Build system insights written by Ruud van Asseldonk

published 3 September, 2018

A new generation of build systems has been gaining popularity, joining the already plentiful collection of build tools. Although these new build systems differ in origin and purpose, there are common themes to them. Lately I ended up interacting with many different build systems, which got me thinking about the topic. Slowly a few key principles that underlie a good build system emerged. In this post I want to lay out some of the insights that changed my view about how build tooling should work.

A note on taxonomy: in this post I refer to Bazel a few times, the open-source version of Blaze, Google’s internal build system. Before Bazel was published, ex googlers at other companies created Blaze clones, resulting in Pants, Buck, and Please. Most of the discussion about Bazel applies equally well to these other build systems.

Caching and incremental builds

The first and most fundamenal insight is one about caching. If you take away one thing from this post, let it be this:

Not reusing old names for new things eliminates the need for cache invalidation at the cost of requiring garbage collection. Deterministic names enable shared caches.

Applied to build systems, this means that the output path of a build step should be determined by the input to that build step. In other words, build artefacts should be stored in an input-addressable store. If the path already exists, the build step can be skipped because the output would be the same anyway. Ideally the output of a repeated build step should be bit by bit identical to the previous output, but for various reasons the output may be only functionally equivalent. If the output path does not exist, it may be obtained from a remote cache rather than by performing the build step. Caching rolls out naturally:

Different artefacts of a build target can coexist in a cache. In particular, building is a no-op when building a previously built revision (for example when switching between topic branches) or configuration (such as enabling and then disabling optimisations).

The cache can safely be shared among multiple unrelated repositories. A library that is used in two projects need not be built twice.

The cache can safely be shared among machines. Artefacts that continuous integration or a colleague have built already can be fetched from a remote cache.

The benefits of immutability and pure functions are not specific to build systems: I would argue that they are a key advantage of functional programming in general. Most modern build tools use an immutable input-addressable cache in one way or another. Nix applies the technique to system package management, Bazel and SCons to fine-grained build targets. Stack realised that dependencies could be shared across repositories. Goma caches build artefacts based on hashes of input files and the exact compile command. Treating build steps as pure functions makes caching a breeze.

The major caveat is that it is difficult to capture all input to a build step. Many toolchains implicitly capture state from the environment, for instance by reading the CXX environment variable or discovering include paths. Indeed, Nix and Bazel go to great lengths to prevent accidentally capturing this state, and to provide a controlled and reproducible environment for toolchains that inevitably capture state.

The idea of using an immutable store for caching does not need to stop at the module level. A compiler can be thought of as a build system, where intermediate representations of functions or even individual expressions form a graph of build targets. Incremental compilation and the possibility of a responsive language server fall out naturally from this point of view. Scala’s Dotty compiler implements this idea. Incremental compilation in Rust is also based on lazy functional graph caching, although its cache is neither immutable nor input-addressable, and requires invalidation. In any case, caching the output of pure functions in an immutable input-addressable store is a powerful concept at all levels of abstraction: from compiler internals to building modules, libraries, and even entire system packages.

Target definitions

Build target definitions should live as close to the source code as possible.

Unlike a global makefile or other build description in the repository root, a distributed approach with definitions placed throughout the repository remains maintainable even in very large repositories.

Build systems used in the largest repositories that I know of all apply this principle. Chromium’s build system GN does, as did its predecessor GYP . Blaze and its derivatives Pants and Buck scale to very large monorepos by keeping build definitions close to the source.

Build targets should be fine-grained.

Having many small targets, rather than fewer large targets, allows for effective caching and enables parallelisation. If a change to an input of a target requires rebuilding the entire target, then making targets smaller reduces the scope of that rebuild. Targets that do not depend on each other can be built in parallel, therefore finer targets can unlock more parallelism. Furthermore, a target must wait for all of its dependencies to be built completely before the target can be built. If the target uses only a small part of a dependency, then building the unused parts unnecessarily prolongs the critical path. Given enough CPU cores, fine-grained targets can build significantly faster than coarse targets.

CPU occupation during build with coarse and fine-grained targets.

The above graph shows a concrete example of building a project with Bazel on my eight-core machine. On the x-axis is time in seconds. The blocks indicate a target being built, every track represents one CPU core. Highlighted blocks are on the critical path. The top eight tracks show a naive build with coarse targets. I repeatedly analysed this graph, and broke up the targets on the critical path into smaller targets. The bottom eight tracks show the final result: a build that is almost 30 seconds faster despite doing the same amount of work.

The importance of fine-grained targets became clear to me when using Bazel. Fine-grained targets are the reason that Bazel can build large dependency graphs quickly, given enough cores. The similar build tool Buck cites its ability to transform a coarse-grained graph of build targets into a more fine-grained graph internally as one of the reasons for its speed.

Evaluate build target definitions lazily.

Lazy evaluation enables good performance even in large repositories, because only the targets that are actually needed for a build are evaluated. The majority of build target definitions does not even need to be parsed.

Nix is a build system with lazy evaluation at its core. Build targets (packages in Nix) are defined using a custom lazy functional language. Laziness is what makes installing a package from Nixpkgs fast. Even though Nixpkgs is an expression that evaluates to a dictionary of thousands of interdependent packages, installing a single package reads very few package definitions from disk, and only the necessary parts are evaluated. Guix is an alternative to Nix that uses Scheme to define packages, rather than a custom language. Scheme can be compiled ahead of time, and indeed after pulling a new version of GuixSD (the Guix equivalent of Nixpkgs), Guix spends several minutes compiling package definitions. In Nix evaluation feels instant.

Bazel makes use of lazy target definitions too, by having many BUILD files, and aligning dependency paths with filesystem paths. Build files of targets that are not depended upon do not need to be loaded.

Toolchains and dependencies

The build tool should manage the runtime or compiler toolchain.

When a toolchain or other dependency needs to be obtained externally, building devolves from a single-step command into hours of dependency hunting and configuration fiddling. Language package managers make it easy to obtain language dependencies, but they often stop right there. When a readme informally specifies the toolchain, rather than a machine-enforceable build definition, reproducibility suffers.

The build tool that made me realise the importance of a build tool-managed compiler was Stack, a build tool for Haskell. Managing the compiler means that I can check out a two-year old commit of my blog generator, and stack build still produces a binary. In contrast, I had to reinstall the Python dependencies of my blog while writing this very post, after a system update had replaced Python 3.6 with 3.7. My first reinstallation attempt failed, because I had CC set to Clang, and a Python package tried to build native code that only compiled with GCC . I am confident that two years from now I will still be able to build the generator for this blog, but I am not sure whether I will be able to get the currently pinned versions of the Python dependencies to run.

To add another example: I recently tried to compile a two-year old Rust project of mine, that compiled with a nightly toolchain at the time. I never wrote down the exact compiler version I used, so it took me an hour of trying toolchains that were published around that time, before I found one that could compile the project. Fortunately Rust’s version manager recently introduced a toolchain file, so the compiler version can now be pinned as part of the build definition that is under source control.

A truly reproducible build requires a controlled build environment.

Pinning dependencies managed through a language package manager is a great first step towards reproducibility, and pinning the toolchain is another big leap. However, as long as there are implicit dependencies on the build environment (such as libraries or tools installed through a system package manager), works on my machine issues persist.

There are two ways to create a controlled build environment:

Track down all implicit dependencies and make them explicit. Building inside a sandboxed environment can help identify such dependencies by making undeclared dependencies unavailable. For example, if a build step does not specify a dependency on GCC , there will be no gcc on the PATH . Nix is an implementation of this approach.

, there will be no on the . Nix is an implementation of this approach. Admit defeat on tracking dependencies, and try and pin the entire environment instead, for example by building inside a specific container or virtual machine. Care must be taken to avoid mutating the environment in uncontrollable ways. For instance, running apt update would put an initially pinned file system in an indeterminate state again.

As an author, controlling the entire build environment is not always feasible, and might not even be desirable. If you are both the author and distributor of a piece of software, then you can exercise full control over the build environment. This removes the need for complications such a configure script, because all variables are fixed. If you are also the operator then you additionally get to control the runtime environment. But if your software is consumed by downstream packagers, or if you are building a library, you might not be in a position to choose the toolchain or specific dependency versions. Yet, you cannot test against every possible build environment either. There is a trade off between author flexibility and flexibility for the user, and if the author and user coincide, that is a tremendous opportunity to improve reproducibility and reduce complexity.

Software where the user is not the author, has traditionally leaned towards flexibility for the user, by shifting the burden of compatibility onto the author. Recently the trend has shifted towards authors making more demands about the build and runtime environment — by redistributing most dependencies, rather than relying on the user’s system to provide them — and making more modest demands on the users’s system, such as requiring only a specific kernel and container runtime or hypervisor. Regardless of target audience, a controlled build environment simplifies development.

Ergonomics

Performance is a feature, startup time matters.

A common operation during development is rebuilding after a small change. For this use case it is crucial to quickly determine the build steps to perform. The overhead of interpreters or just in time compilers can be significant, and the design of the build language affects how quickly a build can start as well.

My experience with Bazel is that although it builds large projects quickly, it is slow to start. The build tool runs on the JVM , and can sometimes take seconds to do a no-op build even in a small repository. Please, a very similar build system implemented in Go, is much snappier. Build definitions that can be evaluated efficiently matter too: even though both Make and Ninja are native binaries, Ninja starts building faster. Ninja traded flexibility in the build file format for faster builds, deferring complex decisions to a meta build system such as CMake, Meson, or GN .

Another telling example is the Mercurial source control system. Its hg command is written in Python for extensibility. This comes at the cost of responsiveness: just evaluating imports can take a human-noticeable amount of time, which is why parts of Mercurial are now being replaced with native binaries.

Conclusion

In this post I have laid out a number of insights about build systems, some deep and some superficial. A common theme is that principles from functional programming apply very well to build tools. In particular, by treating build steps as pure functions and artefacts as immutable, effective and correct caching emerges naturally. On the more practical side, keeping build definitions close to the source code helps to keep large repositories maintainable, and fine-grained build targets can unlock parallelism to make builds fast. As with all good ideas, these insights seem obvious in hindsight. I hope to see them being applied more often going forward.

Further reading

While reading up on build systems, I found the following resources to be insightful:

Build Systems à la Carte by Andrey Mokhov, Neil Mitchell, and Simon Peyton Jones, classifies build tools based on their rebuilding strategy and scheduling algorithm. It also clarifies the trade offs between knowing the entire build graph ahead of time, and having the build graph depend on build targets itself.

Build Tools as Pure Functional Programs, gets to the heart of what a build tool is, and draws analogies with functional programming, in particular between higher-order functions and building toolchains as part of the build.

Houyhnhnm Computing Chapter 9: Build Systems, part of an insightful series that reevaluates computing from a hypothetical alien perspective, argues that functional reactive programming is a good fit for build systems.

The Purely Functional Software Deployment Model, Eelco Dolstra’s doctoral thesis, introduces Nix and its immutable input-addressable store as a basis for building and deploying software.

Tools mentioned in this post: