This is part 3 in a series. If you haven’t seen the first two posts, you might want to take a look at those first.

Part 1: Why and prerequisites

Part 2: The basics and a first property

In part 2, we looked at the basics of how state machine testing in hedgehog worked. We defined states and inputs, looked at how hedgehog uses the Command and Callback types to execute tests, and defined our first property. In this post we’re going to revisit some of this material and explain the parts we initially glossed over. Specifically, we’re going to look at why hedgehog required our state and input types to be parameterised on a type constructor, what the Var , Symbolic and Concrete types are all about, and why we need HTraversable instances for our inputs. It might not come as a surprise, but they’re all closely related.

Another property

Our last post used the leaderboard application as a test subject, and we’ll be continuing to use it in this post. This time we’re not only going to register our first user, we’re going to register additional users and make sure that our count agrees with the application.

Once again, let’s start with a state diagram.

If it’s not clear what’s happening here, let me explain. As with the property we wrote in part 2, n here stands for the number of successfully registered users, and we start at n=0 . Again, like before, we may register our first user ( register-first input) and move to n=1 . We can then move to n>0 without input. Whenever our user count is greater than 0, register-first is a no-op — at least with regards to this state machine. However, an admin user may register a new user with the register input, which increments the user count. At this point, the number of registered users is still greater than 0 and we can move back to our n>0 state without input.

State and inputs revisited

Here’s what our state and input types looked like for our first property.

newtype RegFirstState ( v :: * -> * ) = RegFirstState Integer deriving ( Eq , Show ) newtype RegFirst ( v :: * -> * ) = RegFirst RegisterPlayer deriving ( Eq , Show ) data GetPlayerCount ( v :: * -> * ) = GetPlayerCount deriving ( Eq , Show )

We know we want to register additional users, which isn’t the same as registering our first user, so we’re going to need a new input for that.

data Register ( v :: * -> * ) = Register RegisterPlayer ( Var TestRsp v) v) deriving ( Eq , Show )

Register comprises two values: the registration information for the new player, and a Var TestRsp v . TestRsp is a newtype around the response type returned by our application’s register endpoint. It comprises a player ID and an authentication token. Importantly, we need the authentication token of an adminstrator to successfully register a new player, and that’s why our Register input requires a TestRsp . As for the Var constructor and v parameter, we’ll get to those in just a moment.

Given we need a valid auth token for an admin if we want to register subsequent users, and we can only get those from the application after registering a user, we’re going to have to store some in our state. It also seems appropriate to mention that leaderboard rejects registrations that try to use an email for a user who has already been registerd. That means we need to generate unique emails. To do that, we’ll also need to keep track of registered emails in our state. So what’s our new state look like?

data RegisterState ( v :: * -> * ) = RegisterState { rsPlayerEmails :: S.Set Text , rsAdmins :: S.Set ( Var TestRsp v) v) } deriving ( Eq , Show )

This is probably close to what you expected given we need to keep track of player emails and admin tokens now. Just like our new input, our new state also makes use of that v parameter and Var type. OK. It’s time…

We need to talk about v

Firstly, it’s important to understand how hedgehog runs our tests in a little more detail. The hand wavey description of the process is something like this:

Generate a random sequence of commands to run given an initial state. Filter out any commands that don’t produce an input generator given the current state. Filter out any commands whose Require callback returns False given the current state. Use the Update callback of each chosen command to update the state such that subsequent commands are filtered using the updated state. Execute the sequence of commands.

For each command: Run the input against the system under test. Update the model state given the output from the system under test. Check any post conditions ( Ensure callbacks). If a test fails, shrink the list of commands (which will in turn shrink their inputs) and return to step 2. This includes removing commands that can no longer be run because their input included output from a command that is no longer being used.

I’d like to point out that hedgehog generates all of the commands that are run before the first command is ever executed against the application. I’d also like to point out that, while it’s generating this complete set of commands, it is updating state and deciding which commands may be run based on this state. In case you’re getting nervous, hedgehgog hasn’t broken causality — it’s just got two different versions of state. This is where the v parameter and Var type come in.

Here’s the Var type.

data Var a ( v :: * -> * ) = a ( Var (v a) (v a)

Var is used to store values that we get back from the application in our state. hedgehog needs to keep track of the link between outputs that come from the application, and inputs that make use of those outputs. Not only that, it needs to do this while generating and shrinking, which means it hasn’t run any commands and therefore has no concrete values. Instead, hedgehog uses symbolic variables as placeholders for the outputs it expects to get back from the application. It therefore makes sense that the two type constructors that hedgehog uses to inhabit the v parameter in Var are Symbolic and Concrete .

data Symbolic a where Symbolic :: Typeable a => Name -> Symbolic a newtype Concrete a where Concrete :: a -> Concrete a

Symbolic and Concrete both have kind * -> * , which means we can use them with Var and have Var a Symbolic and Var a Concrete . We can also see that the a in Symbolic a is a phantom type that is never inhabited. It just keeps track of the fact that this placeholder should be replaced by a value of type a . Finally, Concrete is just a newtype around an a such that it has the same kind as Symbolic and can replace Symbolic s whenever we get concrete values back from the application.

When an input requires some previous output from our application, it gets wrapped up in a Var as we saw in our Register input. While hedgehog is generating or shrinking, and doesn’t have concrete values, this will be a Var a Symbolic . Once commands are being executed, our state will be rebuilt using values of type Var a Concrete . Despite being a placeholder for future values, it’s useful to note that Var a Symbolic has Eq and Ord instances. This allows us to do things like store our symbolic representations in ordered containers and check that they’re still present in our state as part of Require callbacks.

Our hand wavey explanation of what hedgehog does included another interesting tid bit: our state gets built up twice. When we generate commands, we build up a symbolic representation of the state that allows subsequent commands to determine whether it makes sense for them to be generated or run given the current state. Once commands are being run against the application, the state gets rebuilt from the beginning using the concrete values returned by the application. This is why our state type must be parameterised on a type constructor — so we can mark whether it contains Var a Symbolic s, or Var a Concrete s.

HTraversable revisited

Inputs work a little differently to state. Inputs are generated along with commands, which means they start life with a symbolic representation of any values we expect to get back from our application. However, unlike our state, which we can build up again from an initial value, we can’t rebuild our inputs. Once they’re generated as part of each command, they are part of the tree of generated values and don’t get modified. Instead, inputs get updated on demand such that their symbolic variables are replaced with concrete values before the input is executed. To capture this ability to replace Var a Symbolic s with Var a Concrete s, hedgehog uses the HTraversable class. This is why every input must have an instance of HTraversable — hedgehog needs to be able to replace symbolic placeholders with their concrete values once they’ve been returned by the application. The fact that state gets rebuilt and inputs don’t is also the reason that, while our state must be parameterised on the type constructor v , it doesn’t need to have an HTraversable instance.

Now that we know why the HTraversable class exists and why inputs must have instances for it, let’s look at its definition again.

class HTraversable t where htraverse :: Applicative f => ( forall a . g a -> f (h a)) -> ht g -> f (ht h) g af (h a))ht gf (ht h)

In the same way that traverse (from the Traversable class) maps between types of kind * underneath an Applicative , htraverse maps type constructors of kind * -> * under an Applicative . This might be made clearer if we put the definition of htraverse and traverse (from the Traversable class) next to each other.

traverse :: Applicative f => ( a -> f b) -> t a -> f ( t b) ( af b)t af ( t b) htraverse :: Applicative f => ( forall a . g a -> f (h a)) -> ht g -> f (ht h) g af (h a))ht gf (ht h)

traverse takes a function that maps a s to b s with some Applicative effect, and an instance of Traversable ( t ) containing a s. t has kind * -> * here as it’s a regular type constructor. One intuition for this function is that it gets applied to each of the a s in t , while the Applicative is pulled outside of the t . For example, if we traverse over a list of things where the mapping is partial, we end up with the following.

-> Maybe b) -> [a] -> Maybe [b] (ab)[a][b]

As you can maybe guess from the type signature, if any of the mappings produces a Nothing , the whole result is Nothing .

htraverse is very similar, except ht , our instance of HTraversable , is a higher kinded type of kind (* -> *) -> * . So, given a function that maps between type constructors g and h , htraverse should perform this mapping everywhere the type constructor g appears in its structure. Not only that, but the use of Rank2Types means that the mapping function knows nothing about a and is therefore unable to modify it in any way.

To make things clearer, let’s write out some types and do some substitutions.

Symbolic :: * -> * Concrete :: * -> * htraverse :: Applicative f => ( forall a . g a -> f (h a)) g af (h a)) -> ht g ht g -> f (ht h) f (ht h)

If we let g ~ Symbolic and h ~ concrete , we get:

htraverse :: Applicative f => ( forall a . Symbolic a -> f ( Concrete a)) f (a)) -> ht Symbolic ht -> f (ht Concrete ) f (ht

ht is an instance of HTraversable , and each of our inputs must be an instance of HTraversable , so let’s substitute in our new Register input. We’ll write it’s HTraversable instance in a moment.

htraverse :: Applicative f => ( forall a . Symbolic a -> f ( Concrete a)) f (a)) -> Register Symbolic -> f ( Register Concrete ) f (

Finally, hedgehog maintains a mapping from symbolic Var s to their concrete values as each input is executed. The mapping function that hedgehog uses with htraverse is a lookup in that environment, which is partial and might fail. The type of the lookup function is something like forall a. Symbolic a -> Either EnvironmentError (Concrete a) . So, when hedgehog updates our Register input with concrete values, htraverse is used with the following concrete type.

htraverse :: ( forall a . Symbolic a -> Either EnvironmentError ( Concrete a)) a)) -> Register Symbolic -> Either EnvironmentError ( Register Concrete )

To summarise: given a function that maps a symbolic variable to a concrete value with the possibility of failure, htraverse is used to replace all symbolic variables in an input with their concrete values from the environment, or fail the entire computation if any of the lookups fail.

Now that we know the types, and we have an intuition for what we’re trying to achieve with an HTraverse instance, let’s write the instance for Register .

instance HTraversable Register where Register rp ( Var rsp)) = htraverse f (rp (rsp)) Register rp . Var <$> f rsp rpf rsp

If it’s not clear what we’re doing here, it helps to write out some types. htraverse returns something of type f (ht h) ; where f is some applicative, ht is our instance of HTraversable , and h is the type constructor we’ve mapped to. In our case, we’re looking to return a value of type f (Register h) given we’re writing a HTraversable instance for Register .

rsp :: g TestRsp f :: forall a . g a -> f (h a) g af (h a) f rsp :: f (h TestRsp ) f (h Var :: h a -> Var a h h aa h Register rp :: Var TestRsp h -> Register h Register rp . Var :: h TestRsp -> Register h rp ( Register rp . Var <$> ) :: f (h TestRsp ) -> f ( Register h) rpf (hf (h) Register rp . Var <$> f rsp :: f ( Register h) rpf (h)

Breather

Let’s take stock of where we’re at. So far in this post we’ve:

Introduced a new property — registering users should increment the count of users.

Specified an input to register users with an admin token.

Updated our state to keep track of player emails and admin tokens so we can successfully register new users.

Talked about Symbolic vs Concrete state.

vs state. Looked at what HTraversable does and written a non-trivial instance.

Now that we have a deeper understanding of how hedgehog runs state tests and how it handles state, I’d like to look at Command and Callback again to fill in the bits we skipped in the last post. After that, we’ll write our new Command for registering users and then update our property to use our new command.

Command and Callback revisited

Here’s the type of Command again.

data Command n m ( state :: ( * -> * ) -> * ) = n m ( forall input output . input output ( HTraversable input, Show (input Symbolic ), Typeable output) => input,(input),output) Command { commandGen :: Symbolic -> Maybe (n (input Symbolic )) state(n (input)) , commandExecute :: Concrete -> m output inputm output , commandCallbacks :: [ Callback input output state] input output state] }

We can see now that this reflects our understanding of hedgehog ’s process and use of state. commandGen generates inputs before anything has been executed, and therefore only has a Symbolic view of the model state. Furthermore, it can take Symbolic representations of expected application outputs and use them as part of its input, as evidenced by the input Symbolic in commandGen ’s return type.

commandExecute is actually running commands, and has access to values returned by our application. Given commands are executed sequentially in the order they were generated, our state should include actual return values from the application for any previously executed commands. Therefore, any inputs may be transformed from those containing Symbolic values to Concrete ones via their HTraversable instance.

Next, let’s look at the Callback type again.

data Callback input output state = input output state Require (state Symbolic -> input Symbolic -> Bool ) (stateinput | Update ( forall v . Ord1 v => state v -> input v -> Var output v -> state v) state vinput voutput vstate v) | Ensure (state Concrete -> state Concrete -> input Concrete -> output -> Test ()) (statestateinputoutput())

Once again, this reflects the understanding we’ve been building up in this post. Require is a precondition that is checked during generation and shrinking, but before anything has been executed against the application. It therefore deals with a Symbolic state and input. Update is used to build up both a Symbolic state and a Concrete state. Therefore, it must be polymorphic in v . Finally, Ensure is a post condition that is checked during execution, so it gets a Concrete view of all the state that has been built up, up to and including the state after its command has run. It also has access to the Concrete input that was used.

The cRegister Command

We’ve covered all the required concepts, and now we can finally write our new command.

cRegister :: ( MonadGen n , MonadIO m , MonadTest m ) => ClientEnv -> Command n m RegisterState n m = cRegister env let RegisterState ps as) = gen (ps as) if null as as then Nothing else ( Register <$> genRegPlayerUniqueEmail ps <*> ) <$> genAdminRsp as genRegPlayerUniqueEmail psgenAdminRsp as Register rp rsp) = execute (rp rsp) fmap TestRsp $ evalEither =<< successClient env (register (clientToken rsp) rp) evalEithersuccessClient env (register (clientToken rsp) rp) in Command gen execute [ gen execute [ Require $ \( RegisterState ps as) ( Register rp p) -> \(ps as) (rp p) S.notMember (_lbrEmail rp) ps && S.member p as S.member p as , Update $ \( RegisterState ps as) ( Register rp _rqToken) rsp -> \(ps as) (rp _rqToken) rsp let = S.insert (_lbrEmail rp) ps newPsS.insert (_lbrEmail rp) ps = bool as (S.insert rsp as) (_lbrIsAdmin rp == Just True ) newAsbool as (S.insert rsp as) (_lbrIsAdmin rp in RegisterState newPs newAs newPs newAs , Ensure $ \( RegisterState psOld _) ( RegisterState psNew _) \(psOld _) (psNew _) ( Register LeaderboardRegistration { .. } _t) _ -> do } _t) _ $ S.member _lbrEmail psNew assertS.member _lbrEmail psNew $ S.notMember _lbrEmail psOld assertS.notMember _lbrEmail psOld length psNew === length psOld + 1 psNewpsOld , Ensure $ \( RegisterState _ asOld) ( RegisterState _ asNew) \(_ asOld) (_ asNew) ( Register LeaderboardRegistration { .. } _t) rsp -> do } _t) rsp let vRsp = Var ( Concrete rsp) vRsprsp) if _lbrIsAdmin == Just True _lbrIsAdmin then do assert (S.member vRsp asNew) assert (S.notMember vRsp asOld) length asNew === length asOld + 1 asNewasOld else success ]

cRegister is a big function. Let’s tackle it in pieces.

cRegister :: ( MonadGen n , MonadIO m , MonadTest m ) => ClientEnv -> Command n m RegisterState n m

Our type signature isn’t very surprising, but it’s worth pointing out that it uses our new RegisterState type.

= cRegister env let RegisterState ps as) = gen (ps as) if null as as then Nothing else ( Register <$> genRegPlayerUniqueEmail ps <*> ) <$> genAdminRsp as genRegPlayerUniqueEmail psgenAdminRsp as

gen isn’t very exciting either. If we don’t have any admin users ( as ) then we can’t generate a Register input. If we do, we use some helpers to generate registration information containing a unique email address and select an admin user whose token we’ll use.

Register rp rsp) = execute (rp rsp) fmap TestRsp $ evalEither =<< successClient env (register (clientToken rsp) rp) evalEithersuccessClient env (register (clientToken rsp) rp)

execute just hits our registration endpoint via the register client function, expects success, and then wraps the response type in our newtype .

Require $ \( RegisterState ps as) ( Register rp p) -> \(ps as) (rp p) S.notMember (_lbrEmail rp) ps && S.member p as S.member p as

The Require callback checks that our player doesn’t already exist in the state, and that the admin user whose token we need is still present in the state. When hedgehog encounters a failure and starts shrinking things, our player emails will start to converge given the way shrinking works, so we need to make sure they’re still unique. Likewise, if the command that registered the admin user used by this command is removed as part of shrinking, we can no longer run this command because the admin user won’t exist.

Update $ \( RegisterState ps as) ( Register rp _rqToken) rsp -> \(ps as) (rp _rqToken) rsp let = S.insert (_lbrEmail rp) ps newPsS.insert (_lbrEmail rp) ps = bool as (S.insert rsp as) (_lbrIsAdmin rp == Just True ) newAsbool as (S.insert rsp as) (_lbrIsAdmin rp in RegisterState newPs newAs newPs newAs

State updates are also unsurprising: we must insert our new player’s email into the state to ensure that we don’t generate an email already in use, and we must add our new user’s token to the set of admins if the user is to be an admin.

Ensure $ \( RegisterState psOld _) ( RegisterState psNew _) \(psOld _) (psNew _) ( Register LeaderboardRegistration { .. } _t) _ -> do } _t) _ $ S.member _lbrEmail psNew assertS.member _lbrEmail psNew $ S.notMember _lbrEmail psOld assertS.notMember _lbrEmail psOld length psNew === length psOld + 1 psNewpsOld

Finally, our post conditions. We check that our new set of player emails contains the one we registered, and that our previous state didn’t contain that email. We also check that the number of player emails in our state has increased by one with this command.

Ensure $ \( RegisterState _ asOld) ( RegisterState _ asNew) \(_ asOld) (_ asNew) ( Register LeaderboardRegistration { .. } _t) rsp -> do } _t) rsp let vRsp = Var ( Concrete rsp) vRsprsp) if _lbrIsAdmin == Just True _lbrIsAdmin then do assert (S.member vRsp asNew) assert (S.notMember vRsp asOld) length asNew === length asOld + 1 asNewasOld else success

What’s this? Another Ensure ? Remember that our Callback s go in a list, and we can have more than one of each type. Sometimes, like in this case, I find it’s a nice way to break things up. The checks here are very similar to the ones above, but only apply when the user is to be an admin.

The Ensure s in this command are really just sanity checks to help catch bugs in our test code early rather than having them manifest in strange failures later. It’s pretty easy to mess up a generator, Require , or Update and have hedgehog do some very unexpected things. The cGetPlayerCount command we defined in our last post is sticking around, and that’ll take care of checking that our count agrees with the application’s, which is the property we’re actually testing.

Once again, we’re going to start with code from our first property.

propRegFirst :: ClientEnv -> IO () () -> TestTree = propRegFirst env reset "register-first" . property $ do testPropertyproperty let = commands ( $ env) <$> [cRegisterFirst, cGetPlayerCount, cRegisterFirstForbidden] env)[cRegisterFirst, cGetPlayerCount, cRegisterFirstForbidden] = initialState RegFirstState 0 <- forAll $ actionsforAll 1 100 ) initialState commands Gen.sequential (Range.linear) initialState commands evalIO reset executeSequential initialState actions

There are only a couple of changes we need to make here other than renaming some things. Firstly, we need to add our new command to the list of commands. Secondly, we need to change the initialState to be of type RegisterState .

propRegister :: ClientEnv -> IO () () -> TestTree = propRegister env reset "register-all" . property $ do testPropertyproperty let = ( $ env) <$> commandsenv) [ cRegister , cRegisterFirst , cRegisterFirstForbidden , cGetPlayerCount ] = initialState RegisterState S.empty S.empty S.empty S.empty <- forAll $ actionsforAll 1 100 ) initialState commands Gen.sequential (Range.linear) initialState commands evalIO reset executeSequential initialState actions

One more thing

This post has gotten quite long already, but there’s one last thing we need to do. If we were to try and compile our code as it stands, we’d get some type errors. All of the commands we defined in our last post, which are still being used in this new property, used RegFirstState as their state type. cRegister uses RegisterState though. We need to go and update each of those commands to use our new state before proceeding.

I won’t bore you with the details, but I will say that it’s annoying busy work. It also triggers an unhappy thought. As our properties and commands grow more complex, so will our state. We’ll likely want to reuse existing commands in new properties too, which means we’re likely to have to update all of our existing commands every time we update our state. That sucks. If only there were a nice way to deal with that wink wink.

Until next time

That’s it for this post, and very likely for 2018. Things are very busy at Data61, and we’re rapidly approaching the new year. I still have more to say on this topic though, sol I’ll be back in 2019 to share it.