Sketch of the grammar of Shetland Norn

based on the material from Jakobsen's

"Etymological dictionary of Shetland Norn"

(See a separate overview for

the language of the Hildina poem)

This overview is mostly based on forms picked up from Jakob Jakobsen's etymological dictionary. Of course, it should be kept in mind that most of those forms represent not directly Norn but rather its remnants in Shetland Scots and may well originate from different dialects and epochs. Nevertheless, we think that this material to a certain degree allows its systematisation and a contour description of the grammar of Shetland Norn (or, at least, its morphology) can be rendered. See also the chapter on Old Norse for a grammar reference.

Short viewDetailed view



A. Substantives

A.1. Indefinite declension

A.1.1. Singular

A.1.1.1. Strong declension

A.1.1.2. Weak declension

A.1.2. Plural

A.2. Definite declension

A.2.1. Singular

A.2.2. Plural

B. Adjectives

B.1. Strong adjectives

B.2. Weak declension

B.3. Comparative and superlative degree

B.3.1. Comparative degree

B.3.2. Superlative degree

C. Pronouns

C.1. Personal pronouns

C.2. Possessive pronouns

C.3. Demonstrative pronouns

C.4. Indefinite and interrogative pronouns

D. Numerals

D.1. Cardinal numerals

D.2. Ordinal numerals

E. Verbs

E.1. Indicative

E.1.1. Present

E.1.2. Past

E.2. Imperative

E.3. Subjunctive

E.4. Invinitive

E.5. Present (active) participle

E.6. Past (passive) participle

E.7. Middle voice

A. Substantives

B. Adjectives

C. Pronouns

D. Numerals

E. Verbs



A. SUBSTANTIVES

A.1. Indefinite declension

A.1.1. Singular

A.1.1.1. Strong declension

A.1.1.1.1. Nominative/accusative

The standard Old Norse (ON) masculine ending -r is dropped in most cases (merging thus with accusative), except a few words where it still shows up as -er:

(Norn < Old Norse unless specified)

erd r os < arð r -áss

mod er a handalos < mað r (inn) handalauss

fogbord er < fjúkburð r

fund er , find er < fund r

hwisterest er (*hwister-hester) < hest r

kidnpust er < kinnpúst r

Most of the feminine and neuter strong substantives in ON had no ending in nominative and the same applies to Shetland Norn (further referred to as Norn).

A.1.1.1.2 Genitive

a) -s was a common genitive singular ending in masculine and neuter declension in ON. This ending is widely presented in Norn:

Horn s hul < Horn s hóll

s(j)u s amillabakka (*sjósámillibakka) < á milli sjó s ok bakka

Maedadall s Woe < Matdal s á

Vigadal s wo < Víkardal s á

Polsgjo < Poll s gjá

marta di gon s teke di vep s < margt til garn s , tekit til vept s

Vat s hwi < Vatn s kví

De Fel s end < fell s endi

merki s -time < merki s -tíð

As -s is the only genitive ending in English, there is no doubt that it had to stay in Norn under any circumstances. In separate cases -s shows up as -is, -sa, -ses:

Røn is fell < Hraun s fell, Røn is vo < hraun s -vágr

Markamud is wo < markamót s á

el is < él s

Vat sa ros < Vatn s rás

Banuf ses kodda < Boðahnúf s koddi

The ending -is could have developed owing to the influence from words ending in -i, which had the genitive ending -is, e.g. ON sæti - Gen. sæti s . An influence from Scots is also possible. The other examples - Vat sa ros, Bahuf ses kodda - can contain a contamination of various genitive endings.

b) Another regular genitive ending - ar/r - was used in the strong feminine and the strong i/u-masculine declensions. In Norn it's normally preserved as -a/e (occasionally a > i), -er, -r:

masc.

de Jørn a tegs < Jǫrund ar teigar

de Sjur a tegs < Sigurð ar teigar

*Sunl a setter < Sǫlmund ar setr

Tron a seter (Tronister) < Þránd ar setr;

de Fjard e pall < fjarð ar pallr;

rygg a gitel < ryggj ar geitill

Skeld e brøs < Skjald ar brjóst

Skell a velti < Skjaldarvelta?

Ball a fell < ball ar fell (?); de Bell a gø < ball ar gýgr

hatt er skum < *hatt ar skúm

fem.

Eng a mor, Eng a tus, Eng a mosdelds; Eng er morvatn < engj ar -

de Gø ra sten, Gøstens < gýgj ar steinn; de Gø r hul < gýgj ar hóll

(W)O r dal < á r dalr; de O r ems < á r heimar; Wo r gert < á r garðr; O r gil < á r gil; (W)O rl i < á r hlið; Wo r os - á r óss; (W)O r wick, O r ruk < á r vík

oll a < ull ar -

Grind a velta < grind ar -

Hamn a voe < hafn ar vágr

Mør a delds < mýr ar deildir, Mør a tegs < mýr ar teigar

de Stran a tegs < strand ar teigar

skotn a rur < *skotan ar -róðr

ufs a hella < ups ar hella

Tupt a tegs < tupt ar -;

uti a < útíð( ar ?)

Vig a gjo < vík ar gjá

li r , lid a < hlíð ar ; Lifell, de Lid a dal < hlíð ar dalr; de Li r end(s) < hlíð ar endi; Li r hul (-hol, wol) < hlíð ar hóll

no ra legg < nál ar -leggr

Mal i gjo < mal ar gjá

Nav i gjo < nafargjá

The above examples show that -r is normally preserved in monosyllabic words (wor < ár, lir < hlíðar, gør < gýgjar), but tends to drop in bisyllabic ones. The reflexes of Old Norse hlíð show both types of this development: hlíðar > lir, lida. The choice obviously depends upon whether -ð- stays (as -d-) or disappears at all, which gives either a mono- or bisyllabic word respectively.

A.1.1.1.3. Dative

In Old Norse strong masculine and neuter nouns had the ending -i. It seems to be well-preserved in Norn. Feminine nouns had no ending in dative except the word hǫnd - D.sg. hendi:

lag i (to be in a lagi [lag] 'to be excited') < lag i , D.sg. of lag

Vell i < á vell i , D.sg.of vǫllr

Stakken groit i < stakkrinn í grjót i

Vo < í vági

and i < í hend i

A.1.1.1.4. Accusative

Corresponding to most Norwegian, Danish and Swedish dialects, as well as West Germanic languages (German), accusative in Norn strongly inclined to merging with nominative. It is especially evident in the strong masculine declension where nominative has lost its masculine ending -r which made it look the same as the accusative form. In most of the feminine and all the neuter words nominative and accusative were morphologically identical.

A.1.1.1.5. Summary

Masc Fem Neu N (er) - - A - - - D i - i G s/is/a,er a,r,er s

A.1.1.2. Weak declension

A.1.1.2.1. Nominative

One of the most prominent pecularities of this group of nouns is fluctuations between the masculine endings -i (oiginally, nominative) and -a (originally, accusative, dative and genitive). Their confusion can witness the blending of the nominative and accusative cases in Norn as we have already discussed above. As a result, other forms with the ending -a swapped it for -i by analogy. In neuter the Old Norse ending -a is mostly preserved or dropped occasionally.

a) Masculine

bilk, bilki, bulk < Icel. bulki m., bylki n., Nor. bulk m. < ON *bulkr

hog, hogi, hoga < hagi

ralli < Nor. Swed. ralla

rømi, remi < rjómi

slagi, slaga < slaga, slagi

skugga, skugg < skuggi (cf. to be i' skugga < at vera í skugga)

b) Feminine

floga < fluga

flukra,flokra < Far. flykra

solta < solta

Smorkelda < smœr-/smjǫrkelda

c) Neuter

jarta < hjarta

joga < auga

jora < eyra

nir < nyr a

Many weak nouns have lost their ending, although in a number of forms it is still preserved (partially it owes to the occasional blending of the strong and weak declension still in Old Norse, cf. ON. stubbr vs. stubbi). The omitting of the ending is especially noticeable in female.

masc.

stubb nm. stub, stump < stubbr/stubb i

rukk a , rokk < Nor. ruk a



fem.

bor < bor a

dagdvelj < dagdvelj a

di < þýð a

Greentu a /Grøntu < grøn þúf a ; Tu a n stura < þúf a n stóra; Høtu < heyþúf a ; Litlatu < litla þúf a ; Muklatu < mikla þúf a





A.1.1.2.2. Genitive

In Old Norse there was the same form for accusative, dative and genitive of singular in the weak declension of nouns. However, we have collected the examples of genitive into a separate group, because most of them are parts of compound words. In feminine the ending -u is often replaced with -a (the same change -u > -a is frequent in the plural of weak adjectives, see B.2.3.):

masc.

Mang a seter < Magn a setr, Magni

Tirv i ster (*Turv a setter) < Torf a setr, Torfi;

s(j)usamillabakk a (*sjósámillibakka) < milli sjós ok bakk a



fem.

Kell a brun < keld u -brunnr, kelda

Kjork a bi < kirkj u bœr; Kjork i gert < kirkj u garðr; de Kjork i delds < kirkj u deildir; K(j)orkhul < kirkjuhóll, de Kjork a lis < kirkj u hlíðir; Kork a seter < kirkj u setr, kirkja

pann a brod/pann i - < pǫnn u brot, panna

gjong e -sop, gjong a -fish/gjonge-fish < gǫng u -sopi, gǫng u -fiskr, ganga



A.1.1.2.3. Accusative, dative

folgj u , fulgj u < fulg u , fulga

grinsk o , alongside grønska < grœnsk u , grœnska

hurr o , horr o < Nor. hurr u , hurra

ilsk o , ilsk u , alongside ilska < ilsk u , ilska

fongsnor o < *fang-snarv u , *fang-snarva (Alternatively the final -o can be explained as a result of the influence from -v-, cf. dorg > * dorw > Norn dorro, like sorg > Eng. sorrow)

A.1.1.2.4. Summary

Masc Fem Neu N i (a) a (o) a,- A a a, *o (u) *a (-) D a o (u) *a (-) G a o (u) *a (-)

A.1.2. Plural

A.1.2.1. Nominative

Old Norse had various plural nominative endings in masculine and feminine: -ar, -ir, -ur, -r. In neuter there was a zero ending in the strong declension and the ending -u in the weak one. All this is narrowed down to 3 endings in Norn: -ar, -er and the neuter zero ending. The weak neuter declension has apparently borrowed the ending -er, see below jogers.

dreng ar < dreng ar (also drengir), sg. drengr

de Klett er s < klett ar , klettr

de Eng er s < engj ar , eng

vist er < vist ir , vist

ilsk er < ilsk ur , ilska

klø r , sg. klø < kljá r , sg. klé

ge r (*kør, kyr) < ký r , sg. kú

jog er s (*joger) < augu, sg. auga; cf. Far. pl. eygu, eyg ur

A.1.2.2. Genitive

The main genitive plural ending in ON was -a. It is quite well preserved in Norn, occasionally appearing in a slightly different phonetic form, f.ex. as -e:

de a -dumbvidlavoga < dymbildag a vika, -dag a -, Nom. sg. dagr

Hulm a water < hólm a vatn; Hulm a sjønn < hólm a tjǫrn

Koll a firt < Koll a fjǫrðr; Koll e vo < Koll a vágr; Koll e fell < Koll a fell; Koll e røn < Koll a hraun, kollr

hus a milla(n) < millum hús a ; milla gord a < millum garð a ; skottamilliskru a < skotta milli skrúf a ; s(j)usamillabakka < milli sjós ok bakk a ; millen fjell a , Mella fjel a < millum fell a (fjall a ); Milla hell a < milli hell a ; Milla stakk i (*Milla stakka) < milli stakk a ; Milla sten a < milli stein a ; Milla vatn a < milli vatn a ; Milja sand a < milli sand a

Gott a taka gamla mann a ro < gott at taka gamalla mann a ráð

de Emann a sod < *eins-mann a -sátr < eins-manns-sátr; cf. de Twegemanso < tveggja-manna-sátr; de Vjedemansso < veiðimanns/a-sátr.

In the last case we face the mixing of the endings for genitive sg. and pl. Logically it should have been *Emannsod, *Twegemann(a)o and *Vjedemann(a)o, but the outcome is opposite due to corruption.

According to the rule of vocalic contraction, the genitive plural ending -a is usually dropped when the root ends in a vowel:

Sørett < sauðarétt

Millenor < millum á(a); (-r is pleonastic)

The genitive ending -na, proper to female and neuter of the weak declension shows up in few cases:

or na skap < eyr na -, Nom.sg. eyra

A.1.2.3. Dative

The ON ending is always -um, which in Norn turned into -en (cf. the Faroese ending -um [ωn]):

Hwi en < *í kví um , Nom.sg. kví

Toft en < í Toft um , tóft

De Nes(j) en < í Nesj um , nes

hwiden s(w)igl en < (með) hvítum segl um

Hul en < Hól um , hóll (or Hól(l)inn, see A.2.1.1)

Tu en < í þúf um , þúfa (or þúfan, see A.2.1.1)

A.1.2.4. Accusative

In neuter and feminine accusative plural had the same ending as nominative. In masculine it was equal to the nominative ending, but failed the final -r: Nom.pl. hestar, dalir, Acc.pl hesta, dali. Remains of this system are still to be found in Norn:

blur a < blór a , Nom.pl. blórar

dimmodal i < dimmu dal i , *dimmudali, Nom.pl. -dalir

A.1.2.5. Summary

Masc Fem Neu N ar, er ar, er, r s. -, w. er A a, i ar, er, r s. -, w. er D en en en G a a s. a, w. na

A.2. Definite declension (with the suffigated article)

A.2.1. Singular

A.2.1.1. Nominative-accusative.

a) Masculine

The mixing of nominative and accusative is evident where definite nouns are concerned, especially when a noun is followed by a (weak) adjective in accusative, e.g. pollin djuba which repeats the old accusative form pollinn djúpa, nominative pollrinn djúpi. We quote both accusative and nominative forms of the Old Norse archetypes, either separately (Acc. koll inn , Nom. kollrinn) or within the same word (eld(r) inn ).

globere n < glápari n

de Fors( in ) < fors inn

Hess en gula < hest inn gula (Acc), hestrinn guli (Nom)

slagi, slaga < ON slaga, slagi

Boe n s < boði nn (boði)

lav in < hleif inn (Acc), hleifrinn (Nom)

Stakk en groiti < stakk(r )inn í grjóti, Stakk en sjukka < stakk inn þjukka, Nom. stakkrinn þjukki

hog in /hog en ; de Hog en < hag inn

de Koll en [Kull en ] < koll inn , Nom. kollrinn

de jader in , jadr en (jader) < jaðar inn

de n e komene ljus [lusa] < dag inn [dǫgun?] er kominn í ljós, Nom. dagrinn

ungadreng en < unga dreng inn , Nom. ungi drengrinn

Klett in rø < klett(r) inn rauði

mon in , Edm. mon en < mán inn

hild in < eld(r) inn

kjos en < koss inn

hals in < háls inn

Poll in djuba < poll inn djúpa, Nom. pollrinn djúpi

rats in < rass inn

simm en < sím inn

Stenavellen; Vallernes

Hul en , Hul in < hól inn , Nom. hóllinn (otherwise treated as Dat.pl, see A.1.2.3.); Hul en brenda < hól inn brennda, Nom. hóllinn brenndi; Hul en hjoga < hól inn háa, Nom. hóllinn hái (Far. høgi); Hul na hwessa < hólinn hvassa, Nom. hóllinn hvassi (or Nom. plur. hólarnir hvǫssu, see A.2.2.1.); Hulen [hollen] kwida < hólinn hvíta, Nom. hóllinn hvíti; Hulen rundi < hólinn rundi; Hul( en ) skarpa < hól inn skarpa, Nom. hóllin skarpi; Hulen (Ulna) stura [sturi] < hólinn stóra, Nom. hóllinn stóri

Tuen < þúfan (otherwise í þúfum, see A.1.2.3)

In several cases the old masculine ending -inn shows up in the shape of -a or -e. The conditions of this change are unclear, although it echoes a similar development of the feminine article in Norwegian dialects, cf. ON bókin > Nynorsk boka. Nevertheless, in Norn such cases are registered mostly in masculine. Probably this is an example of the ending -a spreading out as a universal ending of Norn, see f.ex. J.Jakobsen, "Etymological Dictionary...", "Fragments of Norn", p. XCIII, "Gryle verse" ("All the old grammatical endings in this verse have been levelled to -a, except in bjadnis <...>").

sagde koll e gambli [koll a gambla] < sagði karl inn gamli

spung na ligger i gliggan < spónn inn liggr í *glygganum

moder a handalos < maðr( inn ) handalauss

b) Feminine

In feminine the blending of nominative and accusative is especially obvious. Most examples show strong declension which Old Norse endings were -in (Nom.) and -ina/-na (Acc.). In Norn they show up as -en/in and -ena/-na respectively. The weak endings in Old Norse were -an and -una, in Norn they appear as -en/in and -ena respectively.

mør ena grøna < mýr ina grœnu, Nom. mýr in grœna; mør na kwida < mýr ina hvítu, mýr in hvíta; Blomør na < blámýrr in/-ina

Gjo na stura < Acc. gjá na stóru; Nom. gjáin stóra; Gjo na wi' < gjá na við

Ør na wi < eyr ina við

Wo na svarta < á na svǫrtu, áin svarta

Kus ena stura < kǫs ina stóru, kǫsin stóra

dongj in < dyngj an

skiv in < skíf an

de Slett en < slétt an

jilder hjolsk in ! < illa heils a(n)

Grunk en s < grunnk an

pirr ena < pirr una (alternative interpretation: pirr-hœna)

Smi na wi < smiðj una við

Riv ena høgena wi < rif una hauginn við

c) Neuter

The Old Norse ending for nominative and accusative was -it. In a few Norn words the final -t is still on, but most often it is dropped. The vowel is presented as -i, rarely -e.

tungefl et/-it < tungufall it

darg et (also darg) < darg et

valne vatn e < fallinn í vatn it

firsta far i ! < fyrsta far it

sommer e litla < summar it lítla

Røn i fogra < hraun it fagra; de Berrarøn i s < berghraun it ; de Fellarøn i s < fellhraun it ; Hjogarøn i s < haugahraun it ; Krogarøn i < krák(u)hraun it ; Langa-/Longarøn i < langa hraun it .

seppalam a (*-lam i ) < søta lamb it

sjønibøsn i < sjónar-bysn it

A.2.1.2. Genitive

a) Masculine, neuter

The masculine (and neuter) ending in Old Norse was -ins. Preserved in Norn.

Hols ins wart < hals ins varða [-i]

b) feminine

In Old Norse The feminine ending was -innar (strong) and -unnar (weak). In Norn the final -r is dropped, the double -nn- is shortened and the initial vocal -i- or -u- reduced, so the outcome is -na:

Wo na swartadal < ár innar -svǫrtudalr

Mur na tegs < mýrar innar -teigar; de Mør na brods < mýr arinnar -brotar? (or Celt. brod?; also treated as mýranna-brotar, see A.2.2.2.)

Nip na fell < gníp unnar -fell (also treated as gnípna-fell, see A.2.2.2.)

A.2.1.3. Dative

a) The masculine ending in Old Norse was -inum (strong) or -anum (weak). Norn has most often the ending -en or (respectively?) -an, i.e. the same as in accusative (see though the account on the language of Hildinakvadet where there still is a different ending).

glegg in , glegg an < glygg inum , glygg anum

ølt i rigg en < ilt í hrygg inum

Klett en rø < (á) klett inum [klettinn] rauða

b) Feminine

The Old Norse strong ending -inni appears as -in in the only example we have found (see also an anological conclusion for the language of Hildinakvadet). No traces of the weak ending -unni have been discovered.

Mør en < á/í mýr inni

No examples of dative definite in neuter (Old Norse -inu) are found either.

A.2.1.4. Accusative sg. masc. weak (strong covered above) -ann - Norn -an

agglov an < *agga-klof ann , A.sg.def. of klofi

Tong an swarta < tang ann svarta, tanginn svarti



Rivena-høg ena -wi < rifan/rifuna-haug inn -við - a separate form which shows an influence from the feminine ending -ena.

A.2.2. Plural.

A.2.2.1. Nominative

a) masculine, feminine

In Old Norse both genders had the endings -ar/-ir/-ur + -nir (masc.)/-nar (fem.). In Norn all these variants have merged into -erne (-ene) which must be a combination of nominative and accusative forms and is very typical for many continental Scandinavian dialects. A slightly different development is shown by donna < dyrnar, where -rn- follows straight after the root vowel.

vist erne , vist erno < vist irnar

Klett erne < klett arnir

Vall erne s < vell irnir

Hul na hwessa < hól arnir hvǫssu (or hólinn hvassa, see A.2.1.1.)

oba do nna [dønna, dønni]! < opna dy rnar !

boochs ina < buks urnar (?)

b) neuter

de Led ien s (ledi) < leit in Nom.pl. of leiti

de Røn in s < hraun in , hraun

Enni n s < enni n , enni

vil n (vils) < vil in Nom. pl. of vil

de Gil in s < gil in grœnu

There are few examples of the ending being -ena (-*eni, -*ini) which is the same ending as exists in Faroese and Danish, unlike the ending -in as in Old Norse:

Gil ena grona (< *gilini) < gil in grœnu, Far. *gil ini grønu

clov ena < Nor. klov + in

The following word has formally no neuter plural article, but its final part (-in) does remind it, so that in Faroese and Danish it acquired the final vowel -e/i by analogy from the article. However, this did not happen to Norn:

sotsk in < systk in , but Far. systkini, Dan. søskende

A.2.2.2. Genitive plural has a common ending for all 3 genders: -anna [-nanna]. In Norn it is normally preserved as -na, rarely -ena.

Midla jou na [jongna, jungna] < milli gjá nna

Hwi na rigger < kví anna -ryggr

Hul na rift < hól anna -ript

Riv na teng < rif na -tangi

de Mør na brods < mýr anna -brotar (or mýrarinnar-brotar? see A.2.1.2.)

Nip na fell < gníp na -fell (or gnípunnar-fell? see A.2.1.2.)

Teg ena vall (Tegnivaldjes) < teig anna -völlr

Hus en vord (Husavord) < hús anna -varða

A.2.2.3. Dative

Unfortunately, no definite dative plural forms have been discovered.

A.2.2.4. Feminine and neuter names had identical forms for nominative and accusative plural. Accusative masculine in Old Norse had the ending -ana or -ina. In Norn these endings are merged into -ena or -na.

L(j)øg ena grøna < lœk ina grœnu, Nom. lœknirnir grœnu

Hul na hwessa < hól ana hvǫssu, hólarnir hvǫssu

Teg ena gronna [gronja] < teig ana grinnu [grœnu?], teigarnir grinnu

Blett ena /blek na grøna < blett ina grœnu, blettirnir grœnu

Stakk ena grona < stakk ana grœnu, stakkarnir grœnu

Summary. Singular

(s. - strong, w. -weak, sw. - both strong and weak)

Masc Fem Neu N sw. en/in, a sw. en/in s. i(t), w. ? A s. en/in, w. an sw. ena/na s. i(t), w. ? D s. en, w. an s. en, w. ? ? G s. ins, w. ? s. na, w. na? s. ins?, w. ?

Plural

Masc Fem Neu N erne erne, na in(i?) A (e)na erne, na in(i?) D ? ? ? G (e)na (e)na (e)na

B. ADJECTIVES

B.1. Strong adjectives

The repertoire of various grammatical forms presented by strong adjectives is quite scarce. The following forms only have been registered: Nom.sg.masc/fem/neu, Acc.sg.masc., Dat.sg.masc, Nom.pl.masc (?), Gen.pl. and Dat.pl.

B.1.1. Singular nominative. Like with masculine names, adjectives in Old Norse had the masculine nominative singular ending -r but only few instances of this ending are found in the remnants of Norn:

nab er [nabel] < knapp r

uvolt er [uvolt, uvilt] < óðvillt r (?)

The rest of adjective forms have this ending dropped and thus coincide with the old feminine form.

modera handalos < maðr(inn) handalauss

Mukkel/Mikkel Rø < mikil Rauðey; Rø stur < Rauðey stór

Grøni < grœn ey;

Grøntu < grœn tó/þúfa

In feminine the ending -a [-e] is sometimes present. Most likely it originates from the Accusative form (góða) or, alternatively, the weak Nominative form (also góða).

Sanday Stour [stur a ] < Sandey stór( a )

De vare [vera] gu e ti < þat var góð tíð (Nom), Acc. góð a tíð

B.1.2. Neuter ending in old Norse was -t. It is well preserved in Norn.

smu tt < smá tt , Neu. smár

uvar t < óvar t , óvarr

utoitleg( t ) < óþýðlig t , óþýðiligr

Sometimes the neuter form includes additional inserts:

mjoge t < mjó tt , *mjó-ótt

In a separate case the final -(t)t is eliminated altogether:

hwī ligǝrǝ hwī < hvítt liggr í hvítu

B.1.3. Singular accusative masc. In Old Norse the ending is -an, in Norn it is preseved as -en in those few examples where it still can be traced:

god en dag! < góð an dag!

B.1.4. Singular dative. Like with the dative plural of nouns, the old ending -um shows up as -en.

hwiden s(w)iglen swert en tro < (með) hvítum seglum, svǫrt um þræði

B.1.5. Plural nominative:

ungadrengar < contamination of Acc. unga drenga and Nom. ungir drengar (?) Otherwise it might be influenced by an alternative form ungadrengen < unga drenginn or, more likely, be a reflex of a weak form: ungu drengar (see B.2).

B.1.6. The only surviving Genitive plural form is gamla < gamalla (assimilation of the standard Gen.pl. ending -ra, which changes to -la after -l-):

Gott a taka gaml a manna ro < gott at taka gamal la manna ráð

B.1.7. Plural dative. Same as B.1.4.

hwid en s(w)iglen swerten tro < (með) hvít um seglum, svǫrtum þræði

B.2. Weak declension

B.2.1. In a number of cases adjectives are preserved in their old weak form. All occurences of this type show the masculine ending -i:

dummi < Fær. dummi,dummur/dumbur, Nor.dumm

bolleti < bǫllótti, bǫllóttr

huketi < hókótti, hókóttr

kruketi < krókótti, krókóttr

mirki < myrki, myrkr

keremi < kæri minn, kærr

kluki < klóki, klókr



Some of these adjectives appear as substantivated nouns:

halti < halti, haltr

hardi < harði, harðr

rødi < rauði, rauðr

smjongni < (hinn) smeygni, smeyginn

B.2.2. Weak adjective with an indefinitive substantive (widespread among toponymes). In the case of feminine nouns, it becomes difficult to distinguish between the old strong Accusative singular form and the weak nominative singular one, which had the same ending -a in Old Norse (see B.1.1.).

long a floga < lang a fluga

de Long e gø < lang a gýgr

Grøn a blett < grœn a blett, grœni blettr; Gronastakk/Gronistakk < grœna stakk, grœni stakkr, Grønitong/Gronateng < grœna tanga, grœni tangi

Kwidamørr < hvíta mýrr; Hwidanes, Kwidanes < hvíta nes; Hwitiberg < hvíta berg; Hwita-/Kwitastakk < hvíta stakk, hvíti stakkr

Brattikom < bratti kambr; Rongakom < ranga kamb, rangi kambr; Mukla Kom < mikla kamb, mikli kambr; Litla Kom < litla kamb, litli kambr

de Longemi < lǫngumið

Ruøy stoura < Rauðey stóra

Øje gamla < iða gamla

de Gamlabuls/Gamlibøls < gǫmlu ból; Gamla hellek < gamla hella

Hjoganip < høga gnípa (?)

Tjongi longi, Longatonga < tangi(nn) langi, tanga langa

sota [soti] lamb! < sœta lamb!

In the original weak forms consonantal inserts occasionally occur:

groga < gráa, grár, cf. Anglo-Saxon græg



B.2.3. Weak adjective with a definitive substantive. Most of the forms show the ending -a. The masculine Nominative ending -i is rather rare (gambli, rundi), the plural and feminine indirect ending -u is replaced with -a in most examples except dimmodali < dimmu dali (see a similar development in genitive feminine of substantives, A.1.1.2.2.).

sagde kolle gambli [kolla gambla] < sagði karlinn gamli

Stakken sjukka < stakkinn þjukka, Nom. stakkrinn þjukkr

seppalama < sœta lambit (?)

sjolin sjota < sálin sœta

ungadrengen < unga drenginn, Nom. ungi drengrinn

Gjona stura < gjáin stóra; Acc. gjána stóru

Blettena/blekna grøna < blettina grœnu; Dalin grøna < dalinn grœna, dalrinn grœni; Fidna grøna < fitina grœnu, fitin grœna; Ljøgena grøna < lœkina grœnu, lœkirnir grœnu; Mørena grøna < mýrina grœnu, mýrin grœna; Stakkena grona < stakkana grœnu,stakkarnir grœnu; Tona grona < tóna grœnu, tóin grœna; Gilena grona < gilin grœnu, Far. gilini grønu

Hellena kwida < helluna hvítu, hellan hvíta; Hulen kwida < hólinn hvíta, hóllinn hvíti; Mørna kwida < mýrina hvítu, mýrrin hvíta

Gorsten stura < garðstaðinn stóra, garðstaðrinn stóri; Hulen stura < hóllinn stóri;

Vadlin/Vallin stura < vaðilinn stóra, vaðillinn stóri;

Hessen gula < hestinn gula, hestrinn guli

Hulin rundi < hóllinn rundi

sommere litla < summarið litla;

L(j)øgena grøna < lœkina groenu, lœknirnir grœnu

dimmodali < dimmu dali(na)

B.2.4. Because of vocalic contraction in Norn a number of adjectives ending in a vowel (or the original -ð-) does not allow us to detect exactly whether it is an old strong or weak form:

Klettin rø < klettinn rauða, klettrinn rauði; (undir) klettinum rauða

Rø hedler < rauðr [rauði?] hellir (Fo)

Hellena gro < helluna grá(u), Nom. hellan grá(a)



B.3. Comparative and superlative degree

B.3.1. Comparative degree. The older endings -ri and -ra are preserved, apart from the ending -er which must have been borrowed from Scots, despite the Old Norse form betr which also should have given the ending -er.

Øtra/Hemra Nip < ytri/*heimari gnípa

Sudra Kidn < syðri kinn

ettri < eptri,aptari

better < betr, L.Sc./Eng. better

Øver/Neder Sund < øfra/neðra sund

de øter/inner Kinnens < ytri/innri kinn

de hemer/framer Sedek < *heimara/fremra sæti or *heimari/fremri seta

Adverbial paradigm:

hema - hemer - hemest < *heima - *heimari - *heimast

B.3.2. Superlative degree

Hostanup < hæsti gnúpr

i mirkastim hura < i myrkastum 'hour' ('in the darkest hour'); see comments by J.Jakobsen on this form in his "Etymological Dictionary...", p. CXVI.



C. PRONOUNS

C.1. Personal pronouns

1. sg.: Nom. ek < ek, Acc. mog < mig:

ek ska(l) skjera < ek skal skera

æve rigrive mog < (ek) efa(sk) (at þú) hrygghrífir mik



2. sg.: Nom. du, Acc. dig,dok < þig, Gen. din < þín, Dat. djer. Like in Old Norse, the nominative form can be used in the imperative form of a verb, cf. ON halt þú > haltu:

Shetland Scots looks-to! < look + tu (< þú)

Shetland Scots hal tu dog at djer < hal tu ( þik ) at þér (double recirpocal form)



3. sg.: Nom. hann, haņņa

hanna daga < hann dagar





2.pl.: Nom. di < þit/þér?, dor < Fær. tygur; Gen. dor(a) <

Goden dag til dor(a)! < góðan dag til yðvar

Shetland Scots kwar'r dor gaun? where are you going?

C.2. Possessive pronouns

1. sg.: mi,mit

lam mit < lamb mitt

kere mi < kæri minn



2. sg.: dit, det

C.3. Demonstrative pronouns

Shetland Norn der < þat er

it(t)a, jada < þetta, masc. þessi, Fær. neu. hetta

C.4. Indefinite and interrogative pronouns

marg; neu. mart(a) < margr, margt

kwar, sing.neut. kwart < hvert (uppo kwart ura < uppá hvert eyra) or kwat < hvat: kwat a ita? kwat e jada? < hvat er þetta?



D. NUMERALS

D.1. Cardinal numerals

de Emannasod < *eins-manns-sátr; de Twegemanso < *tveggja-manna-sátr

fire,føre < fjórir, Far. fýra '4'

trettin < þrettan '13'

fjomtena, fjumtan < fimmtán '15'

seks < sex; cf. sekserin,seksærin < sexæringr

tretti < þrjátíu '30'

D.2. Ordinal numerals

firsta fari! second anari! < fyrsta farið, annað! ('1st', '2nd')

trid < þriði '3d'

(tiind < tíund 'tithe' in bot(is)tiind)

trettind < þrettándi '13th'

E. VERBS

E.1. Indicative

E.1.1. Present. The system of endings in the present seem to be the same as in Faroese: 1.sg -e, 2,3.sg -er,-ar, pl. -a. In many instances the final -r in 2,3.sg is dropped, most probably when the next word begins in a consonant.

1. sg.

æve rigrive mog < (ek) efa(sk) (at þú) hrygghrífir mik

3. sg.

ligga, liger < liggr

siter < sitr

seve < sefr,søfr

leka < leikr

hanna daga < hann dagar

kaller < kallar

3.pl.

wakna < vakna

gonga, gonge, gongera < ganga

honge < hanga

Preterito-present verbs:

1,3 sg.

skal skal, skall, skar < skal

Shetland Scots who æs it? < hver á þat?

2.sg.

sal du < skalt þú

1.pl.

skola < skulum



E.1.2. Past. In some cases the respective infinitive form is also mentioned after the past form.

E.1.2.1. Strong verbs

gret, grot < grét, gráta

wann, winn < vann, vinna

strød/strøded, strø < streyði(?), streyja

lep/loped, lop < hljóp, hlaupa

gat, get < gat, geta

dret, dräit < dreit, dríta

strok < strauk, strjúka

skrē < skreið, skríða

kom < kom

E.1.2.2. Weak verbs. Once again, the endings are practically the same as those of Faroese: -e in sg., -u [-e] in pl.

sagde kolle/a gambli/a < sagði karlinn gamli, segja

sokketu < sóktu/sóttu, sækja

vogede < vǫktu

rude < *róðu/reru, róa

E.2. Imperative

Preserving the old imperative, Norn shows a tendency to add a vowel if the imperative did originally not have it, cf. kome < kom, ria < ríð. Either it is the result of a levelling influence from weak verbs or it is just the infinitive used in the imperative meaning.

trivi < þríf í!

Halt < halt

tak < tak

kome < kom

gera so! < gera svá!

klapa < klappa

ria < ríð

ræn(na) < renn

A number of forms have preserved the old Old Norse imperative particle -tu which originates from the personal pronoun 2.sg. þú:

høredu < heyr þú, heyrðu

Shetland Scots looks-to! < look + tu (< þú)

Shetland Scots (or Norn?) hal tu dog at djer < hal tu ( þik ) at þér (double recirpocal form)

E.3. Subjunctive

twit se dee! < tvít sé þér!

welawirdi < vel verði þér, Fær. væl verði tær!

twiti var dee! < tvítt veri þér! twiti varg dee! < tvít verði þér! (?), Fær. tví vorði [vorti] tær

I ver vi dee! < ek veri með þér! probably mixed with Eng. I wish I were here (?)

E.4. Infinitive.

Infinitives of the verbs listed in Jakobsen's dictionary normally have a zero ending according to the rules of English/Scots. However, the Scandinavian infinitive ending -a is still preserved in a few obscure forms apart from a number of forms from the Norn texts.

ek ska(l) skjer a < ek skal sker a

skott a milliskrua < skott a milli skrúfa

tia,tiæ < þegja, Far. tiga

E.5. Present (active) participle

The original ending is preserved only in a few forms. In the most of cases the Scots ending -in/en is used instead.

driljandi < drillandi

gemsina < gemsanda, Gen.pl. of gemsandi

gløen < glóandi

E.6. Past (passive) participle

In some cases the respective infinitive form is also mentioned after the participle.

E.6.1. Strong verbs

groten, grot < grátinn, gráta

sukken, sukk < sokkinn, sǫkkva

dritten, dräit < dritinn, dríta

teke < tekit

halden < haldinn

voksen < vaxinn

smjongni < hinn smeygni

fonn < fundinn, but:

hjogfinni < haugfundit?

nomin < numinn

boren < barinn

lopen [lupen], lopa < hlaupinn, hlaupa

upplopen < upphlaupinn

wantriven < *vanþrifinn or rather L.Sc. wanthrivin?

dene komene ljus [lusa] < dagar [dǫgun?] kominn í ljós

valne vatne (FO fadlin) < fallinn í vatnið

vanvordin, vanvurden < vanvorðinn

runnin < runninn

E.6.2. Weak verbs

Hulen brenda < hóllinn brenndi

lengdi < lengðir

teldar < taldar Fem.pl.

run, rin < hruninn, hrynja

uppadoga < uppidagaðr

vandet < vandaðr

supet < sópað

hoitted, -et < háttaðr

E.7. Middle voice

helsk < helsask (?)

pinnis < pínask (?)

