Endnotes

1. Kinder Morgan. Product Destination. (link); City of Vancouver. What We Have Learned. (link)

2. Kinder Morgan. Project Overview. (link)

3. Kinder Morgan. Marine Plans. (link); Kinder Morgan. 2016. Marine Safety: Enhancements Already Underway in Local Waters. April 28. (link)

4. National Academies of Science, Engineering & Medicine. 2016. Spills of Diluted Bitumen from Pipelines: A Comparative Study of Environmental Fate, Effects, and Response. (link)

5. Carnegie Endowment. Oil-Climate Index. Viewing Total Emissions. (link) For example, comparing Canada Cold Lake CSS Dilbit against Saudi Arabia Ghawar oil.

6. Scott, A. & G. Muttitt. 2017. Climate on the Line: Why new tar sands pipelines are incompatible with the Paris goals. Oil Change International. January. (link)

7. Tsleil-Waututh Nation. Treaty, Land & Resources Department. 2015. Assessment of the Trans Mountain Pipeline and Tanker Expansion Proposal. (link)

8. Swift, A., D. Droitsch, & J. Axelrod. 2015. West Coast Tar Sands Invasion. Natural Resources Defence Council, NextGen Climate & Forest Ethics. April. (link)

9. Riordan, M. 2017. The Tar-Sands Threat to Northwest Waters. Sightline Institute, May 22. (link)

10. An ATB is a tug that is coupled to a barge via a notch at the stern that allows the tug to push and maneuver the barge rather than towing it with a cable. ATBs typically carry less oil than a tanker. See Felleman 2016.

11. Felleman, F. 2016. Tar Sands/Dilbit Crude Oil Movements Within the Salish Sea. Friends of the Earth. (link)

12. De Place, E. 2017. Is Canadian Tar Sands Pipeline Pointing to Tacoma? Sightline Institute, April 10. (link)

13. Axelrod, J. 2016. The Tar Sands Tanker Threat: American Waterways in Industry’s Sights. Natural Resources Defence Council. November. (link)

14. See for example: Secwepemcul’ecw Assembly. 2018. Trans Mountain Expansion Project and Investors Continue to Face Untenable Risk for Failing to Recognize Indigenous Jurisdiction. April 13. (link); Tsleil-Waututh Nation, Sacred Trust Initiative. (link); Treaty Alliance Against Tar Sands Expansion. (link)

15. Williams-Derry, C. 2018. Pipe Dreams: Canadian Government Bails Out Houston Billionaire. Sightline Institute, May 30. (link)

16. Historical AIS data purchased from Marine Traffic (link). See Appendix A for more detail on data analysis.

17. Vessel tracks cannot be perfectly represented with only a sample of AIS locations. The tracks in this report use ~20 points each and, as such, cannot perfectly capture every turn of the route. Some tracks seem to cross land due to a lack of data coverage for the entire route.

18. We categorize each vessel departure by its next primary port destination, as determined by Marine Traffic’s “next port” or “next call” fields, the AIS destination field, or analysis of the vessel track itself. This data is not sufficient to determine which refinery in the destination region (if any) was the recipient of the transported oil.

19. Communities for a Better Environment. 2018. Phillips 66 Co.’s San Francisco Refinery Tar Sands Oil Expansion in Rodeo, CA. April. (link)

20. California Energy Commission. California’s Oil Refineries. (link)

21. U.S. Energy Information Agency (EIA). 2017. Capacity of Operable Petroleum Refineries by State as of January 1, 2017. (link)

22. California Energy Commission.

23. Hunter, J. 2017. On the trail of an oil tanker. The Globe and Mail, November 12. (link)

24. State of Washington. Department of Ecology. 2018. VEAT 2017: Vessel Entries and Transits for Washington Waters. March. Publication 18-08-001. Tables 1 & 2. (link)

25. See Appendix A for more information on how these simulated tracks were generated.

26. International Tanker Owners Pollution Federation (ITOPF). Oil Tanker Spill Statistics 2017. (link)

27. Arranz, A., M. Duhalde, M. Hernandez, P. Robles, D. Wong & D. Long. 2018. An invisible threat: How the Sanchi oil tanker environmental disaster unfolded. South China Morning Post, January 18. (link)

28. De Place, E. 2015. Fifty Years of Oil Spills in Washington’s Waters: What can the past tell us about the future? Sightline Institute, January 12. (link)

29. Foschi 2014, as cited in Lacy et al. 2016. Report on Population Viability Analysis model investigations of threats to the Southern Resident Killer Whale population from Trans Mountain Expansion Project. Rainforest Conservation Foundation. (link)

30. Det Norske Veritas. 2013. Termpol 3.15 – General Risk Analysis and Intended Methods of Reducing Risks. Trans Mountain Expansion Project. Prepared for Trans Mountain. (link)

31. Lacy et al. 2016. Figures 6 and 7.

32. Gunton & Broadbent. 2015. An Assessment of Spill Risk for the Trans Mountain Expansion Project. May. (link) Included as Appendix 1 of Tsleil-Waututh Nation. 2015.

33. Genwest Systems Inc. Oil Spill Trajectory Modeling Report in Burrard Inlet for the Trans Mountain Expansion Project. (link) Included as Appendix 2 of Tsleil-Waututh Nation. 2015.

34. Tsleil-Waututh Nation. 2015.

35. Tsleil-Waututh Nation. What would the impact of an oil spill in Burrard Inlet be? (link)

36. Public Health Association of British Columbia. 2017. Letter to The Honourable Mary Polak, Minister of Environment, Re: The Approval of the Expansion of the Kinder Morgan Trans Mountain Pipeline. January 30. (link)

37. Murray, S. & J. Short. 2014. 25 Years Later: Why Alaska Can’t Afford Another Exxon Valdez. Huffington Post, March 23. (link)

38. Exxon Valdez Oil Spill Trustee Council. Commercial Fishing. (link)

39. Rosen, J. 2017. Boom and Busted: Lessons from Alaska’s Mysterious Herring Collapse. News Deeply, October 13. (link)

40. Exxon Valdez Oil Spill Trustee Council. Recreation & Tourism. (link)

41. Exxon Valdez Oil Spill Trustee Council. Economic Impacts of the Spill. (link)

42. Struck, D. 2009. Twenty Years Later, Impacts of the Exxon Valdez Linger. Yale Environment 360, March 24. (link)

43. Picou & Martin. 2007. Long-Term Community Impacts of the Exxon Valdez Oil Spill: Patterns of Social Disruption and Psychological Stress Seventeen Years after the Disaster. (link)

44. Exxon Valdez Oil Spill Trustee Council. Lingering Oil. (link)

45. Adams, A. 2015. Summary of Information concerning the Ecological and Economic Impacts of the BP Deepwater Horizon Oil Spill Disaster. Natural Resources Defence Council, June. (link)

46. McCrea-Strub et al. 2011. Potential impact of the Deepwater Horizon oil spill on commercial fisheries in the Gulf of Mexico. Fisheries, 36:7, 332-336, DOI: 10.1080/03632415.2011.589334. (link)

47. Sumaila, et al. 2012. Impact of the Deepwater Horizon well blowout on the economics of U.S. Gulf fisheries.

Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences, 69:3, 499–510. (link)

48. Oxford Economics. Potential Impact of the Gulf Oil Spill on Tourism. A report prepared for the U.S. Travel Association. (link)

49. Batker et al. A New View of the Puget Sound Economy: The Economic Value of Nature’s Services in the Puget Sound Basin. Earth Economics. (link)

50. NOAA Fisheries. 2017. Fisheries Economics of the United States, 2015. pp-40-41. (link). Jobs and sales numbers include imports, which represent a significant fraction of the totals for California.

51. National Marine Fisheries Service. 2018. Fisheries of the United States, 2016. (link)

52. NOAA. Economics: National Ocean Watch. ENOW Explorer. (link)

53. Southern Resident Killer Whale Chinook Salmon Initiative. Economic Value: Endangered Southern Resident Killer Whales Add Minimum of $65-$70 Million to Washington State’s Economy—They Would Be Missed. (link)

54. Bjarnason, H., N. Hotte & U.R. Sumaila. 2015. Potential economic impact of a tanker spill on ocean-dependent activities in Vancouver, British Columbia. Fisheries Economics Research Unit, UBC Fisheries Centre, May 20. (link)

55. Department of Ecology. State of Washington. Oil spill prevention in Washington. (link)

56. Bjarnason et al. 2015.

57. Conversations for Responsible Economic Development (CRED). 2013. Assessing the risks of Kinder Morgan’s proposed new Trans Mountain pipeline. May. (link)

58. Resource Dimensions. 2015. Economic Impacts of Crude Oil Transport on the Grays Harbor Economy. April. (link)

59. Resource Dimensions. 2015. Economic Impacts of Crude Oil Transport on the Quinault Indian Nation and the Local Economy. April. (link)

60. U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service. ECOS. Species Profile for Killer Whale (Orcinus orca). (link)

61. Fisheries and Oceans Canada. Killer Whale (Northeast Pacific, southern resident population). (link)

62. NOAA Fisheries. Critical Habitat for Southern Resident Killer Whales. (link)

63. Center for Whale Research. Southern Resident Killer Whale Population. (link); Rosenberg, M. 2018. Orca death brings southern resident whale population to lowest level in 34 years. Seattle Times, June 16. (link)

64. NOAA Fisheries. 2018. Saving Southern Resident Killer Whales. (link); NOAA. Saving the Southern Residents: Turning the Tide for the West Coast’s Beloved Killer Whales. (link)

65. Lacy et al. 2016.

66. Inslee, J. 2018. Canada’s unneighborly pipeline deal threatens orcas and climate. Seattle Times, May 30. (link)