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(This article is the second part of the three-part series: History of Malay Singaporeans in 10 Objects)

Print Modernity and Pop Culture

In the previous part of this series, we explored the history of Malays in Singapore, and how colonialism divided the lands they historically inhabited. Modern Singapore’s emergence was part of that phenomenon. It did not take long, however, before ordinary Malays’ encounters with colonial urban life in Singapore forged new ways of thinking about their place in a burgeoning global economy and their increasingly vulnerable position in the region.

The cosmopolitan outlook of Malays in Singapore, a port-city free from the feudal conservatism of the monarchies in Sumatra and the Malay Peninsula, enabled them to push bold frontiers in social discourse, political thought and artistic expression.

Although there already were Malays in Singapore when Raffles arrived, many more came in droves and assimilated into the community. Singapore’s relatively more liberal atmosphere, coupled with the economic opportunities that the rapidly growing city afforded, drew a large influx of diverse peoples from across the Archipelago.

Amongst the most illustrious of these was Munshi Abdullah, a man from Melaka whose work continues to resonate with social concerns of Malay society to this day.

4. Hikayat Abdullah

Photo courtesy of National Library Board, Singapore

Hikayat Abdullah (The Tale of Abdullah) was the first Malay-language book written by someone who identified as Malay, published in print. It marked a crucial turning-point for Malay literature as it signalled the beginning of Malay letters’ departure from a manuscript tradition to one that based on print.

The book was written by Munshi Abdullah, who was born in Melaka in 1796. Work eventually brought him to Singapore where he came into the service of Raffles as a secretary and personal Malay tutor.

He continued to teach Malay to European and American traders and missionaries in Singapore for much of his life. In this work, Abdullah subverted the colonial power dynamic, critiquing colonial figures like Raffles and John Crawfurd, a governor of Singapore.

Stylistically, Abdullah borrowed elements from Malay courtly literature. But this is the first time an author in a Malay story addresses himself in first-person.

Classical Malay texts usually contained histories of kingdoms, fantastic tales or the adventures of heroes, but the Hikayat is the first Malay text that is strictly autobiographical.

Abdullah is also notable for his fierce criticism of Malay society. But unlike popular explanations that fall back on identifying flaws supposedly inherent in Malay culture, Abdullah astutely identified specific socio-political challenges: the Malays were victims of feudalism, patriarchy and religious dogma. The Hikayat encapsulates many enduring challenges relating to the politics of identity that many Malay Singaporeans can still relate to.

5. Printing Press

Photo courtesy of Utusan Melayu - Sepuluh Tahun

This printing press belonged to Utusan Melayu, a prolific Malay daily newspaper established in Singapore. By the early 20th century, Singapore had become the capital of modern Malay journalism. The first Malay newspaper in Singapore – Jawi Peranakan – was established in 1876.

By 1942, there was a tremendous variety of periodicals that ran the gamut of ideological orientations, from the religious-reformist al-Imam (“The Spiritual Leader,” est. 1906) and al-Ikhwan (“The Brotherhood,” 1926), to the secular-nationalist periodicals like Utusan Melayu (“The Malay Courier,” 1939), to name just a few. They were pioneered by a new breed of mostly urban, middle-class Malay intellectuals of different educational backgrounds, including vernacular schools, English institutions and Islamic religious schools.



(Left) “Universities and The New Malay” - Utusan Melayu, 1959

(Right) “The Malays and The Hospital” - Utusan Melayu, 1959

Utusan Melayu articles were deeply invested in reforming Malay society and enhancing its material well-being through better education, employment and healthcare. The one on the bottom-left urged Malays to go to the hospital if they felt ill instead of consulting traditional healers. The one on the right below called for the cultivation of a ‘New Malay’ (Melayu Baru), through university education.

Amongst the Malays who were experiencing inequalities and injustices under colonial rule as well as economic marginalization brought on by colonialism, Malay journalism created a public sphere along the lines of Ben Anderson’s ‘imagined community.’

The Malay press was deeply involved in politics, and many articles and publications expressed the aspirations of the anti-colonial struggle. Some had a particularly left-wing orientation, and were targeted by the Malayan government for extensive coverage of workers’ strikes and peasant revolts.

Eventually, cost hikes forced many of these newspapers to close down or shift operations to Kuala Lumpur. After Singapore’s expulsion from the Malaysian Federation in 1965, its heyday as a hub for Malay journalism and the Malay press ended.

6. Beverage Advertisement

This advertisement for Guinness Stout was featured in a programme book for the 1968 West Malaysia Teachers’ Union (Kesatuan Guru-guru Malaysia Barat) Annual General Meeting. For this reason, its reach might not have been widespread.

However, the advertisement raises interesting questions about how attitudes towards Islamic dietary restriction against alcohol consumption changed over time. The caption in bold reads — “Guinness Stout: good for us,” and the passage proclaims,

“A glass of Guinness Stout whets the appetite. A glass of Guinness Stout restores energy. For every glass of Guinness Stout is healthy. It provides strength when your body feels tired and lethargic. This is the drink that gives extra health to every meal. Yes, after work, whenever you’re exhausted or sometimes lack appetite, nothing is better than a glass of Guinness Stout.”

This advertisement promoting alcohol consumption amongst Malay teachers demonstrates how fluid cultural values can be. Consuming alcohol is frowned-upon in Malay society today, which has grown ever-more conservative as Malays adhere to more strict interpretations of Islam. But classical Malay epics of old describe drunken revelries at the court of the Melaka Sultanate during the 15th century. And as this advertisement shows, rules were quite lax just decades ago.

7. Zubir Said’s Piano

Photo courtesy of the Malay Heritage Centre

Zubir Said was one of Singapore’s most celebrated musical composers. He was born in 1907 in Bukit Tinggi, Sumatra which is today part of Indonesia. In Singapore, there is a song taught to primary school students and sung during every Children’s Day, entitled ‘Semoga Bahagia’ (May You Be Happy; Flourish).

Written by Zubir Said, it is a spur to hard-work and self-improvement, while staying true to one’s roots and embodying traditional values. It was composed on this Strohmenger and Sons grand piano that Zubir owned. He also used this piano to compose ‘Majulah Singapura’ (Onward Singapore), which was completed and presented to Singapore’s City Council in 1958. In 1965, it was adopted as the National Anthem.

Between the end of World War II and separation from Malaysia, Singapore was the undisputed capital of Malay pop culture, producing hundreds of films and songs in the Malay language. During this time, the city was alive with the sound of orchestras playing keronchong (a musical genre from Indonesian urban centers blending Javanese music with Western instrumentation), jazz bands and bangsawan (Malay opera) troupes.

In Sumatra, Zubir’s father (the village headman) was particularly averse to music, and viewed it as a sin. He was against Zubir’s move to Singapore. However, when Zubir did move, he became actively involved in the city’s thriving cultural scene.

Zubir Said started out as a conductor with the City Opera bangsawan (Malay opera) troupe, and after the war joined Shaw Brothers in 1949. Shaw Brothers started out making Malay films in Singapore before it became one of the largest film production companies in Hong Kong. Shaw Brothers, together with rival studio Cathay-Keris, dominated what is now remembered as the golden age of Malay cinema.

As a final note, it is important to acknowledge the close relationship between the Malay press and pop culture with the Malay nationalist movement. Besides the journalists, music composers, thinkers, poets and artists such as Zubir Said, P. Ramlee and Usman Awang all saw their efforts as being part of the rejuvenation of Malay society and its liberation from colonial rule. National independence for Malays was envisioned in many different ways, but many overwhelmingly expected an independent Malaya to include Singapore.

Confrontation with Indonesia (1963-65) and Separation from Malaysia (1965) effectively cut Singapore off from its cultural hinterlands. It was always the surrounding Archipelago that provided the island’s Malays with most of its greatest talents and most gifted personalities.

In the next and final part of this series, we examine how Malays negotiate their position as minorities in independent Singapore. No longer the region’s cultural, religious and intellectual leaders, they now had to grapple with issues of discrimination, marginalization and representation.

Next >> History of Malay Singaporeans in 10 Objects - Part 3

Written by Faris Joraimi

Edited by Sharon Tseng