This page is meant to be a central repository of decorator code pieces, whether useful or not <wink>. It is NOT a page to discuss decorator syntax!

Feel free to add your suggestions. Please make sure example code conforms with PEP 8.

Creating Well-Behaved Decorators / "Decorator decorator"

Note: This is only one recipe. Others include inheritance from a standard decorator (link?), the functools @wraps decorator, and a factory function such as Michele Simionato's decorator module which even preserves signature information.

1 def simple_decorator ( decorator ): ): 2 '''This decorator can be used to turn simple functions 3 into well-behaved decorators, so long as the decorators 4 are fairly simple. If a decorator expects a function and 5 returns a function (no descriptors), and if it doesn't 6 modify function attributes or docstring, then it is 7 eligible to use this. Simply apply @simple_decorator to 8 your decorator and it will automatically preserve the 9 docstring and function attributes of functions to which 10 it is applied.''' 11 def new_decorator ( f ): ): 12 g = decorator ( f ) 13 g . __name__ = f . __name__ 14 g . __doc__ = f . __doc__ 15 g . __dict__ . update ( f . __dict__ ) 16 return g 17 18 19 new_decorator . __name__ = decorator . __name__ 20 new_decorator . __doc__ = decorator . __doc__ 21 new_decorator . __dict__ . update ( decorator . __dict__ ) 22 return new_decorator 23 24 25 26 27 @simple_decorator 28 def my_simple_logging_decorator ( func ): ): 29 def you_will_never_see_this_name (* args , ** kwargs ): (*, **): 30 print ' calling {} ' . format ( func . __name__ ) 31 return func (* args , ** kwargs ) (*, ** 32 return you_will_never_see_this_name 33 34 @my_simple_logging_decorator 35 def double ( x ): ): 36 ' Doubles a number. ' 37 return 2 * x 38 39 assert double . __name__ == ' double ' == 40 assert double . __doc__ == ' Doubles a number. ' == 41 print double ( 155 )

Property Definition

These decorators provide a readable way to define properties:

1 import sys 2 3 def propget ( func ): ): 4 locals = sys . _getframe ( 1 ). f_locals ). 5 name = func . __name__ 6 prop = locals . get ( name ) 7 if not isinstance ( prop , property ): ): 8 prop = property ( func , doc = func . __doc__ ) 9 else : 10 doc = prop . __doc__ or func . __doc__ 11 prop = property ( func , prop . fset , prop . fdel , doc ) 12 return prop 13 14 def propset ( func ): ): 15 locals = sys . _getframe ( 1 ). f_locals ). 16 name = func . __name__ 17 prop = locals . get ( name ) 18 if not isinstance ( prop , property ): ): 19 prop = property ( None , func , doc = func . __doc__ ) 20 else : 21 doc = prop . __doc__ or func . __doc__ 22 prop = property ( prop . fget , func , prop . fdel , doc ) 23 return prop 24 25 def propdel ( func ): ): 26 locals = sys . _getframe ( 1 ). f_locals ). 27 name = func . __name__ 28 prop = locals . get ( name ) 29 if not isinstance ( prop , property ): ): 30 prop = property ( None , None , func , doc = func . __doc__ ) 31 else : 32 prop = property ( prop . fget , prop . fset , func , prop . __doc__ ) 33 return prop 34 35 36 37 class Example ( object ): ): 38 39 @propget 40 def myattr ( self ): ): 41 return self . _half * 2 42 43 @propset 44 def myattr ( self , value ): ): 45 self . _half = value / 2 46 47 @propdel 48 def myattr ( self ): ): 49 del self . _half

Here's a way that doesn't require any new decorators:

1 class Example ( object ): ): 2 @apply 3 def myattr (): (): 4 doc = ''' This is the doc string. ''' 5 6 def fget ( self ): ): 7 return self . _half * 2 8 9 def fset ( self , value ): ): 10 self . _half = value / 2 11 12 def fdel ( self ): ): 13 del self . _half 14 15 return property (** locals ()) (**()) 16

Yet another property decorator:

1 try : 2 3 import __builtin__ as builtins 4 except ImportError : 5 6 import builtins 7 8 def property ( function ): ): 9 keys = ' fget ' , ' fset ' , ' fdel ' 10 func_locals = { ' doc ' : function . __doc__ } = { 11 def probe_func ( frame , event , arg ): ): 12 if event == ' return ' : == 13 locals = frame . f_locals 14 func_locals . update ( dict (( k , locals . get ( k )) for k in keys )) (()))) 15 sys . settrace ( None ) 16 return probe_func 17 sys . settrace ( probe_func ) 18 function () () 19 return builtins . property (** func_locals ) (** 20 21 22 23 from math import radians , degrees , pi 24 25 class Angle ( object ): ): 26 def __init__ ( self , rad ): ): 27 self . _rad = rad 28 29 @property 30 def rad (): (): 31 '''The angle in radians''' 32 def fget ( self ): ): 33 return self . _rad 34 def fset ( self , angle ): ): 35 if isinstance ( angle , Angle ): ): 36 angle = angle . rad 37 self . _rad = float ( angle ) 38 39 @property 40 def deg (): (): 41 '''The angle in degrees''' 42 def fget ( self ): ): 43 return degrees ( self . _rad ) 44 def fset ( self , angle ): ): 45 if isinstance ( angle , Angle ): ): 46 angle = angle . deg 47 self . _rad = radians ( angle )

Memoize

Here's a memoizing class.

1 import collections 2 import functools 3 4 class memoized ( object ): ): 5 '''Decorator. Caches a function's return value each time it is called. 6 If called later with the same arguments, the cached value is returned 7 (not reevaluated). 8 ''' 9 def __init__ ( self , func ): ): 10 self . func = func 11 self . cache = {} = {} 12 def __call__ ( self , * args ): , *): 13 if not isinstance ( args , collections . Hashable ): ): 14 15 16 return self . func (* args ) (* 17 if args in self . cache : 18 return self . cache [ args ] 19 else : 20 value = self . func (* args ) (* 21 self . cache [ args ] = value ] = 22 return value 23 def __repr__ ( self ): ): 24 '''Return the function's docstring.''' 25 return self . func . __doc__ 26 def __get__ ( self , obj , objtype ): ): 27 '''Support instance methods.''' 28 return functools . partial ( self . __call__ , obj ) 29 30 @memoized 31 def fibonacci ( n ): ): 32 " Return the nth fibonacci number. " 33 if n in ( 0 , 1 ): ): 34 return n 35 return fibonacci ( n - 1 ) + fibonacci ( n - 2 ) ) + 36 37 print fibonacci ( 12 )

Alternate memoize as nested functions

Here's a memoizing function that works on functions, methods, or classes, and exposes the cache publicly.

1 2 def memoize ( obj ): ): 3 cache = obj . cache = {} = {} 4 5 @functools.wraps ( obj ) 6 def memoizer (* args , ** kwargs ): (*, **): 7 if args not in cache : 8 cache [ args ] = obj (* args , ** kwargs ) ] =(*, ** 9 return cache [ args ] 10 return memoizer

Here's a modified version that also respects kwargs.

1 def memoize ( obj ): ): 2 cache = obj . cache = {} = {} 3 4 @functools.wraps ( obj ) 5 def memoizer (* args , ** kwargs ): (*, **): 6 key = str ( args ) + str ( kwargs ) ) + 7 if key not in cache : 8 cache [ key ] = obj (* args , ** kwargs ) ] =(*, ** 9 return cache [ key ] 10 return memoizer

Alternate memoize as dict subclass

This is an idea that interests me, but it only seems to work on functions:

1 class memoize ( dict ): ): 2 def __init__ ( self , func ): ): 3 self . func = func 4 5 def __call__ ( self , * args ): , *): 6 return self [ args ] 7 8 def __missing__ ( self , key ): ): 9 result = self [ key ] = self . func (* key ) ] =(* 10 return result 11 12 13 14 15 16 >>> @memoize >>> 17 ... def foo ( a , b ): ...): 18 ... return a * b ... 19 >>> foo ( 2 , 4 ) >>> 20 8 21 >>> foo >>> 22 {( 2 , 4 ): 8 } {(): 23 >>> foo ( ' hi ' , 3 ) >>> 24 ' hihihi ' 25 >>> foo >>> 26 {( 2 , 4 ): 8 , ( ' hi ' , 3 ): ' hihihi ' } {():, ():

Alternate memoize that stores cache between executions

Additional information and documentation for this decorator is available on Github.

1 import pickle 2 import collections 3 import functools 4 import inspect 5 import os.path 6 import re 7 import unicodedata 8 9 class Memorize ( object ): ): 10 ''' 11 A function decorated with @Memorize caches its return 12 value every time it is called. If the function is called 13 later with the same arguments, the cached value is 14 returned (the function is not reevaluated). The cache is 15 stored as a .cache file in the current directory for reuse 16 in future executions. If the Python file containing the 17 decorated function has been updated since the last run, 18 the current cache is deleted and a new cache is created 19 (in case the behavior of the function has changed). 20 ''' 21 def __init__ ( self , func ): ): 22 self . func = func 23 self . set_parent_file () () 24 self . __name__ = self . func . __name__ 25 self . set_cache_filename () () 26 if self . cache_exists (): (): 27 self . read_cache () () 28 if not self . is_safe_cache (): (): 29 self . cache = {} = {} 30 else : 31 self . cache = {} = {} 32 33 def __call__ ( self , * args ): , *): 34 if not isinstance ( args , collections . Hashable ): ): 35 return self . func (* args ) (* 36 if args in self . cache : 37 return self . cache [ args ] 38 else : 39 value = self . func (* args ) (* 40 self . cache [ args ] = value ] = 41 self . save_cache () () 42 return value 43 44 def set_parent_file ( self ): ): 45 """ 46 Sets self.parent_file to the absolute path of the 47 file containing the memoized function. 48 """ 49 rel_parent_file = inspect . stack ()[- 1 ]. filename ()[-]. 50 self . parent_filepath = os . path . abspath ( rel_parent_file ) 51 self . parent_filename = _filename_from_path ( rel_parent_file ) 52 53 def set_cache_filename ( self ): ): 54 """ 55 Sets self.cache_filename to an os-compliant 56 version of "file_function.cache" 57 """ 58 filename = _slugify ( self . parent_filename . replace ( ' .py ' , ' ' )) )) 59 funcname = _slugify ( self . __name__ ) 60 self . cache_filename = filename + ' _ ' + funcname + ' .cache ' 61 62 def get_last_update ( self ): ): 63 """ 64 Returns the time that the parent file was last 65 updated. 66 """ 67 last_update = os . path . getmtime ( self . parent_filepath ) 68 return last_update 69 70 def is_safe_cache ( self ): ): 71 """ 72 Returns True if the file containing the memoized 73 function has not been updated since the cache was 74 last saved. 75 """ 76 if self . get_last_update () > self . timestamp : () > 77 return False 78 return True 79 80 def read_cache ( self ): ): 81 """ 82 Read a pickled dictionary into self.timestamp and 83 self.cache. See self.save_cache. 84 """ 85 with open ( self . cache_filename , ' rb ' ) as f : 86 data = pickle . loads ( f . read ()) ()) 87 self . timestamp = data [ ' timestamp ' ] 88 self . cache = data [ ' cache ' ] 89 90 def save_cache ( self ): ): 91 """ 92 Pickle the file's timestamp and the function's cache 93 in a dictionary object. 94 """ 95 with open ( self . cache_filename , ' wb+ ' ) as f : 96 out = dict () () 97 out [ ' timestamp ' ] = self . get_last_update () ] =() 98 out [ ' cache ' ] = self . cache ] = 99 f . write ( pickle . dumps ( out )) )) 100 101 def cache_exists ( self ): ): 102 ''' 103 Returns True if a matching cache exists in the current directory. 104 ''' 105 if os . path . isfile ( self . cache_filename ): ): 106 return True 107 return False 108 109 def __repr__ ( self ): ): 110 """ Return the function's docstring. """ 111 return self . func . __doc__ 112 113 def __get__ ( self , obj , objtype ): ): 114 """ Support instance methods. """ 115 return functools . partial ( self . __call__ , obj ) 116 117 def _slugify ( value ): ): 118 """ 119 Normalizes string, converts to lowercase, removes 120 non-alpha characters, and converts spaces to 121 hyphens. From 122 http://stackoverflow.com/questions/295135/turn-a-string-into-a-valid-filename-in-python 123 """ 124 value = unicodedata . normalize ( ' NFKD ' , value ). encode ( ' ascii ' , ' ignore ' ) ). 125 value = re . sub ( r' [^ \ w \ s-] ' , ' ' , value . decode ( ' utf-8 ' , ' ignore ' )) )) 126 value = value . strip (). lower () ().() 127 value = re . sub ( r' [- \ s]+ ' , ' - ' , value ) 128 return value 129 130 def _filename_from_path ( filepath ): ): 131 return filepath . split ( ' / ' )[- 1 ] )[-

Cached Properties

1 2 3 4 5 import time 6 7 class cached_property ( object ): ): 8 '''Decorator for read-only properties evaluated only once within TTL period. 9 10 It can be used to create a cached property like this:: 11 12 import random 13 14 # the class containing the property must be a new-style class 15 class MyClass(object): 16 # create property whose value is cached for ten minutes 17 @cached_property(ttl=600) 18 def randint(self): 19 # will only be evaluated every 10 min. at maximum. 20 return random.randint(0, 100) 21 22 The value is cached in the '_cache' attribute of the object instance that 23 has the property getter method wrapped by this decorator. The '_cache' 24 attribute value is a dictionary which has a key for every property of the 25 object which is wrapped by this decorator. Each entry in the cache is 26 created only when the property is accessed for the first time and is a 27 two-element tuple with the last computed property value and the last time 28 it was updated in seconds since the epoch. 29 30 The default time-to-live (TTL) is 300 seconds (5 minutes). Set the TTL to 31 zero for the cached value to never expire. 32 33 To expire a cached property value manually just do:: 34 35 del instance._cache[<property name>] 36 37 ''' 38 def __init__ ( self , ttl = 300 ): ): 39 self . ttl = ttl 40 41 def __call__ ( self , fget , doc = None ): ): 42 self . fget = fget 43 self . __doc__ = doc or fget . __doc__ 44 self . __name__ = fget . __name__ 45 self . __module__ = fget . __module__ 46 return self 47 48 def __get__ ( self , inst , owner ): ): 49 now = time . time () () 50 try : 51 value , last_update = inst . _cache [ self . __name__ ] 52 if self . ttl > 0 and now - last_update > self . ttl : 53 raise AttributeError 54 except ( KeyError , AttributeError ): ): 55 value = self . fget ( inst ) 56 try : 57 cache = inst . _cache 58 except AttributeError : 59 cache = inst . _cache = {} = {} 60 cache [ self . __name__ ] = ( value , now ) ] = ( 61 return value

Retry

Call a function which returns True/False to indicate success or failure. On failure, wait, and try the function again. On repeated failures, wait longer between each successive attempt. If the decorator runs out of attempts, then it gives up and returns False, but you could just as easily raise some exception.

1 import time 2 import math 3 4 5 def retry ( tries , delay = 3 , backoff = 2 ): ): 6 '''Retries a function or method until it returns True. 7 8 delay sets the initial delay in seconds, and backoff sets the factor by which 9 the delay should lengthen after each failure. backoff must be greater than 1, 10 or else it isn't really a backoff. tries must be at least 0, and delay 11 greater than 0.''' 12 13 if backoff <= 1 : <= 14 raise ValueError ( " backoff must be greater than 1 " ) 15 16 tries = math . floor ( tries ) 17 if tries < 0 : 18 raise ValueError ( " tries must be 0 or greater " ) 19 20 if delay <= 0 : <= 21 raise ValueError ( " delay must be greater than 0 " ) 22 23 def deco_retry ( f ): ): 24 def f_retry (* args , ** kwargs ): (*, **): 25 mtries , mdelay = tries , delay 26 27 rv = f (* args , ** kwargs ) (*, ** 28 while mtries > 0 : 29 if rv is True : 30 return True 31 32 mtries -= 1 -= 33 time . sleep ( mdelay ) 34 mdelay *= backoff *= 35 36 rv = f (* args , ** kwargs ) (*, ** 37 38 return False 39 40 return f_retry 41 return deco_retry

Pseudo-currying

(FYI you can use functools.partial() to emulate currying (which works even for keyword arguments))

1 class curried ( object ): ): 2 ''' 3 Decorator that returns a function that keeps returning functions 4 until all arguments are supplied; then the original function is 5 evaluated. 6 ''' 7 8 def __init__ ( self , func , * a ): , *): 9 self . func = func 10 self . args = a 11 12 def __call__ ( self , * a ): , *): 13 args = self . args + a 14 if len ( args ) < self . func . func_code . co_argcount : ) 15 return curried ( self . func , * args ) , * 16 else : 17 return self . func (* args ) (* 18 19 20 @curried 21 def add ( a , b ): ): 22 return a + b 23 24 add1 = add ( 1 ) 25 26 print add1 ( 2 )

Creating decorator with optional arguments

1 import functools , inspect 2 3 def decorator ( func ): ): 4 ''' Allow to use decorator either with arguments or not. ''' 5 6 def isFuncArg (* args , ** kw ): (*, **): 7 return len ( args ) == 1 and len ( kw ) == 0 and ( ) ==) == 8 inspect . isfunction ( args [ 0 ]) or isinstance ( args [ 0 ], type )) ])],)) 9 10 if isinstance ( func , type ): ): 11 def class_wrapper (* args , ** kw ): (*, **): 12 if isFuncArg (* args , ** kw ): (*, **): 13 return func ()(* args , ** kw ) ()(*, ** 14 return func (* args , ** kw ) (*, ** 15 class_wrapper . __name__ = func . __name__ 16 class_wrapper . __module__ = func . __module__ 17 return class_wrapper 18 19 @functools.wraps ( func ) 20 def func_wrapper (* args , ** kw ): (*, **): 21 if isFuncArg (* args , ** kw ): (*, **): 22 return func (* args , ** kw ) (*, ** 23 24 def functor ( userFunc ): ): 25 return func ( userFunc , * args , ** kw ) , *, ** 26 27 return functor 28 29 return func_wrapper

Example:

1 @decorator 2 def apply ( func , * args , ** kw ): , *, **): 3 return func (* args , ** kw ) (*, ** 4 5 @decorator 6 class apply : 7 def __init__ ( self , * args , ** kw ): , *, **): 8 self . args = args 9 self . kw = kw 10 11 def __call__ ( self , func ): ): 12 return func (* self . args , ** self . kw ) (*, ** 13 14 15 16 17 @apply 18 def test (): (): 19 return ' test ' 20 21 assert test == ' test ' == 22 23 @apply ( 2 , 3 ) 24 def test ( a , b ): ): 25 return a + b 26 27 assert test is 5

Note: There is only one drawback: wrapper checks its arguments for single function or class. To avoid wrong behavior you can use keyword arguments instead of positional, e.g.:

1 @decorator 2 def my_property ( getter , *, setter = None , deleter = None , doc = None ): , *,): 3 return property ( getter , setter , deleter , doc )

Controllable DIY debug

(Other hooks could be similarly added. Docstrings and exceptions are left out for simplicity of demonstration.)

1 import sys 2 3 WHAT_TO_DEBUG = set ([ ' io ' , ' core ' ]) ([]) 4 5 class debug : 6 '''Decorator which helps to control what aspects of a program to debug 7 on per-function basis. Aspects are provided as list of arguments. 8 It DOESN'T slowdown functions which aren't supposed to be debugged. 9 ''' 10 def __init__ ( self , aspects = None ): ): 11 self . aspects = set ( aspects ) 12 13 def __call__ ( self , f ): ): 14 if self . aspects & WHAT_TO_DEBUG : 15 def newf (* args , ** kwds ): (*, **): 16 print >> sys . stderr , f . func_name , args , kwds >> 17 f_result = f (* args , ** kwds ) (*, ** 18 print >> sys . stderr , f . func_name , " returned " , f_result >> 19 return f_result 20 newf . __doc__ = f . __doc__ 21 return newf 22 else : 23 return f 24 25 @debug ([ ' io ' ]) ([]) 26 def prn ( x ): ): 27 print x 28 29 @debug ([ ' core ' ]) ([]) 30 def mult ( x , y ): ): 31 return x * y 32 33 prn ( mult ( 2 , 2 )) ))

Easy adding methods to a class instance

Credits to John Roth.

1 class Foo : 2 def __init__ ( self ): ): 3 self . x = 42 4 5 foo = Foo () () 6 7 def addto ( instance ): ): 8 def decorator ( f ): ): 9 import types 10 f = types . MethodType ( f , instance , instance . __class__ ) 11 setattr ( instance , f . func_name , f ) 12 return f 13 return decorator 14 15 @addto ( foo ) 16 def print_x ( self ): ): 17 print self . x 18 19

Counting function calls

1 class countcalls ( object ): ): 2 " Decorator that keeps track of the number of times a function is called. " 3 4 __instances = {} = {} 5 6 def __init__ ( self , f ): ): 7 self . __f = f 8 self . __numcalls = 0 9 countcalls . __instances [ f ] = self ] = 10 11 def __call__ ( self , * args , ** kwargs ): , *, **): 12 self . __numcalls += 1 += 13 return self . __f (* args , ** kwargs ) (*, ** 14 15 @staticmethod 16 def count ( f ): ): 17 " Return the number of times the function f was called. " 18 return countcalls . __instances [ f ]. __numcalls ]. 19 20 @staticmethod 21 def counts (): (): 22 " Return a dict of {function: # of calls} for all registered functions. " 23 return dict ([( f , countcalls . count ( f )) for f in countcalls . __instances ]) ([())])

Alternate Counting function calls

1 class countcalls ( object ): ): 2 " Decorator that keeps track of the number of times a function is called. " 3 4 __instances = {} = {} 5 6 def __init__ ( self , f ): ): 7 self . __f = f 8 self . __numcalls = 0 9 countcalls . __instances [ f ] = self ] = 10 11 def __call__ ( self , * args , ** kwargs ): , *, **): 12 self . __numcalls += 1 += 13 return self . __f (* args , ** kwargs ) (*, ** 14 15 def count ( self ): ): 16 " Return the number of times the function f was called. " 17 return countcalls . __instances [ self . __f ]. __numcalls ]. 18 19 @staticmethod 20 def counts (): (): 21 " Return a dict of {function: # of calls} for all registered functions. " 22 return dict ([( f . __name__ , countcalls . __instances [ f ]. __numcalls ) for f in countcalls . __instances ]) ([(].]) 23 24 25 26 @countcalls 27 def f (): (): 28 print ' f called ' 29 30 @countcalls 31 def g (): (): 32 print ' g called ' 33 34 f () () 35 f () () 36 f () () 37 print f . count () () 38 print countcalls . counts () () 39 g () () 40 print g . count () ()

Generating Deprecation Warnings

1 import warnings 2 3 def deprecated ( func ): ): 4 '''This is a decorator which can be used to mark functions 5 as deprecated. It will result in a warning being emitted 6 when the function is used.''' 7 def new_func (* args , ** kwargs ): (*, **): 8 warnings . warn ( " Call to deprecated function {}. " . format ( func . __name__ ), ), 9 category = DeprecationWarning ) 10 return func (* args , ** kwargs ) (*, ** 11 new_func . __name__ = func . __name__ 12 new_func . __doc__ = func . __doc__ 13 new_func . __dict__ . update ( func . __dict__ ) 14 return new_func 15 16 17 18 @deprecated 19 def some_old_function ( x , y ): ): 20 return x + y 21 22 class SomeClass : 23 @deprecated 24 def some_old_method ( self , x , y ): ): 25 return x + y

Smart deprecation warnings (with valid filenames, line numbers, etc.)

1 import warnings 2 import functools 3 4 5 def deprecated ( func ): ): 6 '''This is a decorator which can be used to mark functions 7 as deprecated. It will result in a warning being emitted 8 when the function is used.''' 9 10 @functools.wraps ( func ) 11 def new_func (* args , ** kwargs ): (*, **): 12 warnings . warn_explicit ( 13 " Call to deprecated function {}. " . format ( func . __name__ ), ), 14 category = DeprecationWarning , 15 filename = func . func_code . co_filename , 16 lineno = func . func_code . co_firstlineno + 1 17 ) 18 return func (* args , ** kwargs ) (*, ** 19 return new_func 20 21 22 23 @deprecated 24 def my_func (): (): 25 pass 26 27 @other_decorators_must_be_upper 28 @deprecated 29 def my_func (): (): 30 pass

Ignoring Deprecation Warnings

1 import warnings 2 3 def ignore_deprecation_warnings ( func ): ): 4 '''This is a decorator which can be used to ignore deprecation warnings 5 occurring in a function.''' 6 def new_func (* args , ** kwargs ): (*, **): 7 with warnings . catch_warnings (): (): 8 warnings . filterwarnings ( " ignore " , category = DeprecationWarning ) 9 return func (* args , ** kwargs ) (*, ** 10 new_func . __name__ = func . __name__ 11 new_func . __doc__ = func . __doc__ 12 new_func . __dict__ . update ( func . __dict__ ) 13 return new_func 14 15 16 17 @ignore_deprecation_warnings 18 def some_function_raising_deprecation_warning (): (): 19 warnings . warn ( " This is a deprecationg warning. " , 20 category = DeprecationWarning ) 21 22 class SomeClass : 23 @ignore_deprecation_warnings 24 def some_method_raising_deprecation_warning (): (): 25 warnings . warn ( " This is a deprecationg warning. " , 26 category = DeprecationWarning )

Enable/Disable Decorators

1 def unchanged ( func ): ): 2 " This decorator doesn ' t add any behavior " 3 return func 4 5 def disabled ( func ): ): 6 " This decorator disables the provided function, and does nothing " 7 def empty_func (* args ,** kargs ): (*,**): 8 pass 9 return empty_func 10 11 12 enabled = unchanged 13 14 15 16 17 18 GLOBAL_ENABLE_FLAG = True 19 20 state = enabled if GLOBAL_ENABLE_FLAG else disabled 21 @state 22 def special_function_foo (): (): 23 print " function was enabled "

Easy Dump of Function Arguments

1 def dump_args ( func ): ): 2 " This decorator dumps out the arguments passed to a function before calling it " 3 argnames = func . func_code . co_varnames [: func . func_code . co_argcount ] [: 4 fname = func . func_name 5 6 def echo_func (* args ,** kwargs ): (*,**): 7 print fname , " : " , ' , ' . join ( 8 ' %s = %r ' % entry 9 for entry in zip ( argnames , args ) + kwargs . items ()) ) +()) 10 return func (* args , ** kwargs ) (*, ** 11 12 return echo_func 13 14 @dump_args 15 def f1 ( a , b , c ): ): 16 print a + b + c 17 18 f1 ( 1 , 2 , 3 )

Pre-/Post-Conditions

1 ''' 2 Provide pre-/postconditions as function decorators. 3 4 Example usage: 5 6 >>> def in_ge20(inval): 7 ... assert inval >= 20, 'Input value < 20' 8 ... 9 >>> def out_lt30(retval, inval): 10 ... assert retval < 30, 'Return value >= 30' 11 ... 12 >>> @precondition(in_ge20) 13 ... @postcondition(out_lt30) 14 ... def inc(value): 15 ... return value + 1 16 ... 17 >>> inc(5) 18 Traceback (most recent call last): 19 ... 20 AssertionError: Input value < 20 21 >>> inc(29) 22 Traceback (most recent call last): 23 ... 24 AssertionError: Return value >= 30 25 >>> inc(20) 26 21 27 28 You can define as many pre-/postconditions for a function as you 29 like. It is also possible to specify both types of conditions at once: 30 31 >>> @conditions(in_ge20, out_lt30) 32 ... def add1(value): 33 ... return value + 1 34 ... 35 >>> add1(5) 36 Traceback (most recent call last): 37 ... 38 AssertionError: Input value < 20 39 40 An interesting feature is the ability to prevent the creation of 41 pre-/postconditions at function definition time. This makes it 42 possible to use conditions for debugging and then switch them off for 43 distribution. 44 45 >>> debug = False 46 >>> @precondition(in_ge20, debug) 47 ... def dec(value): 48 ... return value - 1 49 ... 50 >>> dec(5) 51 4 52 ''' 53 54 __all__ = [ ' precondition ' , ' postcondition ' , ' conditions ' ] = [ 55 56 DEFAULT_ON = True 57 58 def precondition ( precondition , use_conditions = DEFAULT_ON ): ): 59 return conditions ( precondition , None , use_conditions ) 60 61 def postcondition ( postcondition , use_conditions = DEFAULT_ON ): ): 62 return conditions ( None , postcondition , use_conditions ) 63 64 class conditions ( object ): ): 65 __slots__ = ( ' __precondition ' , ' __postcondition ' ) = ( 66 67 def __init__ ( self , pre , post , use_conditions = DEFAULT_ON ): ): 68 if not use_conditions : 69 pre , post = None , None 70 71 self . __precondition = pre 72 self . __postcondition = post 73 74 def __call__ ( self , function ): ): 75 76 pres = set (( self . __precondition ,)) ((,)) 77 posts = set (( self . __postcondition ,)) ((,)) 78 79 80 while type ( function ) is FunctionWrapper : 81 pres . add ( function . _pre ) 82 posts . add ( function . _post ) 83 function = function . _func 84 85 86 conditions = map ( None , filter ( None , pres ), filter ( None , posts )) ),)) 87 88 89 for pre , post in conditions : 90 function = FunctionWrapper ( pre , post , function ) 91 92 return function 93 94 class FunctionWrapper ( object ): ): 95 def __init__ ( self , precondition , postcondition , function ): ): 96 self . _pre = precondition 97 self . _post = postcondition 98 self . _func = function 99 100 def __call__ ( self , * args , ** kwargs ): , *, **): 101 precondition = self . _pre 102 postcondition = self . _post 103 104 if precondition : 105 precondition (* args , ** kwargs ) (*, ** 106 result = self . _func (* args , ** kwargs ) (*, ** 107 if postcondition : 108 postcondition ( result , * args , ** kwargs ) , *, ** 109 return result 110 111 def __test (): (): 112 import doctest 113 doctest . testmod () () 114 115 if __name__ == " __main__ " : == 116 __test () ()

Profiling/Coverage Analysis

The code and examples are a bit longish, so I'll include a link instead: http://mg.pov.lt/blog/profiling.html

Line Tracing Individual Functions

I cobbled this together from the trace module. It allows you to decorate individual functions so their lines are traced. I think it works out to be a slightly smaller hammer than running the trace module and trying to pare back what it traces using exclusions.

1 import sys 2 import os 3 import linecache 4 5 def trace ( f ): ): 6 def globaltrace ( frame , why , arg ): ): 7 if why == " call " : == 8 return localtrace 9 return None 10 11 def localtrace ( frame , why , arg ): ): 12 if why == " line " : == 13 14 filename = frame . f_code . co_filename 15 lineno = frame . f_lineno 16 17 bname = os . path . basename ( filename ) 18 print " {}({}): {} " . format ( bname , 19 lineno , 20 linecache . getline ( filename , lineno )), )), 21 return localtrace 22 23 def _f (* args , ** kwds ): (*, **): 24 sys . settrace ( globaltrace ) 25 result = f (* args , ** kwds ) (*, ** 26 sys . settrace ( None ) 27 return result 28 29 return _f

Synchronization

Synchronize two (or more) functions on a given lock.

1 def synchronized ( lock ): ): 2 '''Synchronization decorator.''' 3 4 def wrap ( f ): ): 5 def new_function (* args , ** kw ): (*, **): 6 lock . acquire () () 7 try : 8 return f (* args , ** kw ) (*, ** 9 finally : 10 lock . release () () 11 return new_function 12 return wrap 13 14 15 16 from threading import Lock 17 my_lock = Lock () () 18 19 @synchronized ( my_lock ) 20 def critical1 (* args ): (*): 21 22 pass 23 24 @synchronized ( my_lock ) 25 def critical2 (* args ): (*): 26 27 pass

Type Enforcement (accepts/returns)

Provides various degrees of type enforcement for function parameters and return values.

1 ''' 2 One of three degrees of enforcement may be specified by passing 3 the 'debug' keyword argument to the decorator: 4 0 -- NONE: No type-checking. Decorators disabled. 5 #!python 6 -- MEDIUM: Print warning message to stderr. (Default) 7 2 -- STRONG: Raise TypeError with message. 8 If 'debug' is not passed to the decorator, the default level is used. 9 10 Example usage: 11 >>> NONE, MEDIUM, STRONG = 0, 1, 2 12 >>> 13 >>> @accepts(int, int, int) 14 ... @returns(float) 15 ... def average(x, y, z): 16 ... return (x + y + z) / 2 17 ... 18 >>> average(5.5, 10, 15.0) 19 TypeWarning: 'average' method accepts (int, int, int), but was given 20 (float, int, float) 21 15.25 22 >>> average(5, 10, 15) 23 TypeWarning: 'average' method returns (float), but result is (int) 24 15 25 26 Needed to cast params as floats in function def (or simply divide by 2.0). 27 28 >>> TYPE_CHECK = STRONG 29 >>> @accepts(int, debug=TYPE_CHECK) 30 ... @returns(int, debug=TYPE_CHECK) 31 ... def fib(n): 32 ... if n in (0, 1): return n 33 ... return fib(n-1) + fib(n-2) 34 ... 35 >>> fib(5.3) 36 Traceback (most recent call last): 37 ... 38 TypeError: 'fib' method accepts (int), but was given (float) 39 40 ''' 41 import sys 42 43 def accepts (* types , ** kw ): (*, **): 44 '''Function decorator. Checks decorated function's arguments are 45 of the expected types. 46 47 Parameters: 48 types -- The expected types of the inputs to the decorated function. 49 Must specify type for each parameter. 50 kw -- Optional specification of 'debug' level (this is the only valid 51 keyword argument, no other should be given). 52 debug = ( 0 | 1 | 2 ) 53 54 ''' 55 if not kw : 56 57 debug = 1 58 else : 59 debug = kw [ ' debug ' ] 60 try : 61 def decorator ( f ): ): 62 def newf (* args ): (*): 63 if debug is 0 : 64 return f (* args ) (* 65 assert len ( args ) == len ( types ) ) == 66 argtypes = tuple ( map ( type , args )) )) 67 if argtypes != types : != 68 msg = info ( f . __name__ , types , argtypes , 0 ) 69 if debug is 1 : 70 print >> sys . stderr , ' TypeWarning: ' , msg >> 71 elif debug is 2 : 72 raise TypeError , msg 73 return f (* args ) (* 74 newf . __name__ = f . __name__ 75 return newf 76 return decorator 77 except KeyError , key : 78 raise KeyError , key + " is not a valid keyword argument " 79 except TypeError , msg : 80 raise TypeError , msg 81 82 83 def returns ( ret_type , ** kw ): , **): 84 '''Function decorator. Checks decorated function's return value 85 is of the expected type. 86 87 Parameters: 88 ret_type -- The expected type of the decorated function's return value. 89 Must specify type for each parameter. 90 kw -- Optional specification of 'debug' level (this is the only valid 91 keyword argument, no other should be given). 92 debug=(0 | 1 | 2) 93 ''' 94 try : 95 if not kw : 96 97 debug = 1 98 else : 99 debug = kw [ ' debug ' ] 100 def decorator ( f ): ): 101 def newf (* args ): (*): 102 result = f (* args ) (* 103 if debug is 0 : 104 return result 105 res_type = type ( result ) 106 if res_type != ret_type : != 107 msg = info ( f . __name__ , ( ret_type ,), ( res_type ,), 1 ) , (,), (,), 108 if debug is 1 : 109 print >> sys . stderr , ' TypeWarning: ' , msg >> 110 elif debug is 2 : 111 raise TypeError , msg 112 return result 113 newf . __name__ = f . __name__ 114 return newf 115 return decorator 116 except KeyError , key : 117 raise KeyError , key + " is not a valid keyword argument " 118 except TypeError , msg : 119 raise TypeError , msg 120 121 def info ( fname , expected , actual , flag ): ): 122 '''Convenience function returns nicely formatted error/warning msg.''' 123 format = lambda types : ' , ' . join ([ str ( t ). split ( " ' " )[ 1 ] for t in types ]) ([).)[]) 124 expected , actual = format ( expected ), format ( actual ) ), 125 msg = " ' {} ' method " . format ( fname )\ )\ 126 + ( " accepts " , " returns " )[ flag ] + " ({}), but " . format ( expected )\ + ()[] +)\ 127 + ( " was given " , " result is " )[ flag ] + " ({}) " . format ( actual ) + ()[] + 128 return msg

CGI method wrapper

Handles HTML boilerplate at top and bottom of pages returned from CGI methods. Works with the cgi module. Now your request handlers can just output the interesting HTML, and let the decorator deal with all the top and bottom clutter.

(Note: the exception handler eats all exceptions, which in CGI is no big loss, since the program runs in its separate subprocess. At least here, the exception contents will be written to the output page.)

1 class CGImethod ( object ): ): 2 def __init__ ( self , title ): ): 3 self . title = title 4 5 def __call__ ( self , fn ): ): 6 def wrapped_fn (* args ): (*): 7 print " Content-Type: text/html



" 8 print " <HTML> " 9 print " <HEAD><TITLE>{}</TITLE></HEAD> " . format ( self . title ) 10 print " <BODY> " 11 try : 12 fn (* args ) (* 13 except Exception , e : 14 print 15 print e 16 print 17 print " </BODY></HTML> " 18 19 return wrapped_fn 20 21 @CGImethod ( " Hello with Decorator " ) 22 def say_hello (): (): 23 print ' <h1>Hello from CGI-Land</h1> '

State Machine Implementaion

A much improved version of decorators for implementing state machines, too long to show here, is at State Machine via Decorators

This example uses Decorators to facilitate the implementation of a state machine in Python. Decorators are used to specify which methods are the event handlers for the class. In this example, actions are associated with the transitions, but it is possible with a little consideration to associate actions with states instead.

The example defines a class, MyMachine that is a state machine. Multiple instances of the class may be instantiated with each maintaining its own state. A class also may have multiple states. Here I've used gstate and tstate.

The code in the imported statedefn file gets a bit hairy, but you may not need to delve into it for your application.

1 2 3 from statedefn import * 4 5 class MyMachine ( object ): ): 6 7 8 9 10 gstate = StateTable ( " gstate " ) 11 tstate = StateTable ( " turtle " ) 12 13 def __init__ ( self , name ): ): 14 15 self . gstate . initialize ( self ) 16 self . tstate . initialize ( self ) 17 self . mname = name 18 self . a_count = 0 19 self . b_count = 0 20 self . c_count = 0 21 22 23 @event_handler ( gstate ) 24 def event_a ( self ): pass ): 25 26 @event_handler ( gstate ) 27 def event_b ( self ): pass ): 28 29 @event_handler ( gstate ) 30 def event_c ( self , val ): pass ): 31 32 @event_handler ( tstate ) 33 def toggle ( self ): pass ): 34 35 36 37 def _event_a_hdlr1 ( self ): ): 38 print " State 1, event A " 39 self . a_count += 1 += 40 def _event_b_hdlr1 ( self ): ): 41 print " State 1, event B " 42 self . b_count += 1 += 43 def _event_c_hdlr1 ( self , val ): ): 44 print " State 1, event C " 45 self . c_count += 3 * val += 46 47 def _event_a_hdlr2 ( self ): ): 48 print " State 2, event A " 49 self . a_count += 10 += 50 51 52 self . turtle . set_state ( self , self . _t_on ) 53 def _event_b_hdlr2 ( self ): ): 54 print " State 2, event B " 55 self . b_count += 10 += 56 def _event_c_hdlr2 ( self , val ): ): 57 print " State 2, event C " 58 self . c_count += 2 * val += 59 60 def _event_a_hdlr3 ( self ): ): 61 self . a_count += 100 += 62 print " State 3, event A " 63 def _event_b_hdlr3 ( self ): ): 64 print " State 3, event B " 65 self . b_count += 100 += 66 67 68 self . gstate . next_state = self . _state2 69 def _event_c_hdlr3 ( self , val ): ): 70 print " State 3, event C " 71 self . c_count += 5 * val += 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 _state1 = gstate . state ( " One " , ( _event_a_hdlr1 , _event_b_hdlr1 , _event_c_hdlr1 ), , (), 80 ( " Two " , " Three " , None )) )) 81 _state2 = gstate . state ( " Two " , ( _event_a_hdlr2 , _event_b_hdlr2 , _event_c_hdlr2 ), , (), 82 ( " Three " , None , " One " )) )) 83 _state3 = gstate . state ( " Three " ,( _event_a_hdlr3 , _event_b_hdlr3 , _event_c_hdlr3 ), ,(), 84 ( None , " One " , " Two " )) )) 85 86 87 88 89 @on_enter_function ( gstate ) 90 def _enter_gstate ( self ): ): 91 print " entering state " , self . gstate . name () , " of " , self . mname () , 92 @on_leave_function ( tstate ) 93 def _leave_tstate ( self ): ): 94 print " leaving state " , self . turtle . name () , " of " , self . mname () , 95 96 97 def _toggle_on ( self ): ): 98 print " Toggle On " 99 100 def _toggle_off ( self ): ): 101 print " Toggle Off " 102 103 _t_off = tstate . state ( " Off " , [ _toggle_on ], , [], 104 [ " On " ]) ]) 105 _t_on = tstate . state ( " On " , [ _toggle_off ], , [], 106 [ " Off " ]) ]) 107 108 109 def main (): (): 110 big_machine = MyMachine ( " big " ) 111 lil_machine = MyMachine ( " lil " ) 112 113 big_machine . event_a () () 114 lil_machine . event_a () () 115 big_machine . event_a () () 116 lil_machine . event_a () () 117 big_machine . event_b () () 118 lil_machine . event_b () () 119 big_machine . event_c ( 4 ) 120 lil_machine . event_c ( 2 ) 121 big_machine . event_c ( 1 ) 122 lil_machine . event_c ( 3 ) 123 big_machine . event_b () () 124 lil_machine . event_b () () 125 big_machine . event_a () () 126 lil_machine . event_a () () 127 big_machine . event_a () () 128 129 big_machine . toggle () () 130 big_machine . toggle () () 131 big_machine . toggle () () 132 133 lil_machine . event_a () () 134 big_machine . event_b () () 135 lil_machine . event_b () () 136 big_machine . event_c ( 3 ) 137 big_machine . event_a () () 138 lil_machine . event_c ( 2 ) 139 lil_machine . event_a () () 140 big_machine . event_b () () 141 lil_machine . event_b () () 142 big_machine . event_c ( 7 ) 143 lil_machine . event_c ( 1 ) 144 145 print " Event A count " , big_machine . a_count 146 print " Event B count " , big_machine . b_count 147 print " Event C count " , big_machine . c_count 148 print " LilMachine C count " , lil_machine . c_count 149 150 main () ()

And now the imported statedefn.py

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 class StateMachineError ( Exception ): ): 10 def __init__ ( self , args = None ): ): 11 self . args = args 12 13 class StateVar ( object ): ): 14 def __init__ ( self , initial_state ): ): 15 self . _current_state = initial_state 16 self . next_state = initial_state 17 18 def set_state ( self , owner , new_state ): ): 19 ''' 20 Forces a state change to new_state 21 ''' 22 self . next_state = new_state 23 self . __to_next_state ( owner ) 24 25 def __to_next_state ( self , owner ): ): 26 ''' 27 The low-level state change function which calls leave state & enter state functions as 28 needed. 29 30 LeaveState and EnterState functions are called as needed when state transitions. 31 ''' 32 if self . next_state is not self . _current_state : 33 if hasattr ( self . _current_state , " leave " ): ): 34 self . _current_state . leave ( owner ) 35 elif hasattr ( self , " leave " ): ): 36 self . leave ( owner ) 37 self . _current_state = self . next_state 38 if hasattr ( self . _current_state , " enter " ): ): 39 self . _current_state . enter ( owner ) 40 elif hasattr ( self , " enter " ): ): 41 self . enter ( owner ) 42 43 def __fctn ( self , func_name ): ): 44 ''' 45 Returns the owning class's method for handling an event for the current state. 46 This method not for public consumption. 47 ''' 48 vf = self . _current_state . get_fe ( func_name ) 49 return vf 50 51 def name ( self ): ): 52 ''' 53 Returns the current state name. 54 ''' 55 return self . _current_state . name 56 57 class STState ( object ): ): 58 def __init__ ( self , state_name ): ): 59 self . name = state_name 60 self . fctn_dict = {} = {} 61 62 def set_events ( self , event_list , event_hdlr_list , next_states ): ): 63 dictionary = self . fctn_dict 64 if not next_states : 65 def set_row ( event , method ): ): 66 dictionary [ event ] = [ method , None ] ] = [ 67 map ( set_row , event_list , event_hdlr_list ) 68 else : 69 def set_row2 ( event , method , next_state ): ): 70 dictionary [ event ] = [ method , next_state ] ] = [ 71 map ( set_row2 , event_list , event_hdlr_list , next_states ) 72 self . fctn_dict = dictionary 73 74 def get_fe ( self , fctn_name ): ): 75 return self . fctn_dict [ fctn_name ] 76 77 def map_next_states ( self , state_dict ): ): 78 ''' Changes second dict value from name of state to actual state.''' 79 for de in self . fctn_dict . values (): (): 80 next_state_name = de [ 1 ] 81 if next_state_name : 82 if next_state_name in state_dict : 83 de [ 1 ] = state_dict [ next_state_name ] ] = 84 else : 85 raise StateMachineError ( ' Invalid Name for next state: {} ' . format ( next_state_name )) )) 86 87 88 class StateTable ( object ): ): 89 ''' 90 Magical class to define a state machine, with the help of several decorator functions 91 which follow. 92 ''' 93 def __init__ ( self , declname ): ): 94 self . machine_var = declname 95 self . _initial_state = None 96 self . _state_list = {} = {} 97 self . _event_list = [] = [] 98 self . need_initialize = 1 99 100 def initialize ( self , parent ): ): 101 ''' 102 Initializes the parent class's state variable for this StateTable class. 103 Must call this method in the parent' object's __init__ method. You can have 104 Multiple state machines within a parent class. Call this method for each 105 ''' 106 statevar = StateVar ( self . _initial_state ) 107 setattr ( parent , self . machine_var , statevar ) 108 if hasattr ( self , " enter " ): ): 109 statevar . enter = self . enter 110 if hasattr ( self , " leave " ): ): 111 statevar . leave = self . leave 112 113 if self . need_initialize : 114 for xstate in list ( self . _state_list . values ()): ()): 115 xstate . map_next_states ( self . _state_list ) 116 self . need_initialize = 0 117 118 def def_state ( self , event_hdlr_list , name ): ): 119 ''' 120 This is used to define a state. the event handler list is a list of functions that 121 are called for corresponding events. name is the name of the state. 122 ''' 123 state_table_row = STState ( name ) 124 if len ( event_hdlr_list ) != len ( self . _event_list ): ) !=): 125 raise StateMachineError ( ' Mismatch between number of event handlers and the methods specified for the state. ' ) 126 127 state_table_row . set_events ( self . _event_list , event_hdlr_list , None ) 128 129 if self . _initial_state is None : 130 self . _initial_state = state_table_row 131 self . _state_list [ name ] = state_table_row ] = 132 return state_table_row 133 134 def state ( self , name , event_hdlr_list , next_states ): ): 135 state_table_row = STState ( name ) 136 if len ( event_hdlr_list ) != len ( self . _event_list ): ) !=): 137 raise StateMachineError ( ' Mismatch between number of event handlers and the methods specified for the state. ' ) 138 if next_states is not None and len ( next_states ) != len ( self . _event_list ): ) !=): 139 raise StateMachineError ( ' Mismatch between number of event handlers and the next states specified for the state. ' ) 140 141 state_table_row . set_events ( self . _event_list , event_hdlr_list , next_states ) 142 143 if self . _initial_state is None : 144 self . _initial_state = state_table_row 145 self . _state_list [ name ] = state_table_row ] = 146 return state_table_row 147 148 def __add_ev_hdlr ( self , func_name ): ): 149 ''' 150 Informs the class of an event handler to be added. We just need the name here. The 151 function name will later be associated with one of the functions in a list when a state is defined. 152 ''' 153 self . _event_list . append ( func_name ) 154 155 156 def event_handler ( state_class ): ): 157 ''' 158 Declare a method that handles a type of event. 159 ''' 160 def wrapper ( func ): ): 161 state_class . _StateTable__add_ev_hdlr ( func . __name__ ) 162 def obj_call ( self , * args , ** keywords ): , *, **): 163 state_var = getattr ( self , state_class . machine_var ) 164 funky , next_state = state_var . _StateVar__fctn ( func . __name__ ) 165 if next_state is not None : 166 state_var . next_state = next_state 167 rv = funky ( self , * args , ** keywords ) , *, ** 168 state_var . _StateVar__to_next_state ( self ) 169 return rv 170 return obj_call 171 return wrapper 172 173 def on_enter_function ( state_class ): ): 174 ''' 175 Declare that this method should be called whenever a new state is entered. 176 ''' 177 def wrapper ( func ): ): 178 state_class . enter = func 179 return func 180 return wrapper 181 182 def on_leave_function ( state_class ): ): 183 ''' 184 Declares that this method should be called whenever leaving a state. 185 ''' 186 def wrapper ( func ): ): 187 state_class . leave = func 188 return func 189 return wrapper

C++/Java-keyword-like function decorators

@abstractMethod, @deprecatedMethod, @privateMethod, @protectedMethod, @raises, @parameterTypes, @returnType

The annotations provide run-time type checking and an alternative way to document code.

The code and documentation are long, so I offer a link: http://fightingquaker.com/pyanno/

Different Decorator Forms

There are operational differences between:

Decorator with no arguments

Decorator with arguments

Decorator with wrapped class instance awareness

This example demonstrates the operational differences between the three using a skit taken from Episode 22: Bruces.

1 from sys import stdout , stderr 2 from pdb import set_trace as bp 3 4 class DecoTrace ( object ): ): 5 ''' 6 Decorator class with no arguments 7 8 This can only be used for functions or methods where the instance 9 is not necessary 10 11 ''' 12 13 def __init__ ( self , f ): ): 14 self . f = f 15 16 def _showargs ( self , * fargs , ** kw ): , *, **): 17 print >> stderr , ' T: enter {} with args={}, kw={} ' . format ( self . f . __name__ , str ( fargs ), str ( kw )) >>),)) 18 19 def _aftercall ( self , status ): ): 20 print >> stderr , ' T: exit {} with status={} ' . format ( self . f . __name__ , str ( status )) >>)) 21 22 def __call__ ( self , * fargs , ** kw ): , *, **): 23 '''Pass *just* function arguments to wrapped function.''' 24 self . _showargs (* fargs , ** kw ) (*, ** 25 ret = self . f (* fargs , ** kw ) (*, ** 26 self . _aftercall ( ret ) 27 return ret 28 29 def __repr__ ( self ): ): 30 return self . f . func_name 31 32 33 class DecoTraceWithArgs ( object ): ): 34 '''decorator class with ARGUMENTS 35 36 This can be used for unbounded functions and methods. If this wraps a 37 class instance, then extract it and pass to the wrapped method as the 38 first arg. 39 ''' 40 41 def __init__ ( self , * dec_args , ** dec_kw ): , *, **): 42 '''The decorator arguments are passed here. Save them for runtime.''' 43 self . dec_args = dec_args 44 self . dec_kw = dec_kw 45 46 self . label = dec_kw . get ( ' label ' , ' T ' ) 47 self . fid = dec_kw . get ( ' stream ' , stderr ) 48 49 def _showargs ( self , * fargs , ** kw ): , *, **): 50 51 print >> self . fid , \ >>, \ 52 ' {}: enter {} with args={}, kw={} ' . format ( self . label , self . f . __name__ , str ( fargs ), str ( kw )) ),)) 53 print >> self . fid , \ >>, \ 54 ' {}: passing decorator args={}, kw={} ' . format ( self . label , str ( self . dec_args ), str ( self . dec_kw )) ),)) 55 56 def _aftercall ( self , status ): ): 57 print >> self . fid , ' {}: exit {} with status={} ' . format ( self . label , self . f . __name__ , str ( status )) >>)) 58 def _showinstance ( self , instance ): ): 59 print >> self . fid , ' {}: instance={} ' . format ( self . label , instance ) >> 60 61 def __call__ ( self , f ): ): 62 def wrapper (* fargs , ** kw ): (*, **): 63 ''' 64 Combine decorator arguments and function arguments and pass to wrapped 65 class instance-aware function/method. 66 67 Note: the first argument cannot be "self" because we get a parse error 68 "takes at least 1 argument" unless the instance is actually included in 69 the argument list, which is redundant. If this wraps a class instance, 70 the "self" will be the first argument. 71 ''' 72 73 self . _showargs (* fargs , ** kw ) (*, ** 74 75 76 kw . update ( self . dec_kw ) 77 78 79 if fargs and getattr ( fargs [ 0 ], ' __class__ ' , None ): ],): 80 81 82 83 instance , fargs = fargs [ 0 ], fargs [ 1 :]+ self . dec_args ],:]+ 84 self . _showinstance ( instance ) 85 86 87 ret = f ( instance , * fargs , ** kw ) , *, ** 88 else : 89 90 ret = f (*( fargs + self . dec_args ), ** kw ) (*(), ** 91 92 self . _aftercall ( ret ) 93 return ret 94 95 96 self . f = f 97 wrapper . __name__ = f . __name__ 98 wrapper . __dict__ . update ( f . __dict__ ) 99 wrapper . __doc__ = f . __doc__ 100 return wrapper 101 102 103 @DecoTrace 104 def FirstBruce (* fargs , ** kwargs ): (*, **): 105 ' Simple function using simple decorator. ' 106 if fargs and fargs [ 0 ]: ]: 107 print fargs [ 0 ] 108 109 @DecoTraceWithArgs ( name = " Second Bruce " , standardline = " G ' day, Bruce! " ) 110 def SecondBruce (* fargs , ** kwargs ): (*, **): 111 ' Simple function using decorator with arguments. ' 112 print ' {}: ' . format ( kwargs . get ( ' name ' , ' Unknown Bruce ' )) )) 113 114 if fargs and fargs [ 0 ]: ]: 115 print fargs [ 0 ] 116 else : 117 print kwargs . get ( ' standardline ' , None ) 118 119 class Bruce ( object ): ): 120 ' Simple class. ' 121 122 def __init__ ( self , id ): ): 123 self . id = id 124 125 def __str__ ( self ): ): 126 return self . id 127 128 def __repr__ ( self ): ): 129 return ' Bruce ' 130 131 @DecoTraceWithArgs ( label = " Trace a class " , standardline = " How are yer Bruce? " , stream = stdout ) 132 def talk ( self , * fargs , ** kwargs ): , *, **): 133 ' Simple function using decorator with arguments. ' 134 135 print ' {}: ' . format ( self ) 136 if fargs and fargs [ 0 ]: ]: 137 print fargs [ 0 ] 138 else : 139 print kwargs . get ( ' standardline ' , None ) 140 141 ThirdBruce = Bruce ( ' Third Bruce ' ) 142 143 SecondBruce () () 144 FirstBruce ( " First Bruce: Oh, Hello Bruce! " ) 145 ThirdBruce . talk () () 146 FirstBruce ( " First Bruce: Bit crook, Bruce. " ) 147 SecondBruce ( " Where ' s Bruce? " ) 148 FirstBruce ( " First Bruce: He ' s not here, Bruce " ) 149 ThirdBruce . talk ( " Blimey, s ' hot in here, Bruce. " ) 150 FirstBruce ( " First Bruce: S ' hot enough to boil a monkey ' s bum! " ) 151 SecondBruce ( " That ' s a strange expression, Bruce. " ) 152 FirstBruce ( " First Bruce: Well Bruce, I heard the Prime Minister use it. S ' hot enough to boil a monkey ' s bum in ' ere, your Majesty, ' he said and she smiled quietly to herself. " ) 153 ThirdBruce . talk ( " She ' s a good Sheila, Bruce and not at all stuck up. " )

Unimplemented function replacement

Allows you to test unimplemented code in a development environment by specifying a default argument as an argument to the decorator (or you can leave it off to specify None to be returned.

1 2 def unimplemented ( defaultval ): ): 3 if ( type ( defaultval ) == type ( unimplemented )): ) ==)): 4 return lambda : None 5 else : 6 7 def unimp_wrapper ( func ): ): 8 9 def wrapper (* arg ): (*): 10 return defaultval 11 return wrapper 12 return unimp_wrapper

Redirects stdout printing to python standard logging.

1 class LogPrinter : 2 '''LogPrinter class which serves to emulates a file object and logs 3 whatever it gets sent to a Logger object at the INFO level.''' 4 def __init__ ( self ): ): 5 '''Grabs the specific logger to use for logprinting.''' 6 self . ilogger = logging . getLogger ( ' logprinter ' ) 7 il = self . ilogger 8 logging . basicConfig () () 9 il . setLevel ( logging . INFO ) 10 11 def write ( self , text ): ): 12 '''Logs written output to a specific logger''' 13 self . ilogger . info ( text ) 14 15 def logprintinfo ( func ): ): 16 '''Wraps a method so that any calls made to print get logged instead''' 17 def pwrapper (* arg , ** kwargs ): (*, **): 18 stdobak = sys . stdout 19 lpinstance = LogPrinter () () 20 sys . stdout = lpinstance 21 try : 22 return func (* arg , ** kwargs ) (*, ** 23 finally : 24 sys . stdout = stdobak 25 return pwrapper

Access control

This example prevents users from getting access to places where they are not authorised to go

1 class LoginCheck : 2 ''' 3 This class checks whether a user 4 has logged in properly via 5 the global "check_function". If so, 6 the requested routine is called. 7 Otherwise, an alternative page is 8 displayed via the global "alt_function" 9 ''' 10 def __init__ ( self , f ): ): 11 self . _f = f 12 13 def __call__ ( self , * args ): , *): 14 Status = check_function () () 15 if Status is 1 : 16 return self . _f (* args ) (* 17 else : 18 return alt_function () () 19 20 def check_function (): (): 21 return test 22 23 def alt_function (): (): 24 return ' Sorry - this is the forced behaviour ' 25 26 @LoginCheck 27 def display_members_page (): (): 28 print ' This is the members page '

Example:

1 test = 0 2 DisplayMembersPage () () 3 4 5 test = 1 6 DisplayMembersPage () () 7

Events rising and handling

Please see the code and examples here: http://pypi.python.org/pypi/Decovent

Singleton

1 import functools 2 3 def singleton ( cls ): ): 4 ''' Use class as singleton. ''' 5 6 cls . __new_original__ = cls . __new__ 7 8 @functools.wraps ( cls . __new__ ) 9 def singleton_new ( cls , * args , ** kw ): , *, **): 10 it = cls . __dict__ . get ( ' __it__ ' ) 11 if it is not None : 12 return it 13 14 cls . __it__ = it = cls . __new_original__ ( cls , * args , ** kw ) , *, ** 15 it . __init_original__ (* args , ** kw ) (*, ** 16 return it 17 18 cls . __new__ = singleton_new 19 cls . __init_original__ = cls . __init__ 20 cls . __init__ = object . __init__ 21 22 return cls 23 24 25 26 27 28 @singleton 29 class Foo : 30 def __new__ ( cls ): ): 31 cls . x = 10 32 return object . __new__ ( cls ) 33 34 def __init__ ( self ): ): 35 assert self . x == 10 == 36 self . x = 15 37 38 assert Foo (). x == 15 ().== 39 Foo (). x = 20 (). 40 assert Foo (). x == 20 ().==

Asynchronous Call

1 from Queue import Queue 2 from threading import Thread 3 4 class asynchronous ( object ): ): 5 def __init__ ( self , func ): ): 6 self . func = func 7 8 def threaded (* args , ** kwargs ): (*, **): 9 self . queue . put ( self . func (* args , ** kwargs )) (*, **)) 10 11 self . threaded = threaded 12 13 def __call__ ( self , * args , ** kwargs ): , *, **): 14 return self . func (* args , ** kwargs ) (*, ** 15 16 def start ( self , * args , ** kwargs ): , *, **): 17 self . queue = Queue () () 18 thread = Thread ( target = self . threaded , args = args , kwargs = kwargs ); ); 19 thread . start (); (); 20 return asynchronous . Result ( self . queue , thread ) 21 22 class NotYetDoneException ( Exception ): ): 23 def __init__ ( self , message ): ): 24 self . message = message 25 26 class Result ( object ): ): 27 def __init__ ( self , queue , thread ): ): 28 self . queue = queue 29 self . thread = thread 30 31 def is_done ( self ): ): 32 return not self . thread . is_alive () () 33 34 def get_result ( self ): ): 35 if not self . is_done (): (): 36 raise asynchronous . NotYetDoneException ( ' the call has not yet completed its task ' ) 37 38 if not hasattr ( self , ' result ' ): ): 39 self . result = self . queue . get () () 40 41 return self . result 42 43 if __name__ == ' __main__ ' : == 44 45 import time 46 47 @asynchronous 48 def long_process ( num ): ): 49 time . sleep ( 10 ) 50 return num * num 51 52 result = long_process . start ( 12 ) 53 54 for i in range ( 20 ): ): 55 print i 56 time . sleep ( 1 ) 57 58 if result . is_done (): (): 59 print " result {0} " . format ( result . get_result ()) ()) 60 61 62 result2 = long_process . start ( 13 ) 63 64 try : 65 print " result2 {0} " . format ( result2 . get_result ()) ()) 66 67 except asynchronous . NotYetDoneException as ex : 68 print ex . message

Class method decorator using instance

When decorating a class method, the decorator receives an function not yet bound to an instance.

The decorator can't to do anything on the instance invocating it, unless it actually is a descriptor.

1 from functools import wraps 2 3 def decorate ( f ): ): 4 ''' 5 Class method decorator specific to the instance. 6 7 It uses a descriptor to delay the definition of the 8 method wrapper. 9 ''' 10 class descript ( object ): ): 11 def __init__ ( self , f ): ): 12 self . f = f 13 14 def __get__ ( self , instance , klass ): ): 15 if instance is None : 16 17 return self . make_unbound ( klass ) 18 return self . make_bound ( instance ) 19 20 def make_unbound ( self , klass ): ): 21 @wraps ( self . f ) 22 def wrapper (* args , ** kwargs ): (*, **): 23 '''This documentation will vanish :)''' 24 raise TypeError ( 25 ' unbound method {}() must be called with {} instance ' 26 ' as first argument (got nothing instead) ' . format ( 27 self . f . __name__ , 28 klass . __name__ ) 29 ) 30 return wrapper 31 32 def make_bound ( self , instance ): ): 33 @wraps ( self . f ) 34 def wrapper (* args , ** kwargs ): (*, **): 35 '''This documentation will disapear :)''' 36 print " Called the decorated method {} of {} " . format ( self . f . __name__ , instance ) 37 return self . f ( instance , * args , ** kwargs ) , *, ** 38 39 40 setattr ( instance , self . f . __name__ , wrapper ) 41 return wrapper 42 43 return descript ( f )

This implementation replaces the descriptor by the actual decorated function ASAP to avoid overhead, but you could keep it to do even more (counting calls, etc...)

Another Retrying Decorator

Here's another decorator for causing a function to be retried a certain number of times. This decorator is superior IMHO because it should work with any old function that raises an exception on failure.

Features:

Works with any function that signals failure by raising an exception (I.E. just about any function)

Supports retry delay and backoff

User can specify which exceptions are caught for retrying. E.g. networking code might be expected to raise SocketError in the event of communications difficulties, while any other exception likely indicates a bug in the code.

Hook for custom logging

GIST: https://gist.github.com/2570004

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 import sys 24 from time import sleep 25 26 27 def example_exc_handler ( tries_remaining , exception , delay ): ): 28 """Example exception handler; prints a warning to stderr. 29 30 tries_remaining: The number of tries remaining. 31 exception: The exception instance which was raised. 32 """ 33 print >> sys . stderr , " Caught ' %s ' , %d tries remaining, sleeping for %s seconds " % ( exception , tries_remaining , delay ) >>% ( 34 35 36 def retries ( max_tries , delay = 1 , backoff = 2 , exceptions =( Exception ,), hook = None ): =(,),): 37 """Function decorator implementing retrying logic. 38 39 delay: Sleep this many seconds * backoff * try number after failure 40 backoff: Multiply delay by this factor after each failure 41 exceptions: A tuple of exception classes; default (Exception,) 42 hook: A function with the signature myhook(tries_remaining, exception); 43 default None 44 45 The decorator will call the function up to max_tries times if it raises 46 an exception. 47 48 By default it catches instances of the Exception class and subclasses. 49 This will recover after all but the most fatal errors. You may specify a 50 custom tuple of exception classes with the 'exceptions' argument; the 51 function will only be retried if it raises one of the specified 52 exceptions. 53 54 Additionally you may specify a hook function which will be called prior 55 to retrying with the number of remaining tries and the exception instance; 56 see given example. This is primarily intended to give the opportunity to 57 log the failure. Hook is not called after failure if no retries remain. 58 """ 59 def dec ( func ): ): 60 def f2 (* args , ** kwargs ): (*, **): 61 mydelay = delay 62 tries = range ( max_tries ) 63 tries . reverse () () 64 for tries_remaining in tries : 65 try : 66 return func (* args , ** kwargs ) (*, ** 67 except exceptions as e : 68 if tries_remaining > 0 : 69 if hook is not None : 70 hook ( tries_remaining , e , mydelay ) 71 sleep ( mydelay ) 72 mydelay = mydelay * backoff 73 else : 74 raise 75 else : 76 break 77 return f2 78 return dec

Logging decorator with specified logger (or default)

This decorator will log entry and exit points of your funtion using the specified logger or it defaults to your function's module name logger.

In the current form it uses the logging.INFO level, but I can easily customized to use what ever level. Same for the entry and exit messages.

1 import functools , logging 2 3 4 log = logging . getLogger ( __name__ ) 5 log . setLevel ( logging . DEBUG ) 6 7 class log_with ( object ): ): 8 '''Logging decorator that allows you to log with a 9 specific logger. 10 ''' 11 12 ENTRY_MESSAGE = ' Entering {} ' 13 EXIT_MESSAGE = ' Exiting {} ' 14 15 def __init__ ( self , logger = None ): ): 16 self . logger = logger 17 18 def __call__ ( self , func ): ): 19 '''Returns a wrapper that wraps func. 20 The wrapper will log the entry and exit points of the function 21 with logging.INFO level. 22 ''' 23 24 if not self . logger : 25 logging . basicConfig () () 26 self . logger = logging . getLogger ( func . __module__ ) 27 28 @functools.wraps ( func ) 29 def wrapper (* args , ** kwds ): (*, **): 30 self . logger . info ( self . ENTRY_MESSAGE . format ( func . __name__ )) )) 31 f_result = func (* args , ** kwds ) (*, ** 32 self . logger . info ( self . EXIT_MESSAGE . format ( func . __name__ )) )) 33 return f_result 34 return wrapper

1 2 3 if __name__ == ' __main__ ' : == 4 logging . basicConfig () () 5 log = logging . getLogger ( ' custom_log ' ) 6 log . setLevel ( logging . DEBUG ) 7 log . info ( ' ciao ' ) 8 9 @log_with ( log ) 10 def foo (): (): 11 print ' this is foo ' 12 foo () () 13 14 @log_with () () 15 def foo2 (): (): 16 print ' this is foo2 ' 17 foo2 () ()

1 2 >>> ================================ RESTART ================================ >>> ================================================================ 3 >>> >>> 4 INFO : custom_log : ciao 5 INFO : custom_log : Entering foo 6 this is foo 7 INFO : custom_log : Exiting foo 8 INFO : __main__ : Entering foo2 9 this is foo2 10 INFO : __main__ : Exiting foo2

Lazy Thunkify

This decorator will cause any function to, instead of running its code, start a thread to run the code, returning a thunk (function with no args) that wait for the function's completion and returns the value (or raises the exception).

Useful if you have Computation A that takes x seconds and then uses Computation B, which takes y seconds. Instead of x+y seconds you only need max(x,y) seconds.

1 import threading , sys , functools , traceback 2 3 def lazy_thunkify ( f ): ): 4 """Make a function immediately return a function of no args which, when called, 5 waits for the result, which will start being processed in another thread.""" 6 7 @functools.wraps ( f ) 8 def lazy_thunked (* args , ** kwargs ): (*, **): 9 wait_event = threading . Event () () 10 11 result = [ None ] = [ 12 exc = [ False , None ] = [ 13 14 def worker_func (): (): 15 try : 16 func_result = f (* args , ** kwargs ) (*, ** 17 result [ 0 ] = func_result ] = 18 except Exception , e : 19 exc [ 0 ] = True ] = 20 exc [ 1 ] = sys . exc_info () ] =() 21 print " Lazy thunk has thrown an exception (will be raised on thunk()):

%s " % ( % ( 22 traceback . format_exc ()) ()) 23 finally : 24 wait_event . set () () 25 26 def thunk (): (): 27 wait_event . wait () () 28 if exc [ 0 ]: ]: 29 raise exc [ 1 ][ 0 ], exc [ 1 ][ 1 ], exc [ 1 ][ 2 ] ][],][],][ 30 31 return result [ 0 ] 32 33 threading . Thread ( target = worker_func ). start () ).() 34 35 return thunk 36 37 return lazy_thunked

Example:

1 @lazy_thunkify 2 def slow_double ( i ): ): 3 print " Multiplying... " 4 time . sleep ( 5 ) 5 print " Done multiplying! " 6 return i * 2 7 8 9 def maybe_multiply ( x ): ): 10 double_thunk = slow_double ( x ) 11 print " Thinking... " 12 time . sleep ( 3 ) 13 time . sleep ( 3 ) 14 time . sleep ( 1 ) 15 if x == 3 : == 16 print " Using it! " 17 res = double_thunk () () 18 else : 19 print " Not using it. " 20 res = None 21 return res 22 23 24 maybe_multiply ( 10 ) 25 maybe_multiply ( 3 )

Aggregative decorators for generator functions

This could be a whole family of decorators. The aim is applying an aggregation function to the iterated outcome of a generator-functions.

Two interesting aggregators could be sum and average:

1 import functools as ft 2 import operator as op 3 4 def summed ( f ): ): 5 return lambda * xs : sum ( f (* xs )) (*)) 6 7 def averaged ( f ): ): 8 def aux ( acc , x ): ): 9 return ( acc [ 0 ] + x , acc [ 1 ] + 1 ) ] +] + 10 11 def out (* xs ): (*): 12 s , n = ft . reduce ( aux , f (* xs ), ( 0 , 0 )) (*), ()) 13 return s / n if n > 0 else 0 14 15 return out

Examples for the two proposed decorators:

1 @averaged 2 def producer2 (): (): 3 yield 10 4 yield 5 5 yield 2.5 6 yield 7.5 7 8 assert producer2 () == ( 10 + 5 + 2.5 + 7.5 ) / 4 () == () / 9 10 @summed 11 def producer1 (): (): 12 yield 10 13 yield 5 14 yield 2.5 15 yield 7.5 16 17 assert producer1 () == ( 10 + 5 + 2.5 + 7.5 ) () == (

Function Timeout

Ever had a function take forever in weird edge cases? In one case, a function was extracting URIs from a long string using regular expressions, and sometimes it was running into a bug in the Python regexp engine and would take minutes rather than milliseconds. The best solution was to install a timeout using an alarm signal and simply abort processing. This can conveniently be wrapped in a decorator:

1 import signal 2 import functools 3 4 class TimeoutError ( Exception ): pass ): 5 6 def timeout ( seconds , error_message = ' Function call timed out ' ): ): 7 def decorated ( func ): ): 8 def _handle_timeout ( signum , frame ): ): 9 raise TimeoutError ( error_message ) 10 11 def wrapper (* args , ** kwargs ): (*, **): 12 signal . signal ( signal . SIGALRM , _handle_timeout ) 13 signal . alarm ( seconds ) 14 try : 15 result = func (* args , ** kwargs ) (*, ** 16 finally : 17 signal . alarm ( 0 ) 18 return result 19 20 return functools . wraps ( func )( wrapper ) )( 21 22 return decorated

Example:

1 import time 2 3 @timeout ( 1 , ' Function slow; aborted ' ) 4 def slow_function (): (): 5 time . sleep ( 5 )

Collect Data Difference Caused by Decorated Function

It calls a user function to collect some data before and after the decorated function runs. To calculate difference it calls the difference calculator user function.

Example: checking page numbers of a print job: get the number of all printed pages from printer before and after the printing. Then calculate difference to get the number of pages printed by the the decorated function

1 import inspect 2 3 4 5 import time 6 7 8 from functools import wraps 9 10 11 def collect_data_and_calculate_difference ( data_collector , difference_calculator ): ): 12 """Returns difference of data collected before and after the decorated function, 13 plus the original return value of the decorated function. Return type: dict. 14 Keys: 15 - function name of the decorated function 16 - name of the difference calculator function 17 Values: 18 - the original return value of decorated function 19 - difference calculated by difference_calculator functions 20 Parameters: functions to collect data, and create difference from collected data 21 22 Created: 2017 23 Author: George Fischhof 24 """ 25 26 current_decorator_function_name = inspect . currentframe (). f_code . co_name (). 27 28 29 def function_wrapper_because_of_parameters ( decorated_function ): ): 30 difference_calculator_name = difference_calculator . __name__ 31 decorated_function_name = decorated_function . __name__ 32 33 i_am_the_first_decorator = not hasattr ( decorated_function , ' __wrapped__ ' ) 34 35 @wraps ( decorated_function ) 36 def wrapper (* args , ** kwargs ) -> dict : (*, **) -> 37 result_dict = dict () () 38 39 before = data_collector () () 40 original_result = decorated_function (* args , ** kwargs ) (*, ** 41 after = data_collector () () 42 43 my_collection = difference_calculator ( before = before , after = after ) 44 45 i_am_not_first_decorator_but_first_is_similar_to_me = ( = ( 46 not i_am_the_first_decorator 47 and isinstance ( original_result , dict ) 48 and ( decorated_function_name in original_result ) 49 ) 50 51 if i_am_not_first_decorator_but_first_is_similar_to_me : 52 original_result [ difference_calculator_name ] = my_collection ] = 53 return original_result 54 else : 55 result_dict [ decorated_function_name ] = original_result ] = 56 result_dict [ difference_calculator_name ] = my_collection ] = 57 return result_dict 58 59 return wrapper 60 return function_wrapper_because_of_parameters 61 62 63 64 65 66 def collect_data_or_data_series_a (): (): 67 time . sleep ( 0.5 ) 68 return time . time () () 69 70 71 def collect_data_or_data_series_b (): (): 72 time . sleep ( 0.5 ) 73 return time . time () () 74 75 76 def calculate_difference_on_data_series_a ( before , after ): ): 77 return after - before 78 79 80 def calculate_difference_on_data_series_b ( before , after ): ): 81 return after - before 82 83 84 @collect_data_and_calculate_difference ( 85 data_collector = collect_data_or_data_series_a , 86 difference_calculator = calculate_difference_on_data_series_a ) 87 @collect_data_and_calculate_difference ( 88 data_collector = collect_data_or_data_series_b , 89 difference_calculator = calculate_difference_on_data_series_b ) 90 def do_something_that_changes_the_collected_data (): (): 91 return ' result of decorated function... ' 92 93 94 print ( do_something_that_changes_the_collected_data ()) ()) 95 96 97 98

CategoryDocumentation