279 BC and the Greek defence at Thermopylae has been shattered. Victorious, the road to Delphi now lies open to the Celtic menace, the eyes of these ferocious warriors fixated on plunder and booty – the spoils of victory! A frightful fate for the prestigious sanctuary looks sealed. All that Brennus and his Celts now need to do is to seize the holy site. This is the story of what followed.

The Celts march on

Brennus wasted no time following his victory at Thermopylae. With the Pan-Hellenic army divided and in a speedy retreat, the Celtic chief now appeared unstoppable. Without delay, he continued south with a substantial force (perhaps some 30 – 40, 000 men) towards their ultimate goal.

Delphi

Renowned as the home of the Pythia, the sanctuary at Delphi was the religious heart of the Hellenic World. Lycurgus, Solon, Croesus and Philip II – all legendary figures who had once come from far and wide to seek guidance from the oracle of Apollo.

Geographically too this beautiful precinct was also highly significant, housing the famed omphalos stone – ‘the bellybutton of the world.’ Truly, Delphi was much more than just a sanctum: it was the epicentre of all things Hellenic.

Being so central to ancient Greek culture, Delphi’s celebrity status brought the sanctuary rich rewards: its treasures were vast and well-known. From Syracuse to the West in Sicily to Cyrene in Northern Libya, Greek cities across the Mediterranean had sent valuable offerings to the sacred precinct. Delphi’s wealth was immense.

Seizing the sanctuary’s treasures had always been Brennus’ goal. Yet taking this precinct would not be easy – even following his victory at Thermopylae.

Natural strength

Situated on the southern slope of Mount Parnassus, Delphi’s defences were formidable. Whether their foe attacked through the narrow gorges of the mountain to the north or ascended the steep climb from the valley to the south, any defending force could rain death and destruction down on their hapless enemies. There was no need for a wall; Mount Parnassus provided Delphi ample protection.

Whether it could withstand the approaching Celtic storm however, would soon be put to the test.

The Thermopylae aftermath

News of events at Thermopylae were quick to reach the Delphians: Callippus’ force had been defeated and Brennus and his greatest warriors were now en-route. Frightened, they fled to the oracle seeking advice. The Pythia allegedly provided them with a short, but soothing reply:

I will defend my own.

(Pausanias 10.23.1)

The oracle had spoken; they would put their trust in Apollo and protect the sanctuary from the approaching horde. It was a brave decision; yet it would soon have grave consequences.

Reassured, the Delphians prepared their desperate defence, sending out a call for aid and gathering as many projectiles as they could find. Javelins, arrows and large boulders from the mountainside – the defenders collected all to rain down from the precipices of Mount Parnassus. Battle was imminent.

The Battle of Delphi: 279 BC

Brennus was sure to keep the Celtic momentum surging forwards and his men soon arrived near the sanctuary. To the defenders, the barbarian horde must have looked terrifying – its warriors menacing and size massive.

Thanks to the Pan-Hellenic army’s defeat at Thermopylae and the speed of Brennus’ march, the defenders had only a minuscule force in comparison – mostly Phocians from across the region. The odds were heavily stacked against them.

The gorges of death

Fresh from pillaging the surrounding land, Brennus and his army quickly headed into the gorges of Mount Parnassus towards Delphi. It would prove no easy task. The narrow passes through the mountainside were perfect for ambushes. The local defenders were fighting on home terrain.

Positioning themselves on the precipices above, the defenders gathered their projectiles and unleashed a storm of death down on the approaching Celts. The result was devastating. Hemmed in on either side – no more than two or three men abreast at places – Brennus and his men struggled to avoid the javelins, arrows and huge rocks being hurled down from overhead.

Large groups of warriors were scattered with many others left either dead or dying in the wake of the savage boulders. Nevertheless, Brennus and his army persisted. Slowly they made progress.

Celtic fury

Inevitably, Celtic persistence paid off and they reached the sanctuary. Keen for blood and vengeance for the havoc their foe had wrecked during their approach, the Celts fell on the defending force with all their fury. Without order and in blind rage they fought without fear. Yet as at Thermopylae, the discipline of the defenders meant the battle would prove difficult for the attackers. The Phocians were determined to protect their holy site.

The battle raged on – neither side willing to retreat. Heroically, the Phocians and Aetolians defended the sanctuary, trusting in Apollo that they would overcome the great odds stacked against them. Yet the Celts were equally determined – being tantalisingly close to their goal. There would be no retreat.

Finally, after many had fallen on either side, the immense power of Brennus’ Celtic force proved too much. The defence was shattered. Any remaining defenders retreated higher up the slopes of Mount Parnassus above the sanctuary, easily losing their Celtic pursuers. Yet this was only a small consolation. Delphi, the cultural heart of the Hellenic World, had fallen to the barbarians!

The sack of Delphi

Brennus had achieved his goal. Very quickly he ordered his men to seize the spoils of war, looting the Temple of Apollo, killing the Pythia and gathering as much treasure from the precinct as they could. The surviving defenders further up Mount Parnassus could only watch on.

Brennus bathed in his victory. Delphi was his, as was all the eternal fame and glory that would come with such an achievement. Yet he and his horde could not linger there long. Deep within hostile territory, the fighting was far from over.

The retreat

At sunrise Brennus ordered his army, likely laden with gold, wine and various other treasures, to start the long march back north – through the narrow gorges of Parnassus towards their comrades at Thermopylae. It would be no easy task. Their foe had no plans to let them leave without a fight.

Seeing the Celts withdrawing from the sanctuary, the remaining defenders acted. Now was the time to strike. Coming down from above the precinct they attacked the Celtic rear-guard. Having the higher ground and well out of reach, they once again hailed death down on their foe.

Yet that was not all. Using their local knowledge, some of the Phocians traversed the precipices of Mount Parnassus surrounding the pass. Quickly they managed to position themselves on either side of the road, awaiting the Celtic retreat. The result was devastating:

When the battle opened the barbarians, particularly Brennus’ own men, who were the biggest and strongest of the Gauls, resisted with spirit, though they were shot at from every direction and suffered badly from the cold, especially the wounded.

(Pausanias 10. 23. 4)

Under fire from many angles, Brennus and his Celts found themselves in a death trap. Their only option was to force their way through the gorges of death. Morale plummeted; many would perish trying to flee the pass – made even more difficult due to the thick layer of snow that had settled the night before. Worse was yet to come.

Calamity

Amid the chaotic retreat the Celts would suffer a crushing blow. Brennus, perhaps as he was fighting in the rear-guard of the army, was wounded. Barely-conscious, his comrades hastily withdrew their leader from the front lines. In total disorder the Celts were now desperate for night and temporary respite. It was not to be.

Having suffered horrifically all day during their initial retreat from Delphi, the remaining Celts had tasted the full anger and determination of their opponents to crush them. Paranoia duly spread through the camp. When and how would their vengeful foe attack again? Overtaken by fear and dread, disaster soon followed:

The disturbance broke out among the soldiers in the deepening dusk, and at first only a few were driven out of their minds; they thought they could hear an enemy attack and the hoof-beats of the horses coming for them. It was not long before madness ran through the whole force. They snatched up arms and killed one another or were killed, without recognising their own language or one another’s faces or even the shape of their shields.

(Pausanias 10. 23. 5)

The result was slaughter. In their confusion, friend killed friend and ally killed ally. Thanks to chaos and confusion, the Celtic army was in complete disarray. It soon got worse.

No mercy

With no thoughts of pity, the Phocians resumed their attacks the next day. Full of confidence, they now grew bolder in their attempts to wither away their foe, attacking their foraging parties with deadly success. Slowly they tightened the noose around the Celtic throat.

Paranoid, cold, their leader wounded and now facing the possibility of starvation, what remained of the Celtic retreat looked doomed. They needed relief – and fast!

Achichorius

Yet amid all this hardship, a glimmer of hope then appeared for the remaining Celts. Achichorius, Brennus’ second in command and the chief in charge of Brennus’ remaining troops at Thermopylae, had arrived with more men to aid the retreat. Having received word of the sufferings of his comrades, Achichorius had swiftly answered the call, heading south with much of his army. Yet this relief would be bitter-sweet.

Achichorius’ trip had not been without difficulty. His force had similarly been suffering heavily from devastating hit-and-run attacks – this time from the Aetolians.

Just as the Phocians were keen to avenge the sacking of Delphi, the Aetolians were equally-determined to destroy the horde, zealous in their desire to exact retribution on the architects of the Callion atrocity. Their efforts had soon paid dividends. Achichorius’ army arrived battered and bruised – hardly a relief force at all.

A heavy price

By the time the now-united Celtic force reached the border of Phocis, the price paid had been a heavy one. Over 6, 000 warriors had died in the battle at Delphi – most during the perilous retreat. Yet that was not all.

According to Pausanias, another 20, 000 Celts would also never leave the region – half having met their end during the paranoid frenzy that had seized their camp days before; the other half from starvation. Phocis – and the perils of the region’s mountain passes – were now behind them. Yet they were still far from safety.

As the retreating horde reached Boeotia, devastating news spread through the Celtic army: Brennus, the architect of the whole invasion and victor of Thermopylae, was dead. Our sources differ on how he met his end: according to Pausanias, he committed suicide by drinking diluted wine; Diodorus meanwhile tells us he slew himself. Regardless, the Celts had lost their formidable leader.

Having burned the body of their fallen general, Achichorius and the remaining Celts continued north with all haste. Various Greek forces awaited them. Athenians, Aetolians, Boeotians, Malians and Thessalians – all would take up the Phocian mantle, constantly harassing the barbarians in their desire for vengeance. The Celtic force continued to wither.

Finally, after much horrific fighting and desperate struggles, Achichorius and what remained of the Celtic expedition passed Thermopylae and reached the large, fertile plains of Thessaly and soon after that, Macedonia. The Celtic invasion of Greece was over.

The Hellenic ‘cover up’

The severity of this invasion cannot be understated. In one devastating campaign, these barbarians rocked the Hellenic World to its core – all thanks to the insatiable desire of one man for eternal fame and glory.

Yet the Delphians had no intention of revealing that their sacred precinct had been so viciously violated by the bloodthirsty barbarians. Very quickly, they began to spread their own version of events – one that would suit their own agenda.

They wold claim that, thanks to the aid of divine intervention, Delphi had been saved from the Celtic menace. Earthquakes, thunder, lightening and the assistance of divine heroes – the Delphians would include all in their miraculous tale of how the defenders succeeded against all the odds. Any record that the treasure had been looted was removed. Their fellow Hellenes were quick to spread this revised history.

Delphic propaganda

Celebrations were sure to follow the expulsion of the Celts from the most prestigious sanctuary in the Hellenic World. Depicted as the greatest barbaric threat to Greek freedom since the Persian Wars, epic Greek tales about Hellenic heroism in the face of the invasion – called Galatika – soon became widespread. That was not all.

In their desires to eradicate all memory of the Celtic sacking of their most holy site, a festival emerged to celebrate deliverance from the Celtic menace: the Soteria. Through these epic celebrations, any memory of the Celtic pillaging quickly evaporated.

Far and wide the propaganda would spread. Pausanias and Pompeius Trogus – two famed historians that later accepted this revised history, claiming Delphi was saved from the Celtic threat thanks to Greek heroism and divine intervention. Perhaps we could have accepted this narrative of events was based on truth. Yet certain later discoveries suggest otherwise.

The Tolosa Gold

In 106 BC, a fascinating discovery was made in Southern Gaul. Quintus Caepio, the Roman general who would become famous for his disastrous defeat at Arausio the following year, captured the city of Tolosa – home of the Tectosages tribe. What Caepio discovered in the city is fascinating to consider. Strabo recalls:

And it is further said that the Tectosages shared in the expedition to Delphi; and even the treasures that were found among them in the city of Tolosa by Caepio, were, it is said, a part of the valuables that were taken from Delphi.

(Strabo IV. 1. 13)

According to some accounts, this was Delphic gold, captured by Brennus’ iconic expedition and sent home by the Tectosages to the lands of their ancestors. Believing this Caepio and the army thus seized the sacred treasure, receiving orders to have it sent back to Rome. Yet the gold would never reach the eternal city. On its journey it disappeared in mysterious circumstances.

Whether the Tolosa gold was the Delphic treasure is uncertain to say the least; perhaps it was just a story! Yet regardless of the extent of the tale’s truth, one thing appears clear: the story that Brennus and his horde HAD plundered the sanctuary was well-known by Roman times. Surviving representations of the Celts sacking the precinct in archives in both Greece and Italy gives this belief further evidence.

Despite the attempts of the Delphians and later Greek writers to make us believe otherwise, Brennus and his horde did accomplish their mission: they sacked Delphi and those that survived the perilous retreat presumably reaped the vast rewards.

Celts in the east

As for the Celts, the story of their intrepid migration does not end here. Those who had been fortunate enough to survive the ill-fated expedition settled soon after, forming new Celtic kingdoms in both Thrace and Moesia. Yet although the remnants of Brennus’ horde settled in Europe, many of their Celtic brethren would not follow suit.

The Galatians

Having separated from Brennus and his army before they had descended on Greece, many Celts had continued east – towards the Hellespont and the gateway to Asia.

It proved a wise decision as fortune soon smiled upon this band: being renowned for their skill in war, as they reached the narrow straits, they received an invitation to cross into Asia Minor and aid Nicomedes, the King of Bithynia, as mercenaries.

The Celts duly agreed; yet serving as mercenaries was not their sole aim. With almost half of their horde consisting of women and children, these ferocious warriors had more than just fighting on their mind: they had come to settle!

Having quickly made their mark on the East, these Celts were soon settled in central Asia Minor. There they quickly became a primary force in the region – such was the size of their migration. Their neighbours soon decided on a name for these aggressive migrants: the ‘Gallograeci’ or Galatians.

Longevity

For the next two centuries, the Galatians would become entwined in the politics of the Near East – first with the power-vying Hellenistic Kingdoms and later still, Rome. From being strategic allies and serving as mercenaries to seeking tribute and violently plundering the lands of their neighbours, the Galatians would leave a large imprint on the shaping of the Eastern Mediterranean.

Eumenes I of Pergamum, Mithridates I of Pontus and Antiochus III of the Seleucid Empire – just a few powerful figures who would have dealings with these Celts in their struggles for stability. Surrounded by powerful neighbours, truly the story about the Celts in Asia is a fascinating one. Yet that is for a future article.

The campaign of Brennus and what his expedition achieved is another of those fascinating moments in antiquity. In one devastating, albeit extremely costly campaign, they rocked the Hellenic World to its core. This was their story.

Thank you for reading my three-part article on the Celtic Invasion. I really enjoyed writing these, so please show your support by sharing, subscribing and leaving a like below!

Note – please read

The Celtic sack of Delphi is undoubtedly the most debated part of the Celtic invasion of Greece. Exactly how the Celts sacked Delphi is very much up for debate as our surviving sources (Pausanias and Justin) claim the attack was repulsed and the sanctuary saved due to divine intervention. Thanks to later evidence however, most now believe the sanctuary was sacked.

This article is based on later surviving evidence, modern scholarly opinion (most notably Peter Berresford Ellis and David Rankin) and the most logical course of events. It is an attempt to sort the fact from the fiction in the accounts of both Pausanias’ and Pompeius Trogus. Contrary views are welcome.

Notes and further reading

Huge thanks to Johnny Shumate and his fantastic illustrations!

Click here for Johnny’s website.

Johnny’s Etsy page, check it out here.

Information is from:

For Diodorus’ 22nd Book that talks briefly about Brennus in chapter 9 click here.

For Justin’s Epitome of Pompeius Trogus, book 24 click here.

You can find Pausanias’ account of the invasion of the Gauls (10.19.4-23.8) here.

For Strabo’s account of the ‘Tolosa Gold,’ click here.

Ellis, P. B. 1997, Celt and Greek: Celts in the Hellenic World, Constable.

Rankin, D. 1996, Celts and the Classical World. Routledge.

Author: Tristan Hughes Twitter Facebook

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