable consensus that has been achieved on the part of the multitude of youth, older people and even children with regard to demands that will not easily be given up include transparency, accountability and democracy. These values are central for the disciplines of the social sciences, especially political science, anthropology, sociology and psychology.



It is hard to imagine that the events that exploded onto the scene with the Arab Spring will not impact the course of social science research and of higher education in the Gulf universities. It is also difficult to predict the shape and contours of such impact, due to the complexity of the changes in the public arena. Among the most important of these changes is the interaction of the

authoritarian state with the most important issue: how will the hegemonic state deal with the demands of this popular upsurge?



In Bahrain, the state has resorted to force and oppression; it appears that the state there has been able successfully to confront the opposition. But will this confrontation last, and for how long?



It seems that the events of the Arab Spring have energised academic research in the social sciences among the youth and older generation.



This research has generated nuanced and detailed analysis of social action and of the nature and the mutual influences of power, as well as of the cultural symbols and frameworks that are associated with social movements, religious identity, and types and meanings of citizenship.



We also see that new studies are appearing of songs, other forms of music and graffiti that are produced by collective action in the domains of strikes and sit-ins. These works have and still do express the tensions and conflicts with the power and symbols of the state.



This avalanche of data and studies has entailed publication in electronic sites, in books and in articles. All of these portend a new dawn for the social sciences. Gulf societies are not isolated from these events, and neither are their universities insulated from their societies and contexts. Consequently, we find that in Kuwait, Saudi Arabia and also in Bahrain there have begun to appear new informal societies that discuss intellectual, literary and social matters. At the same time, virtual communities have proliferated that alternately take up political events, far removed from the oversight of state institutions. Works have also appeared that reflect developments that have been going on in Saudi Arabia. This is in addition to periodicals that are issued by centres of social research, such as the journal Social Affairs, which began publication in 1997 on behalf of the Society of Social Scientists and the American University in Sharjah and which fills the need for debate, critique and discussion. All this knowledge production is characterised by detailed social description and precise analysis.



<b>Foreign universities</b>



At the same time, the public arena has come to be filled by seen the establishment of new foreign universities. Among these are Georgetown University’s School of Foreign Service in Qatar, which offers specialisation in international affairs, politics, culture and international economics; the American University in Sharjah, which has departments in international politics, geography, history, political science, psychology and sociology; and New York University in Abu Dhabi, with its departments of political science, economics and psychology.



Despite the recent establishment of these universities, they have enjoyed a warm welcome on the part of students and are expected to may implement a big part of the functions laid out by their founders. It is also expected that they will expand the network of scientific exchange with the state universities. In addition, it is anticipated that these foreign educational institutions will have an impact outside of their university walls via programmes of public service, scientific symposia and workshops. All this will promote the population’s access to debate about such vital arenas as decision-making, the analysis of foreign and domestic public policies, and the critique of social and economic development.



The aggregate of these activities within and outside the universities will likely proliferate and generate a new dynamic as far as the social sciences are concerned: a re-evaluation of theories and intellectual frameworks that have so far failed to anticipate the actual developments that have actually occurred in Arab societies. It is also expected that a major reconsideration of programmes and methods of education will take place, so as to enable – or to create the space for – critical thinking that emanates from a deep understanding of the givens of Gulf societies, ranging from their specifics to the points that they have in common with the rest of the region. One hopes that this set of circumstances will generate new, creative scholarly output that is different from the stereotypical intellectual patterns of the past, and, as importantly, open up novel and creative realms for research, theorising and the generation of original knowledge.



* Soraya Altorki is professor of anthropology in the department of sociology, anthropology, psychology and Egyptology at the American University in Cairo, Egypt. This is an edited version of the article “Taking Stock: Whither the social sciences in Gulf universities”, which appears in the current edition of Contemporary Arab Affairs.

Social science, it is sometimes maintained, has its beginning in Europe. Depending on how it is defined, some hold that its origins go back to the Renaissance and, more particularly, to Niccolò Machiavelli.However, it has been noted that the Middle East and North Africa have the special distinction of providing the world’s first ‘true’ social scientist, Ibn Khaldun, in the 15th century. Notwithstanding this competition over who was the originator of the field, more meaningful is the institutionalisation of social science as a body of study, both for its own sake as well as for the guidance that this subject-matter can provide for policy. It is more relevant to identify the institutionalisation of social science than to cavil over who was its original founding father.Seen from this perspective, it is clear that the academic study of social science and associated public policy implications came into its own in the 19th century in the West, from which it gradually diffused to other regions of the world. The process by which this occurred was often due to Third World intellectuals studying in the West who then brought back with them their own expertise in this area and encouraged institutions of higher learning to establish the various disciplines associated with social science. To some extent, as well, it was due to knowledge brought into the region by Westerners invited in various capacities to be advisors and instructors in Middle Eastern educational and administrative institutions founded for the advancement of ‘modern’ sciencessciences.In the late Ottoman Empire, a group of intellectuals known as the Young Ottomans made it a point to steep themselves in some of these disciplines while students abroad. In Egypt, too, this occurred as, for example, with the Azharite scholar Rifa’ah Rafi’ al-Tahtawi (d. 1873).Perhaps the championing of the work of Emile Durkheim (especially his concept of ‘conscience collective’) by the Turkish scholar Zia Gok Alp (d. 1924) had as much to do with the spread of the study of the social science disciplines in the Middle East as any other individual initiative. It is instructive that in this case the newly established Turkish Republic under Mustafa Kemal actively promoted Gok Alp’s efforts, since Durkheim’s sociology seemed to be highly relevant to the nationalist project of the young Turkish state. In the later decades of the 1930s and 1940s, the study of social science gained currency, particularly among leftists, in such Arab regions and countries as the Maghrib, Syria, Lebanon and Iraq.This was a time of anti-colonial nationalism, and social science came to be seen as an instrument in the nationalist efforts for independence. Perhaps, as well, the achievement of independence encouraged the spread of the study of the social sciences in the Arab world, although some caution is in order on this point. Post-independence governments tended to be authoritarian and so would not be expected to sponsor the unregulated study of the social science disciplines, preferring to supervise its diffusion among the academic institutions of their societies so as to avert criticism of their rule that social science analysis might generate.In the anti-colonial struggles of the 1930s-1960s in the Arab world, social science remained on the “back burner.” The colonialist regimes, seeking to hold on to power, were hardly interested in encouraging its diffusion in higher education institutions. They far preferred to make available educational opportunities for their Arab populations in studies and disciplines that would help them to consolidate their rule.After gaining independence, the leaders of the Arab world continued to ignore social science, a neglect that they could and did rationalize on grounds that much more pressing matters lay before them that required their attention. Although some regimes – such as that in Egypt after 1952 – instituted dramatic changes in education, especially in opening access to it for the broad masses, the authoritarian imprimatur of their rule continued to weigh very significantly against the cultivation of the social sciences in their countries.Since the 1970s, when most of them acquired their independence, some modest efforts have been undertaken to encourage social science learning in the universities of the Gulf states.ProgressIn recent decades significant progress has been made in higher education in the Middle East region. Although one should not underestimate the positive changes that have taken place, such as the construction of new campuses and buildings, the expansion of computer laboratories, the effort to diversify faculty recruitment, and the enhancement of faculty exchange programmes in the universities of the Gulf states, the status of the social sciences in these universities leaves much to be desired. Some of the most important reasons for the weakness and marginalisation of social science teaching and research in these countries relates directly to the steadily mounting patterns of globalisation and their attendant trends of neo-liberalism. The emphasis upon these patterns and trends has resulted in the downgrading of teaching and research in the social sciences because of the valorisation, on the contrary, of such bodies of knowledge as market economics, business administration, trade and finance. These trends are not restricted to the Gulf states nor to the Middle East and North Africa as a whole, but in fact pertain to the hegemonic sweep of capitalism and the logic of the market.To this particular status of the social sciences in the Gulf states should be added their general uncongeniality to the nature of the authoritarian state, as well as, in the first instance, that state’s increasing centralisation of power. This entity is seemingly obsessed with material economic growth and bases its legitimacy upon policing its population. In order to stay the course, these states do not respond to the hearts and minds of their citizens but instead rely upon the mechanisms of co-optation and oppression.One can hardly miss the expanding role of the market in society and the latter’s compelling need for pure applied sciences, such as engineering, accounting and business management. This has reached the point that these fields have overshadowed other areas of study, not because of the formers’ intrinsic value, but because they are considered crucial to the generation of lucrative profits.As a matter of fact, it is not surprising that the status of the social sciences in the Gulf region has something in common with their situation in the developed world in that in both regions one notices the effects of hegemonic capitalism in promoting structural adjustment and market privatisation. It is true, however, that in the Gulf region conditions are affected by the nature of the authoritarian state, which may even control market mechanisms.Arab SpringNonetheless, there are some intimations that bode well for Arab universities in general and for social sciences in those institutions in particular. Such intimations are related to the events known under the general rubric of ‘the Arab Spring’. These have not only sent reverberations throughout the region, but also have shaken popular feelings, established institutions and historical developments throughout the world. Especially relevant is the large, extensive and unexpected participation in the public, and more specifically the political, spheres of Arab societies – including those of the Gulf – by great numbers of women and men who hail from different age and class groups. An incontestable consensus that has been achieved on the part of the multitude of youth, older people and even children with regard to demands that will not easily be given up include transparency, accountability and democracy. These values are central for the disciplines of the social sciences, especially political science, anthropology, sociology and psychology.It is hard to imagine that the events that exploded onto the scene with the Arab Spring will not impact the course of social science research and of higher education in the Gulf universities. It is also difficult to predict the shape and contours of such impact, due to the complexity of the changes in the public arena. Among the most important of these changes is the interaction of theauthoritarian state with the most important issue: how will the hegemonic state deal with the demands of this popular upsurge?In Bahrain, the state has resorted to force and oppression; it appears that the state there has been able successfully to confront the opposition. But will this confrontation last, and for how long?It seems that the events of the Arab Spring have energised academic research in the social sciences among the youth and older generation.This research has generated nuanced and detailed analysis of social action and of the nature and the mutual influences of power, as well as of the cultural symbols and frameworks that are associated with social movements, religious identity, and types and meanings of citizenship.We also see that new studies are appearing of songs, other forms of music and graffiti that are produced by collective action in the domains of strikes and sit-ins. These works have and still do express the tensions and conflicts with the power and symbols of the state.This avalanche of data and studies has entailed publication in electronic sites, in books and in articles. All of these portend a new dawn for the social sciences. Gulf societies are not isolated from these events, and neither are their universities insulated from their societies and contexts. Consequently, we find that in Kuwait, Saudi Arabia and also in Bahrain there have begun to appear new informal societies that discuss intellectual, literary and social matters. At the same time, virtual communities have proliferated that alternately take up political events, far removed from the oversight of state institutions. Works have also appeared that reflect developments that have been going on in Saudi Arabia. This is in addition to periodicals that are issued by centres of social research, such as the journal Social Affairs, which began publication in 1997 on behalf of the Society of Social Scientists and the American University in Sharjah and which fills the need for debate, critique and discussion. All this knowledge production is characterised by detailed social description and precise analysis.Foreign universitiesAt the same time, the public arena has come to be filled by seen the establishment of new foreign universities. Among these are Georgetown University’s School of Foreign Service in Qatar, which offers specialisation in international affairs, politics, culture and international economics; the American University in Sharjah, which has departments in international politics, geography, history, political science, psychology and sociology; and New York University in Abu Dhabi, with its departments of political science, economics and psychology.Despite the recent establishment of these universities, they have enjoyed a warm welcome on the part of students and are expected to may implement a big part of the functions laid out by their founders. It is also expected that they will expand the network of scientific exchange with the state universities. In addition, it is anticipated that these foreign educational institutions will have an impact outside of their university walls via programmes of public service, scientific symposia and workshops. All this will promote the population’s access to debate about such vital arenas as decision-making, the analysis of foreign and domestic public policies, and the critique of social and economic development.The aggregate of these activities within and outside the universities will likely proliferate and generate a new dynamic as far as the social sciences are concerned: a re-evaluation of theories and intellectual frameworks that have so far failed to anticipate the actual developments that have actually occurred in Arab societies. It is also expected that a major reconsideration of programmes and methods of education will take place, so as to enable – or to create the space for – critical thinking that emanates from a deep understanding of the givens of Gulf societies, ranging from their specifics to the points that they have in common with the rest of the region. One hopes that this set of circumstances will generate new, creative scholarly output that is different from the stereotypical intellectual patterns of the past, and, as importantly, open up novel and creative realms for research, theorising and the generation of original knowledge.Contemporary Arab Affairs Follow University World News on Facebook



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