This is the second part of my in-depth presentation of the new Haxe target: HashLink, please read the Part 1 beforehand.

HashLink Runtime

As we saw in the bytecode part, the "Natives table" section contains a list of C functions that are loaded from either the HL runtime or extra C libraries.

The HashLink Runtime consists of:

A set of C functions to manipulate Objects, Bytes, Functions, etc.

A complete UCS2 String API with conversions from/to UTF8

A custom Garbage Collector which will perform allocation and regular memory collection

Support for exceptions and stack traces

Full system API (Haxe Sys class and sys package) with file-system I/O, networking, etc.

class and package) with file-system I/O, networking, etc. Math functions, etc.

The HL run-time is compiled as a native dynamic library, named libhl (using the platform native extension - .dll on Windows, .so on Linux, etc.).

At the moment, the JIT compiler and byte-code reader are not part of the HL but of the virtual machine ( hl executable).

HL/C

The separation between the VM and the run-time is necessary in order to allow the translation of HL byte-code to C.

Because our byte-code is quite low level and strictly typed, it is easy to translate each opcode to the corresponding C statement with the exact same semantics. This can be done with theHaxe compiler by compiling to a C file instead of a .hl byte-code file:

haxe -hl main.c -main Main

This will output the following C file:

// main.c // Generated by HLC 3.3.0 (HL v1) #define HLC_BOOT #include < hlc . h > // Types definitions typedef struct _hl__types__BaseType *hl__types__BaseType; typedef struct _hl__types__Class *hl__types__Class; typedef struct _String * String ; ... // Types implementation struct _hl__types__BaseType { hl_type * $type ; hl_type * __type__ ; vdynamic * __meta__ ; varray * __implementedBy__ ; }; .... // Globals static hl__types__ $ BaseType global $0 = 0 ; static $ String global $1 = 0 ; static hl__types__Class global $2 = 0 ; ... // Natives functions HL_API varray * hl_alloc_array ( hl_type *, int ); HL_API bool hl_sys_utf8_path (); HL_API void hl_bytes_blit ( vbyte *, int , vbyte *, int , int ); ... // Functions declaration static void Main_main (); static String Std_string ( vdynamic *); static vdynamic * Std___add__ ( vdynamic *, vdynamic *); static String String_fromCharCode ( int ); .... // Strings static vbyte string $0[] = { 0 , 0 } /* */ ; static vbyte string $1[] = { 104 , 0 , 108 , 0 , 46 , 0 , 116 ,...} /* hl.types.Class */ ; static vbyte string $2[] = { 104 , 0 , 108 , 0 , 46 , 0 , 116 , 0 , 121 , 0 , 112 , 0 , 101 , 0 , 115 ,...} /* hl.types.BaseType */ ; .... // Functions code static void Main_main () { String r2 ; int r3 ; vbyte * r1 ; r2 = ( String ) hl_alloc_obj ( String__val ); r1 = string $33; r2 -> bytes = r1 ; r3 = 11 ; r2 -> length = r3 ; Sys_println ((( vdynamic *) r2 )); return ; } ....

I have cut some parts that are related to type signatures and closures but, as you can see, if you have read the HashLink Bytecode section, this is very similar to what the byte-code does. The only difference is that instead of being loaded by the HL VM and run using JIT, the "byte-code" will be compiled by a fully optimizing C compiler, increasing the speed even more! And because both HL/JIT and HL/C share the same run-time (same garbage collector, same native functions, etc.), they will run exactly the same without any difference in terms of semantics.

Once you have your C code, you simply have to compile it with the hlc.h hl.h and hlc_main.c files which are all present in the src directory of HashLink repository and link it to the HL-run-time. One way of doing this is using GCC:

gcc -o myApp -O3 -std=c11 -I hl/src main.c hl/src/hlc_main.c -lhl -lm

Important Notes:

if you get an error pasting "u" and ""Null access"" does not give a valid preprocessing token it means you forgot to add -std=c11 . We only use C11 for unicode string literals support but it is necessary to compile HL run-time and HL/C code.

at the moment, the HL/JIT only supports x86 and not x86-64, which would require building a 32 bit version of the HL run-time to use it. This is done by using make ARCH=32 in HL sources. But if you want to link to this version of the run-time, you need to add -m32 to your gcc compilation options. Another option would be to have two compiled versions of the run-time: a 32 bit version for HL/JIT and a 64 bit for HL/C. I hope to add 64 bit JIT support in the upcoming months.

HL Type System

HashLink has its own low level types that are used for registers and function parameters. Haxe types are represented using the following low level types:

HashLink basic types and their memory representation:

void not really a value, used for typing purpose

not really a value, used for typing purpose ui8 an unsigned 8 bits integer (0-255)

an unsigned 8 bits integer (0-255) ui16 and unsigned 16 bits integer (0-65535)

and unsigned 16 bits integer (0-65535) i32 a signed 32 bits integer (-2147483648-2147483647)

a signed 32 bits integer (-2147483648-2147483647) bool a boolean (true or false)

a boolean (true or false) f32 32 bits single precision IEEE floating point

32 bits single precision IEEE floating point f64 64 bits double precision IEEE floating point

All the following values are memory addresse pointers and takes either 4 bytes in x86 mode or 8 bytes in x86-64 mode:

bytes raw bytes (similar to C char* ) can be freely read/written to without any kind of bounds check

raw bytes (similar to C ) can be freely read/written to without any kind of bounds check dyn a dynamic value, can contain any other value, its runtime type can be known with gettype opcode

a dynamic value, can contain any other value, its runtime type can be known with opcode ret fun(args) functions are strictly typed in HL. Can be a closure or a direct function

functions are strictly typed in HL. Can be a closure or a direct function array an array of values. Low level arrays are not strictly typed and not bounds checked, and they have a fixed length

an array of values. Low level arrays are not strictly typed and not bounds checked, and they have a fixed length #object a fixed object type with single inheritance, see below

a fixed object type with single inheritance, see below dynobj a dynamic object which we can add or remove fields at will (see below)

a dynamic object which we can add or remove fields at will (see below) virtual(fields...) a virtual interface to an underlying #object or dynobj (see below)

a virtual interface to an underlying or (see below) enum(name) an enum value, can have different constructor with optional parameters (see below)

an enum value, can have different constructor with optional parameters (see below) ref(T) a memory reference of type T, which can be read or written

a memory reference of type T, which can be read or written null(T) a value of type T that can be null (T being a basic type)

a value of type T that can be (T being a basic type) type a value which represent an HL type, any type in HL is also a value

a value which represent an HL type, any type in HL is also a value abstract(name) an abstract value, usually made accessible from a C interface

Memory storage

Memory consumption in HL is identical to C, and might depend on the C compiler you are using:

ui8 will take 1 byte, ui16 2 bytes, i32 and f32 4 bytes and f64 8 bytes

will take 1 byte, 2 bytes, and 4 bytes and 8 bytes depending on the C compiler bool might take 1 byte or 4 bytes in memory

might take 1 byte or 4 bytes in memory object data will be aligned on each member bytes size, so for instance f64 will always be aligned on 8 bytes.

Boxing

Any Function, Object, Virtual, Array, Null and DynObj can be assigned to dyn without requiring any allocation since they carry their runtime type in their first memory address. All other types (basic types as well as bytes, type, ref, abstract and enum) requires boxing allocation when cast to dynamic (using todyn opcode)

Matches between Haxe and HashLink:

Haxe Void is HL void

Haxe Int is HL i32

Haxe Bool is HL bool

Haxe String is HL #String (as with all other objects)

(as with all other objects) Haxe Float is HL f64

Haxe Single is HL f32

Haxe Dynamic is HL dyn

Haxe anonymous structure or interface instances are HL virtual(...) (see bellow)

Objects

There are two kind of objects in HL: static objects and dynamic objects.

Static objects are similar to classes in Haxe. Let's look at the following Haxe class:

class Point extends Geometry { public var x : Float ; public var y : Float ; public function new () {} function add ( p2 : Point ) { ... } static function alloc ( x , y ) { ... } }

Here's the dump for the HL definition of the class as a static object:

Point @658 extends Geometry 2 fields @0 x f64 @1 y f64 2 methods @0 add fun@456 @1 toString fun@82[0]

This data consists of:

a specific name: Point

an optional super-class which from which we will inherit both fields and methods - Geometry in this example

in this example a list of strictly typed fields: x and y both declared as being f64

and both declared as being a list of methods and their function indexes add and toString - some methods will override others or will be overridden in sub-classes so they need an override slot: here toString overrides slot 0

and - some methods will override others or will be overridden in sub-classes so they need an override slot: here overrides slot 0 an optional global table index which can be retrieved and is used to store the static class value - here @658 . It will give us access to an object of type #$Point which is the the class point value which extends hl.types.Class and will have a field alloc

Given that we know all the fields of the static objects and their order, compiling a field access can be done very efficiently by simply reading at the correct memory offset.

DynObj

While static objects are very fast, they lack the ability to create more fields or delete them. Instead, the dynobj type can be used to perform dynamic field allocation. Dynamic objects are a lot more flexible than static objects but they are also a lot slower so they are not always suitable for the implementation of Haxe features such as anonymous structures.

Dynamic objects are implemented as sorted arrays so searching a field have a run-time of O(log n) using the hashed representation of the field.

Virtuals

Virtuals are used to implement both anonymous structures and interfaces in Haxe.

A virtual consists of a strictly typed list of references to an underlying object field. This underlying object can be a static object, a dynamic object, or some space allocated into the virtual itself.

Virtuals of Static Object

This creates a virtual from static object point:

var o : { x : Float , y : Float } = new Point ();

The virtual type will be virtual(x:f64,y:f64) , which measn the virtual will store:

a reference to the Point object, so if cast to it is made, its value can be retrieved

object, so if cast to it is made, its value can be retrieved references to the addresses of the x and y values inside the Point value, so we can read and write them with an extra indirection

In that case (static object to virtual), a virtual is allocated every time this kind of operation occurs. this means that it is a bit of an expensive operation but these cases are rarer.

In the special cases of interfaces which are also virtuals of static objects, each class has an extra field per interface used to store the allocated virtual interface when it is required, so allocation will only occur once - when requested.

Virtuals of Dynamic Objects

Let's look at the following example:

var o : { x : Float , y : Float } = haxe. Json . parse ( '{ "x" : 5.3 }' );

The JSON parser will allocate a dynamic object with only a single field x . Casting to virtual, we will allocate a virtual with:

a reference to the underlying dynobj

a reference to the x value inside the dynobj data

value inside the data a NULL reference for the y field

Since there is a NULL reference to y , every access to it - either to read or write - will be performed dynamically. In case of writing, this will create the field in the dynobj and update the reference in the virtual table.

Given that the form of the dynobj can change, each dynobj stores the list of virtuals it has been casted to and will update their field references as fields get added / removed or have their type changed. Thus, only the first dynobj-to-virtual cast will perform an allocation.

Compact Virtuals

When we already know the list of fields but they might increase if accessed through reflection, we allocate a virtual with some extra space to store the data for these fields. Look at the following example:

var o = { x : 1.5 , y : - 1.5 };

This will allocate a virtual with:

no reference to any underlying object, but extra data to store the two f64 (16 bytes)

(16 bytes) references to the addresses of the x and y value inside our own virtual

This is not as fast as a static object since it requires one extra indirection for reading/writing the fields and takes a bit more memory (one memory address per field) but it still gives very good performance.

We cannot use a static object in that case, because later in the code on might do:

Reflect . setField ( o , "y" , "BAD!" );

In that case, we will:

allocate a new dynobj which copies our current virtual data

which copies our current virtual data store it as a reference in our virtual *.update the dynobj by changing the y field from being an f64 to being a #String

As a result, this will set our reference to y in our virtual to NULL

the next read of y on the virtual will then be performed dynamically, which will cast the String to f64

on the virtual will then be performed dynamically, which will cast the String to f64 the next write to y will change back the dynobj y field to being an f64 and update the virtual reference to it

will change back the dynobj field to being an and update the virtual reference to it When a "compact virtual" has mutated into a virtual of dynobj, it continues to occupy the now unused extra data space that was allocated for it (16 bytes in our example).

Enums

Enums are represented by a list of constructors with per-constructor fields, for example:

enum MyEnum { A ; B ; C ( e : String ); D ( x : Int , y : Int ); E ( v : MyEnum ); }

This defines 5 constructors for enum(MyEnum) :

constructor A with index 0 and no extra field

with index 0 and no extra field constructor B with index 1 and no extra field

with index 1 and no extra field constructor C with index 2 and one extra field of type #String

with index 2 and one extra field of type constructor D with index 3 and two extra fields of type i32

with index 3 and two extra fields of type constructor E with index 4 and one extra field of type enum(MyEnum)

When allocating an enum value we specify the constructor index an the field values. This wazy, HL knows exactly how much memory space to allocate to store these values.

The constructor index can be read using getenumindex opcode and fields can be accessed by specifying both the constructor and field indexes. The correctness of this access is guaranteed by the Haxe Compiler's switch expression typing.

As a result, an enum only takes 4 bytes plus its extra field data in terms of memory. Constructors with no extra fields are constant so they are only allocated once.

Bytecode Reference

As a complementary to previous part, here's a list of HashLink opcodes:

mov [dst], [src] dst := src (copy src register value to dst register)

Constant loading

int [dst], @[index] store int value at specified index in Int table into dst register

float [dst], @[index] store float value at specified index in Int table into dst register

string [dst], @[index] store the UCS2 string at specified index in String table into dst register

bytes [dst], @[index] store the raw UTF8/Binary bytes at specified index in String table into dst register

true [dst] dst := true (store true boolean into dst register)

false [dst] dst := false (store false boolean into dst register)

null [dst] dst := null (store null value into dst register)

Numerical Operations

add [dst], [a], [b] dst := a + b (numeric types only)

sub [dst], [a], [b] dst := a - b (numeric types only)

mul [dst], [a], [b] dst := a * b (numeric types only)

sdiv [dst], [a], [b] dst := a / b (numeric types only) signed mode

udiv [dst], [a], [b] dst := a / b (integer types only) unsigned mode

smod [dst], [a], [b] dst := a % b (numeric types only) signed mode

umod [dst], [a], [b] dst := a % b (integer types only) unsigned mode

Bitwise Operations

shl [dst], [a], [b] dst := a << b (integer types only)

sshr [dst], [a], [b] dst := a >> b (integer types only) signed mode

ushr [dst], [a], [b] dst := a >>> b (integer types only) unsigned mode

and [dst], [a], [b] dst := a & b (integer types only)

or [dst], [a], [b] dst := a OR b (integer types only)

xor [dst], [a], [b] dst := a ^ b (integer types only)

Other Operations

neg [dst], [a] dst := -a

not [dst], [a] dst := !a (bool only)

incr [dst] dst := dst + 1

decr [dst] dst := dst - 1

Calls

call [dst], FunctionName([args]) call the static function with registers args and store the result in dst

callmethod [dst], [obj][field]([args]) call the obj prototype method stored at index field with registers args and store the result in dst

callclosure [dst], [func]([args]) call the function stored in register func with registers args and store the result in dst

callthis [dst], [field]([args]) same as callmethod, but assume obj = register 0

Functions

staticclosure [dst], FunctionName creates a closure from the given function and store it in dst

instanceclosure [dst], FunctionName([obj]) creatures a closure by applying the first argument of the function to obj and store the function with the remaining arguments in dst

virtualclosure [dst], [obj][field] same as instance closure, but fetch the method from the object prototype instead of being a static function

setmethod [obj][field], FunctionName initialize a static method into an class

Globals

getglobal [dst], [index] dst := GLOBALS[index] (load the global value at index into dst )

setglobal [index], [r] GLOBALS[index] := r (store r into the global value at index )

Control Flow

Offsets in jumps are always expressed in number of opcodes, starting from the opcode just after the jump.

ret [r] return with the register r value

jtrue [r], [offset] jump by offset opcodes if register r is true

jfalse [r], [offset] jump by offset opcodes if register r is false

jnull [r], [offset] jump by offset opcodes if register r is null

jnotnull [r], [offset] jump by offset opcodes if register r is not null

jslt [a], [b], [offset] jump by offset opcodes if register values comparison a < b (numerical types only) signed mode

jsgt [a], [b], [offset] jump by offset opcodes if register values comparison a > b (numerical types only) signed mode

jslte [a], [b], [offset] jump by offset opcodes if register values comparison a <= b (numerical types only) signed mode

jsgte [a], [b], [offset] jump by offset opcodes if register values comparison a >= b (numerical types only) signed mode

jult [a], [b], [offset] jump by offset opcodes if register values comparison a < b (integer types only) unsigned mode

jugte [a], [b], [offset] jump by offset opcodes if register values comparison a >= b (integer types only) unsigned mode

jeq [a], [b], [offset] jump by offset opcodes if register values comparison a == b (numerical types only)

jnoteq [a], [b], [offset] jump by offset opcodes if register values comparison a != b (numerical types only)

jalways [offset] always jump by offset

label necessary to indicate a loop starting point. jumps with negative offsets must always target a label

Conversion

todyn [dst], [r] dst := Dynamic(r) - boxing of a basic type

tosfloat [dst], [r] dst := Float(r) (signed mode)

toufloat [dst], [r] dst := Foat(r) (unsigned mode)

toint [dst], [r] dst := Int(r) (signed mode)

Object access

Object field accesses are not null checked in HL but the Haxe compiler will insert all the necessary nullcheck s. As a result, if a variable is not modified and accessed for several fields, only the first access will perform a null-check.

new [dst] dst := new object (allocate a new object uninitialized object into dst )

nullcheck [r] throw an exception if r is null

field [dst], [obj][field] read the field of the register obj at the specified index and store it into the dst register

setfield [obj][field], [r] write the field of the register obj at the specified index with the register r 's current value

getthis [dst], [field] same as getfield with register 0 as obj

setthis [field], [r] same as setfield with register 0 as obj

dynget [dst], [obj][f] read the field of the register obj the name of which is stored in the register f into dst register

dynset [obj][f], [r] write the field of the register obj the name of which is stored in the register f with the register r 's current value

Exceptions

throw [r] throw the exception value in register r

rethrow [r] same as throw but keep the previous exception stack trace

trap [r], [offset] setup a try/catch, will store the exception in register r and jump by the offset if an exception occurs

endtrap end the latest trap section

Bytes Access

All byte accesses in HL are low level which means that there are no bound checks or null checks being performed. This will give the same speed as doing a pointer access in C. All accesses are performed in native CPU endianness.

getui8 [dst], [bytes][pos] read 8 bits unsigned integer in register bytes at index register pos and store it into dst

getui16 [dst], [bytes][pos] read 16 bits unsigned integer in register bytes at index register pos and store it into dst

geti32 [dst], [bytes][pos] read 32 bits integer in register bytes at index register pos and store it into dst

getf32 [dst], [bytes][pos] read 32 bits float in register bytes at index register pos and store it into dst

getf64 [dst], [bytes][pos] read 64 bits double in register bytes at index register pos and store it into dst

setui8 [bytes][pos], [r] stores 8 bits unsigned integer in register r into register bytes at index register pos

setui16 [bytes][pos], [r] stores 16 bits unsigned integer in register r into register bytes at index register pos

seti32 [bytes][pos], [r] stores 32 bits integer in register r into register bytes at index register pos

setf32 [bytes][pos], [r] stores 32 bits float in register r into register bytes at index register pos

setf64 [bytes][pos], [r] stores 64 bits double in register r into register bytes at index register pos

Array Access

Array accesses are unsafe in HL in the sense that there is a single array type but you can read any type of value from it. No bound checks are performed either.

getarray [dst], [array][pos] read the value at register pos into register array and store it into register dst

setarray [array][pos], [r] store the value of register r into register array at register pos

arraysize [dst], [array] read the array size into register dst

Coercions

safecast [dst], [r] cast register r into register dst , throw an exception if there is no way to perform such operation

unsafecast [dst], [r] store register r into register dst of a different type without any runtime cast (might crash the program at a later point in case the type was not valid)

tovirtual [dst], [r] converts object or virtual value in register r to the dst virtual

Types

type [dst], T dst := T, store the type T into register dst

gettype [dst], [r] dst := typeof(r), extract the type from current value r into dst

gettid [dst], [r] store the type kind integer identifier of type value r into dst

References

ref [dst], [r] dst := &r, store a reference to register r into dst

unref [dst], [r] dst := *r, read reference at address r into dst

setref [r], [v] *r := v, store value in register v into reference at address r

Enums

makenum [dst], CID, [args...] create an enum with constructor CID and value in registers args and store it into dst

enumalloc [dst], CID create an enum with constructor CID with all values as default and store it into dst

enumindex [dst], [r] store into register dst the enum constructor index of register r

enumfield [dst], [r], CID, FID read the field at index FID of constructor CID of enum in register r into dst

setenumfield [e], FID, [r] store the value in register r into the field at index FID (of constructor index 0) of enum value in register e

Misc

switch [r] [offsets] [end] jump by an offset depending on the int value of register r or continue if r is outside the range end mark the end of the last case of the switch