I’ve been spending some time thinking about garbage collection in rust. I know, shame on me, it’s a systems language, we hate garbage collection, but… even in a systems programming language, garbage collection is still pretty damn useful. Hell, even the linux kernel has call_rcu .

Garbage Collection

Let’s start with a definition.

the automatic process of making space in a computer’s memory by removing data that is no longer required or in use. - oed

This definition could easily encompass any memory living on the stack (see C’s use of auto ); however, that’s too broad an interpretation to be useful, nowadays garbage collection is usually restricted to memory on the heap.

What about reference counting à la Rc ? This type often lives on the stack even though it’s responsible for managing the memory of data living on the heap. I think it’d be easy to get a lot of people to agree that this counts as garbage collection, but they’d probably feel the need to explain how it’s different from a typical garbage collection scheme. It’s deterministic, there’s no runtime involved, etc. It’s just not what comes to mind when you hear “garbage collection”.

Lifetimes

The memory managed by Rc is tied to a specific (runtime) lifetime. This lifetime ends when the last instance of Rc referencing the memory gets drop ‘ed. That’s actually pretty specific in the grand scheme of things.

fn consume_len_x10 < T > ( x : Rc < Vec < T >> ) -> usize { let z ; { let y = x ; z = y .len (); } // the Vec pointed to by x might be free'd here // the Vec can't be free'd for the rest of the function let result = z * 5 ; result * 2 }

This is really, really cool. All the code after that first closing brace cannot panic (barring overflow), and doesn’t call free . In fact, the memory once owned by x won’t be touched at all. Garbage collection, as folks tend to think of it, doesn’t provide this strong of a guarantee.

Let’s review that example with an imagined garbage collected pointer, Gc .

fn consume_len_x10 < T > ( x : Gc < Vec < T >> ) -> usize { let z ; { let y = x ; z = y .len (); } // the Vec might be moved, freed, or reused here let result = z * 5 ; // the Vec might be moved, freed, or reused here result * 2 } // the Vec might be moved, freed, or reused here

This is also really neat, for different reasons. Garbage collection allows you to batch up deallocation of objects, move their memory around, and avoid incrementing/decrementing reference counts. All of those hidden actions (usually thought of as maybe happening on every line of source) is typically what comes to mind when people think of garbage collection.

There’s a clear sacrifice though. The useful concept of a lifetime is lost in this sort of scheme. All we have is a lower bound on the lifetime – Vec won’t be drop ‘ed before the first } . If that’s all we have, then T isn’t allowed to be just any type as in the Rc example. T must have some restrictions.

The Collect Trait

fn consume_len_x10 < T : Collect > ( x : Gc < Vec < T >> ) -> usize ;

In the above snippet I’ve bounded T by the trait Collect which represents the requirements for a type to be garbage collectible. Let’s examine some types and figure out which ones should implement Collect .

i32 : Clearly this should implement Collect . If we drop and free any integer later than we expect to drop it, that cannot possibly lead to unsafety.

String : This should also implement Collect . String s own all of their data, so they can never have dangling references. String s also don’t do any funny self-referential tricks, so they can be freely moved around in memory without invalidating any pointers in the String .

&'a i32 : References can also implement Collect . The reference may wind up outliving the data it refers to, but that’s “ok”. Gc will only ever move, or drop it, never dereference it.

struct C<'a>(&'a i32) : C is another happy Collect implementor with one caveat. C , might outlive 'a . If C reads from the contained reference in drop , then that’s a use-after-free – unless 'a is 'static . So the caveat is, “either C cannot implement Drop , or 'a is 'static ”.

Two things jump out at me:

T: 'static implies T: Collect . needs_drop::<T>() == false implies T: Collect .

This leaves out types like:

// where 'a != 'static type D < 'a > = ( String , & 'a i32 ); // a tuple

Even though, it’s pretty clear that if &'a i32 implements Collect , and String implements Collect , then a tuple of the two should implement Collect . If we widened case “2.” from needs_drop to nontrivial_drop for some definition of non-trivial, the tuple case could be handled.

Unfortunately, writing a broad Collect trait is impossible in rust (if you know some secret sauce, please share it). Rust gives you two type-level tools for peeking at drop behavior, Copy and 'static . Each implies Collect . Or’ing those bounds together is impossible even in nightly rust (compiles with overlapping marker traits, but doesn’t do what you’d expect). Even if we could ‘or’ them together, I don’t see a way to generically support the tuple example, without making the Collect trait too broad.

Conclusion

Rust as a language tends to force you to be conservative. Maybe one day we’ll have a trait version of nontrivial_drop::<T>() , but for now, I’m gonna settle on a definition of Collect that’s “good enough”.