[1] “FM 7-100.1 Opposing Force Operations,” Headquarters, Department of the Army, December 2004, http://www.bits.de/NRANEU/others/amd-us-archive/FM7-100.1%2804%29.pdf.

[2] “FM 7-100.2 Opposing Force Operations,” Headquarters, Department of the Army, December 2004, http://www.bits.de/NRANEU/others/amd-us-archive/FM7-100.1%2804%29.pdf.

[3] “Statement by Pentagon Spokesman Capt. Jeff Davis on U.S. Counterterrorism Operations in Somalia,” Department of Defense, March 30, 2017, https://dod.defense.gov/News/News-Releases/News-Release-View/Article/1135338/statement-by-pentagon-spokesman-capt-jeff-davis-on-us-counterterrorism-operatio/; Bill Roggio and Alexandra Gutowski, “Shabaab launches another attack on U.S. and partner forces,” Long War Journal, September 24, 2018, https://www.longwarjournal.org/archives/2018/09/shabaab-attack.php; Christina Goldbaum, “A ‘firefight’ in Somalia exposes weakness of Pentagon combat rules in Africa,” The Daily Beast, May 14, 2018, https://www.thedailybeast.com/a-firefight-in-somalia-exposes-weaknesses-of-pentagon-combat-rules-in-africa?ref=home; Conor Gaffey, “Why is Trump sending more U.S. troops to Somalia?” Newsweek, April 19, 2017, https://www.newsweek.com/us-troops-somalia-donald-trump-al-shabab-586004; and “Al Shabaab leader Ahmed Diriye’s son & 11 others killed by U.S. forces,” Radio Dalsan, March 12, 2018, https://www.radiodalsan.com/en/2018/03/12/alshabaab-leader-ahmed-diriyes-son-11-others-killed-by-us-forces/.

[4] Jordan Indermuehle, “Al Shabaab area of operations in Somalia: October 2017,” Critical Threats Project at the American Enterprise Institute, October 17, 2017, https://www.criticalthreats.org/analysis/al-shabaab-area-of-operations-october-2017; and “SNA, AU troops launch new anti-al Shabaab offensive,” Garowe, August 11, 2018, https://www.garoweonline.com/en/news/somalia/somalia-sna-au-troops-launch-new-offensive-against-al-shabab.

[5] Matthew Cassidy, “Al Shabaab’s Vehicle-Borne IED Campaign: January 2017-March 2018,” Critical Threats Project at the American Enterprise Institute, April 13, 2018, https://www.criticalthreats.org/analysis/al-shabaabs-vehicle-borne-ied-campaign.

[6] Matthew Cassidy, “Al Shabaab’s Vehicle-Borne IED Campaign: January 2017-March 2018,” Critical Threats Project at the American Enterprise Institute, April 13, 2018, https://www.criticalthreats.org/analysis/al-shabaabs-vehicle-borne-ied-campaign.

[7] Mark Mwithaga, “2 killed after al Shabaab ambush bus heading to Garissa,” Kenyans.com, September 14, 2018, https://www.kenyans.co.ke/news/33130-2-killed-after-al-shabaab-ambush-bus-heading-garissa; and “Suspected al Shabaab militants kill five soldiers in Kenya’s Lamu: county official,” Reuters, August 8, 2018, https://www.reuters.com/article/us-kenya-security/suspected-al-shabaab-militants-kill-five-soldiers-in-kenyas-lamu-county-official-idUSKBN1KT26D.

[8] “Unanimously adopting Resolution 2431 (2018), Security Council extends mandate of African Union Mission in Somalia, authorizes troop reduction,” United Nations, July 30, 2018, https://www.un.org/press/en/2018/sc13439.doc.htm; and “AMISOM and UNMAS pledge to work together to counter threat of IEDs in Somalia,” African Union Mission in Somalia, September 11, 2018, http://amisom-au.org/2018/09/amisom-and-unmas-pledge-to-work-together-to-counter-the-threat-of-ieds-in-somalia/.

[9] “More than a dozen die in Mogadishu car bomb attack,” Africa Times, July 8, 2018, https://africatimes.com/2018/07/08/more-than-a-dozen-die-in-mogadishu-car-bomb-attack/; “Twin car bomb blasts near Villa Somalia leave 8 dead,” Radio Shabelle, July 14, 2018, http://radioshabelle.com/twin-car-bomb-blasts-near-villa-somalia-leave-8-dead/; and Matthew Cassidy, “Al Shabaab’s Vehicle-Borne IED Campaign: January 2017-March 2018,” Critical Threats Project at the American Enterprise Institute, April 13, 2018, https://www.criticalthreats.org/analysis/al-shabaabs-vehicle-borne-ied-campaign.

[10] “Parts of Mogadishu streets locked down,” Radio Shabelle, August 27, 2018, http://radioshabelle.com/parts-of-mogadishu-streets-locked-down/; and Abdi Guled, “6 dead in blast at district headquarters in Somali capital,” Associated Press, September 10, 2018, https://www.apnews.com/c829267d53be405abdfd0f6bbef59e02.

[11] “Gulf of Aden Security Review: September 17, 2018,” Critical Threats Project at the American Enterprise Institute, September 17, 2018, https://www.criticalthreats.org/briefs/gulf-of-aden-security-review/gulf-of-aden-security-review-september-17-2018.

[12] “Somali Army liberates coastal locations in Mogadishu,” Radio Muqdisho, September 18, 2018, http://23.251.131.121/player/video.php?storyid=323472759&encryptid=wqs09ycj2gkzbnxp5dmft8h4r6v713; and “Somali Army in major operation to open Mogadishu-Marka roads,” Goobjoog, September 25, 2018, http://goobjoog.com/english/somali-army-in-major-operations-to-open-mogadishu-marka-roads/.

[13] “Gulf of Aden Security Review: June 11, 2018,” Critical Threats Project at the American Enterprise Institute, June 11, 2018, https://www.criticalthreats.org/briefs/gulf-of-aden-security-review/gulf-of-aden-security-review-june-11-2018; Harun Maruf, “12 killed as al Shabaab attacks Somali military base,” Voice of America, July 23, 2018, https://www.voanews.com/a/somalia-s-al-shabab-says-it-storms-military-base-kills-27-troops/4494676.html; and “Military movement underway in Lower Jubba region,” Radio Shabelle, July 24, 2018, http://radioshabelle.com/military-movement-underway-in-lower-jubba-region/.

[14] “Al Shabaab claims killing 4 soldiers in IED blast near Beledweyne,” Radio Shabelle, December 6, 2017, http://radioshabelle.com/al-shabaab-claims-killing-4-soldiers-ied-blast-near-beledweyne/; and “Two Somali lawmakers killed in al Shabaab ambush,” Jowhar News, June 6, 2018, https://www.jowhar.com/english-news/two-somali-lawmakers-killed-in-al-shabaab-ambush.html5.

[15] “Somali forces raid al Shabaab targets north of Mogadishu,” Mareeg, August 7, 2018; https://mareeg.com/somali-forces-raid-al-shabaab-targets-in-north-of-mogadishu/; Harun Maruf, Twitter, September 9, 2018, https://twitter.com/HarunMaruf/status/1039039699195764737; “Somali special forces capture al Shabaab bases in southern region,” Xinhua, August 7, 2018, http://www.xinhuanet.com/english/africa/2018-08/08/c_137374388.htm; “An intense airstrike reported in al Shabaab-held area in southern Somalia,” Radio Shabelle, October 3, 2018, http://radioshabelle.com/an-intense-airstrike-reported-in-al-shabab-held-area-in-southern-somalia/; and “Al Shabaab fighters seize town in central Somalia,” Jowhar News, June 2, 2018, https://www.jowhar.com/english-news/al-shabaab-fighters-seize-town-in-central-somalia-residents.html5.

[16] “Al Shabaab seizes strategic town near Baidoa,” Garowe, June 7, 2018, https://www.garoweonline.com/en/news/somalia/somalia-al-shabaab-seizes-strategic-town-near-baidoa; “Shabaab claims killing 20 soldiers in ambush on Kenyan soldiers in Lamu County,” SITE Intel Group, August 29, 2018, English translation available at ent.siteintelgroup.com; “Somali Army forces engage al Shabaab militants in multiple offensives in Baidoa, southwestern Somalia,” Strategic Intelligence, August 27, 2018, https://intelligencebriefs.com/somali-army-forces-engage-al-shabaab-militants-in-multiple-offensives-in-baidoa-southwestern-somalia-s-i-situation-report/; and “Four killed as Somali forces clash with al Shabaab,” Mareeg, June 11, 2018, https://mareeg.com/four-killed-as-somali-forces-clash-with-al-shabaab/.

[17] “Al Shabaab captures strategic area from Jubbaland forces,” Horn News 24, July 29, 2018, https://www.hornnews24.net/al-shabaab-captures-strategic-area-from-jubba-land-forces/; and Emily Estelle, “Testimony: Ethiopia’s strategic importance: U.S. national security interests at risk in the Horn of Africa,” Critical Threats Project at the American Enterprise Institute, September 12, 2018, https://www.criticalthreats.org/analysis/testimony-ethiopias-strategic-importance-us-national-security-interests-at-risk-in-the-horn-of-africa.

[18] Manase Otsialo, “Al Shabaab militants raid Komor Haile mosque, preach for hours,” The Nation, May 25, 2018, https://www.nation.co.ke/counties/mandera/Al-Shabaab-militants-raid-mosque--preach-for-hours/1183298-4579638-b1nafu/index.html; and “Gulf of Aden Security Review: September 14, 2018,” Critical Threats Project at the American Enterprise Institute, September 14, 2018, https://www.criticalthreats.org/briefs/gulf-of-aden-security-review/gulf-of-aden-security-review-september-14-2018.

[19] Nancy Agutu, “Security chiefs launch ‘Operation Linda Boni’ forest to flush out al Shabaab,” The Star, September 11, 2015, https://www.the-star.co.ke/news/2015/09/11/security-chiefs-launch-operation-linda-boni-forest-to-flush-out-al_c1203531.

[20] Francis Muli, “Plight of the GSU: all Armoured Personnel Carriers destroyed by IEDs,” Kahawa Tungu, August 29, 2018, https://www.kahawatungu.com/2018/08/29/all-armoured-personel-carriers-destroyed-ieds/; and “Police discover al Shabaab hideout in Boni Forest,” Standard Media, September 2, 2018, https://www.standardmedia.co.ke/article/2001294247/police-discover-al-shabaab-hideout-in-boni-forest.

[21] Abdiqani Hassan and Feisal Omar, “Al Shabaab captures strategic town in Somalia’s Puntland,” Reuters, July 20, 2018, https://www.reuters.com/article/us-somalia-security/al-shabaab-captures-strategic-town-in-somalias-puntland-idUSKBN1KA1OH; “Somalia: Al Shabaab reportedly overran Puntland military base,” Garowe, June 2, 2018, https://www.garoweonline.com/en/news/puntland/somalia-al-shabab-reportedly-overran-puntland-military-base; Mohamed Olad Hassan, “Authorities in Somalia’s Puntland region tout capture of weapons-laden boat,” Voice of America, September 23, 2017, https://www.voanews.com/a/authorities-in-somalia-puntland-region-tout-capture-of-weaponds-laden-boat/4041481.html; and Khristopher Carlson, “Measuring Illicit Arms Flows: Somalia,” Small Arms Survey, October 2016, http://www.smallarmssurvey.org/fileadmin/docs/H-Research_Notes/SAS-Research-Note-61.pdf.

[22] A militant detonated a suicide vest in Buhoodle, killing two politicians. The suicide attack is an al Shabaab signature and one of the targets had defected from an al Shabaab-aligned militant group. Al Shabaab did not claim the assassination, which would be its first in Somaliland. “Suicide bomber kills 2, including minister in Buhodle,” Garowe, August 1, 2018, https://www.garoweonline.com/en/news/somalia/somalia-suicide-bomber-kills-2-including-minister-in-buhodle; “Former Khaatumo President accuses Somaliland of killing two officials in Buhoodle,” Puntland Mirror, August 2, 2018, http://puntlandmirror.net/former-khaatumo-president-accuses-somaliland-killing-two-officials-buuhoodle/; and “Somalia’s international partners gravely concerned over clashes near Tukaraq, call for ceasefire,” United Nations Assistance Mission in Somalia, May 24, 2018, https://unsom.unmissions.org/somalia%E2%80%99s-international-partners-gravely-concerned-over-clashes-near-tukaraq-call-ceasefire.