Adding and subtracting one

Suppose you want to add one to every element of a list.

For programmers new to functional programming, it's tempting to write a recursive function for this:

; Racket: (define (add1 lst) (if (null? lst) '() (cons (+ 1 (car lst)) (add1 (cdr lst))))) (add1 '(1 2 3))

-- Haskell: add1 :: [Int] -> [Int] add1 lst = if null lst then [] else (head lst + 1) : (add1 (tail lst))

Now suppose you want to sustract one from every element of a list. Following the same strategy as before, you would create a new recursive function:

; Racket: (define (sub1 lst) (if (null? lst) '() (cons (- (car lst) 1) (sub1 (cdr lst)))))

; Haskell: sub1 :: [Int] -> [Int] sub1 lst = if null lst then [] else (head lst - 1) : (sub1 (tail lst))

While both add1 and sub1 are functionally correct, it is easier to use map :

; Racket: (map (λ (x) (+ x 1)) '(1 2 3)) ; yields '(2 3 4)

; Haskell: map (+1) [1,2,3] -- yields [2,3,4]

Abstracting into map

We can coax the definition of map out of add1 by abstracting the addition operation into a functional parameter, f :

; Racket: (define (map/test f lst) (if (null? lst) '() (cons (f (car lst)) (map/test f (cdr lst)))))

; Haskell: mapTest :: (a -> b) -> [a] -> [b] mapTest f lst = if null lst then [] else (f (head lst)) : (mapTest f (tail lst))

(I'm not using the name map to avoid clashing with the language-provided map .)

Map with matching

While the prior definition of map is acceptable, it is not the most natural way to express it in functional programming languages.

Functional programmers prefer structural pattern matches over explicit conditional tests:

; Racket: (define (map/match f lst) (match lst ['() '()] [(cons hd tl) (cons (f hd) (map/match f tl))]))

; Haskell: mapMatch :: (a -> b) -> [a] -> [b] mapMatch f [] = [] mapMatch f (hd:tl) = (f hd):(mapMatch f tl)

Mapping with comprehensions

Racket provides special for forms (comprehensions) which can often replace uses of higher-order list operations like map .

For example, to add one to every list element, try:

(for/list ([x '(1 2 3 4 5)]) (+ x 1)) ; yields '(2 3 4 5 6)

Haskell also provides a comprehension notation for lists:

[ x + 1 | x <- [1,2,3,4,5] ] -- yields [2,3,4,5,6]

Filtering lists

The filter function offers another chance to see the difference between explicit conditional tests and structural pattern matching.

The filter function returns a list in which every element satisfies a predicate:

; Racket: (define (filter/test p? lst) (cond [(null? lst) '()] [(p? (car lst)) (cons (car lst) (filter/test p? (cdr lst)))] [else (filter/test p? (cdr lst))]))

-- Haskell: filterTest :: (a -> Bool) -> [a] -> [a] filterTest p lst = if null lst then [] else if (p (head lst)) then (head lst) : (filterTest p (tail lst)) else (filterTest p (tail lst))

or, with structural pattern matching:

; Racket: (define (filter/match p? lst) (match lst ['() '()] [(cons (? p?) tl) (cons (car lst) (filter/match p? tl))] [(cons hd tl) (filter/match p? tl)]))

; Haskell: filterMatch :: (a -> Bool) -> [a] -> [a] filterMatch p [] = [] filterMatch p (hd:tl) | p hd = hd:(filterMatch p tl) | otherwise = filterMatch p tl

With these:

; Racket: (filter/match even? '(1 2 3 4 5 6)) ; yields '(2 4 6)

-- Haskell: filterMatch even [1,2,3,4,5,6] -- yields [2,4,6]

Filtering with comprehensions

Racket's for forms accept predicates to allow fusion of mapping and filtering:

For example, to select the odd elements and add one:

(for/list ([x '(1 2 3 4 5)] #:when (odd? x)) (+ x 1)) ; yields '(2 4 6)

Haskell's comprehension notation also accepts filters:

[ x + 1 | x <- [1,2,3,4,5], odd x ] -- yields [2,4,6]

Abstracting map

Returning to map , we find two more opportunities for abstraction: we can parameterize both cons and the empty list, '() :

; Racket: (define (abstract-map kons nil f lst) (if (null? lst) nil (kons (f (car lst)) (abstract-map kons nil f (cdr lst)))))

-- Haskell: abstractMap :: (c -> b -> b) -> b -> (a -> c) -> [a] -> b abstractMap kons nil f lst = if null lst then nil else kons (f (head lst)) (abstractMap kons nil f (tail lst))

By supplying the list constructor, the empty list and the identity, it recovers the original list:

; Racket: (abstract-map cons '() identity '(1 2 3 4)) ; yields '(1 2 3 4)

-- Haskell: abstractMap (:) [] id [1,2,3,4] -- yields [1,2,3,4]

But, by supplying addition, 0 and the identity, it sums the list:

; Racket: (abstract-map + 0 identity '(1 2 3 4)) ; yields 10

-- Haskell: abstractMap (+) 0 id [1,2,3,4] -- yields 10

By changing the identity to the function that squares its argument, abstract-map could compute the vector norm of a list:

; Racket: (abstract-map + 0 (λ (x) (* x x)) '(3 4)) ; yields 25

-- Haskell: abstractMap (+) 0 (\x -> x*x) [3,4] -- yields 25

From mapping into folding

Functional programming languages do not supply abstract mapping operations. Rather, they supply folding operations.

To derive folding from abstract mapping, consider that the kons parameter could apply an operation to each element if desired.

Removing the functional parameter f simplifies the function to foldr :

; Racket: (define (foldr/test kons nil lst) (if (null? lst) nil (kons (car lst) (foldr/test kons nil (cdr lst)))))

-- Haskell: foldrTest :: (a -> b -> b) -> b -> [a] -> b foldrTest kons nil lst = if null lst then nil else kons (head lst) (foldrTest kons nil (tail lst))

; Racket: (foldr/test cons '() '(1 2 3 4)) ; yields '(1 2 3 4) (foldr/test + 0 '(1 2 3 4)) ; yields 10

-- Haskell: foldrTest (:) [] [1,2,3,4] -- yields [1,2,3,4] foldrTest (+) 0 [1,2,3,4] -- yields 10

The r in foldr comes from its application of the operation from right to left:

foldr (:) [] [1,2,3,4] = 1:(2:(3:(4:[])))

Folding is the right list operation when you need to track a running accumulation of results from previous iterations.

Folding with tail recursion

In strict functional programming languages, proper programmming practice dictates tail recursion for efficiency.

Transforming foldr to use tail recursion yields foldl :

-- Racket: (define (foldl/test kons nil lst) (if (null? lst) nil (foldl/test kons (kons (car lst) nil) (cdr lst))))

-- Haskell: foldlTest :: (a -> b -> b) -> b -> [a] -> b foldlTest kons nil lst = if null lst then nil else foldlTest kons (kons (head lst) nil) (tail lst)

Now, folding applies the operation left to right:

foldl (:) [] [1,2,3,4] = 4:(3:(2:(1:[])))

which means:

; Racket: (foldl/test cons '() '(1 2 3 4)) ; yields '(4 3 2 1)

-- Haskell: foldlTest (:) [] [1,2,3,4] -- yields [4,3,2,1]

Folding with comprehensions in Racket

Racket provides a general for/fold form to express folds and combinations thereof with filters and maps.

For examples, to sum the elements of a list:

(for/fold ([sum 0]) ([x '(1 2 3 4)]) (+ x sum)) ; yields 10

And, for/fold supports multiple accumulators as well:

(for/fold ([sum 0] [product 1]) ([x '(1 2 3 4)]) (values (+ x sum) (* x product))) ; yields 10 24

Reducing

Reducing is a special case of folding in which no initial accumulation element is supplied and the folding operation is an associative, commutative binary operator over a set:

; Racket (define (reduce op lst) (match lst ['() (error "no elements in list")] [(list a) a] [(cons hd tl) (op hd (reduce op tl))]))

-- Haskell: reduce :: (a -> a -> a) -> [a] -> a reduce op [] = error "no elements in list" reduce op [x] = x reduce op (x:tl) = op x (reduce op tl)

And, then:

; Racket: (reduce + '(1 2 3 4)) ; yields 10

-- Haskell: reduce (+) [1,2,3,4] -- yields 10

Zipping

Zipping combines two lists into a single list of pairs element-wise.

Were we to write zip by hand, it would move through two lists in tandem, pairing the elements:

; Racket: (define (zip lst1 lst2) (match* [lst1 lst2] [{'() '()} '()] [{(cons hd1 tl1) (cons hd2 tl2)} (cons (list hd1 hd2) (zip tl1 tl2))]))

-- Haskell: myZip :: [a] -> [b] -> [(a,b)] myZip [] [] = [] myZip (hd1:tl1) (hd2:tl2) = (hd1,hd2):(myZip tl1 tl2)

Haskell has a zip function, but Racket does not, because Racket programmers can zip by supplying extra arguments to map :

(map list '(1 2 3 4) '(4 5 6 7)) ; yields '((1 4) (2 5) (3 6) (4 7))

Zipping with Racket comprehensions

The for notation in Racket can also zip lists; for example:

(for/list ([x '(1 2 3 4)] [y '(4 5 6 7)]) (list x y)) ; yields '((1 4) (2 5) (3 6) (4 7))

Unzipping

Unzipping a list of pairs into two lists is trickier.

Since it returns two values, it can make the function awkward to write:

; Racket: (define (unzip/values lst) (match lst ['() (values '() '())] [(cons (list a b) tl) (define-values (as bs) (unzip/values tl)) (values (cons a as) (cons b bs))]))

-- Haskell: myUnzip :: [(a,b)] -> ([a],[b]) myUnzip [] = ([],[]) myUnzip ((x,y):tl) = let (xs,ys) = myUnzip tl in (x:xs,y:ys)

Unzipping with continuations

The awkwardness in unzip comes from capturing multiple return values.

Capturing multiple return values is easier with continuation-passing style.

We're going to pass a callback--a continuation--to unzip that will accept the two unzipped lists:

; Racket: (define (unzip/callback lst k) (match lst ['() (k '() '())] [(cons (list a b) tl) (unzip/callback tl (λ (as bs) (k (cons a as) (cons b bs))))]))

-- Haskell: unzipk :: [(a,b)] -> ([a] -> [b] -> d) -> d unzipk [] k = k [] [] unzipk ((x,y):tl) k = unzipk tl (\ xs ys -> k (x:xs) (y:ys))

To use this form, the programmer must supply the callback:

; Racket: (unzip/callback '((1 2) (3 4) (5 6)) (λ (as bs) as)) ; yields '(1 3 5)

-- Haskell: unzipk [(1,2),(3,4),(5,6)] (\ as bs -> as) -- yields [1,3,5]

Partitioning

Partitioning is like filtering, except that it returns two lists: one list contains the elements matching the predicate; the other list contains those that do not.

Once again, the need to return multiple values makes the implementation feel awkward:

; Racket: (define (partition/values p? lst) (match lst ['() (values '() '())] [(cons hd tl) (let-values ([{ins outs} (partition/values p? tl)]) (if (p? hd) (values (cons hd ins) outs) (values ins (cons hd outs))))]))

-- Haskell: partition :: (a -> Bool) -> [a] -> ([a],[a]) partition p [] = ([],[]) partition p (hd:tl) = let (ins,outs) = partition p tl in if p hd then (hd:ins,outs) else (ins,hd:outs)

Partitioning with continuations

Converting partitioning to continuation-passing style makes it easier to write and more convenenient to use:

; Racket: (define (partition/callback p? lst k) (match lst ['() (k '() '())] [(cons hd tl) (partition/callback p? tl (λ (ins outs) (if (p? hd) (k (cons hd ins) outs) (k ins (cons hd outs)))))]))

-- Haskell: partitionk :: (a -> Bool) -> [a] -> ([a] -> [a] -> d) -> d partitionk p [] k = (k [] []) partitionk p (hd:tl) k = partitionk p tl (\ ins outs -> if p hd then k (hd:ins) outs else k ins (hd:outs))

Further reading

I bought Learn You a Haskell for Great Good! as a resource for my lab to learn Haskell, and I recommend it for newcomers:

My colleagues David Van Horn and Matthias Felleisen teamed up to author Realm of Racket , a guide to learning programming in Racket with games:

The go-to resource on functional data structures and operations remains Chris Okasaki's Purely Functional Data Structures :

It's one of the classics that every functional programmer has on their shelf.

Code

The Racket code and the Haskell code are both available.

Exercises

Rewrite abstract mapping and folding using matching. Rewrite mapping, filtering and folding using continuations.

Related pages