This selection is taken from a text called Compert Con Culainn, The Conception of Cú Chulainn, which is one of the preludes (remscéla, or pre-stories) to the tales forming the so-called Ulster Cycle, a collection of lore centered around the heroes of the ancient Irish province of Ulster. Compert Con Culainn narrates the miraculous circumstances of the threefold birth of Cú Chulainn, the main hero of the Ulster saga. According to Irish tradition, the events described took place around the time of the birth of Christ, yet the central topic of the Ulster epic is far older and can be seen as a window on pre-Iron Age Ireland, possibly reflecting the fights of the Indo-European Celtic settlers against the older non-Celtic inhabitants of northwest Ireland.

While the stories contain various mythological elements, the geographical setting is historical: Emain Macha, the seat of the king of Ulster, Conchobar mac Nessa, has been identified with the archaeological site of Navan Fort, to the west of the city of Armagh, and Bruig na Boinne is the Old Irish name of the region surrounding the pre-Celtic hill grave of Newgrange, County Meath.

The text contains remarkable archaisms. Like most of the earlier Irish tales, it cannot be attributed to any specific author, but was passed on as oral lore until being written down by medieval scribes.

The selection is the first part of the account of the conception of Cú Chulainn. It narrates the events that precede the threefold birth of the hero. The first of these takes place in the house where Conchobar and his men seek shelter from the snow, and coincides with the birth of two foals just outside the house. The child is then raised by Conchobar's daughter, Deichtire, but dies in its infancy. Thereafter, Deichtire conceives a child from the elf Lug mac Ethnenn, "Lug son of the Bird," by drinking from a copper cup, and has a vision of Lug telling her that she will be having a son by the name of Setanta. The miraculous conception together with the lack of a father causes a scandal with the Ulidians, so that Conchobar finally marries his daughter off to Sualtaim mac Roich, "Sualtaim son of the Mighty Horse." Ashamed of marrying a man when already bearing another man's child, Deichtire aborts Lug's baby and subsequently becomes pregnant by her husband, eventually giving birth to a boy named Setanta, who later acquires the name Cú Chulainn, "hound of the smith."

Expand All boí -- verb; 3rd person singular preterite indicative of substantive verb <attá> is -- was

verb; 3rd person singular preterite indicative of substantive verb is Conchuḃur -- proper name masculine; nominative singular of <Conchubur, Conchobar> Conchobar -- Conchobar

proper name masculine; nominative singular of Conchobar ocus -- conjunction; <ocus> and -- and

conjunction; and maithi -- noun; nominative plural masculine, i-stem, of adjective <maith> good -- the nobles

noun; nominative plural masculine, i-stem, of adjective good Ulaḋ N -- noun; genitive plural masculine, o-stem, of <Ulaid> Ulidians, Ulstermen -- of the Ulstermen

noun; genitive plural masculine, o-stem, of Ulidians, Ulstermen i N -- preposition; <in, i N > in, into -- in

preposition; in, into nEṁuin -- toponym; nasalized dative singular feminine, i-stem, of <Emain, Emuin> Emain Macha -- Emain Macha

Expand All no -- verbal particle; introduces imperfect <no> ... -- ...

verbal particle; introduces imperfect ... tathigtis -- verb; 3rd person plural imperfect indicative active, conjunct, of <taithigid> frequents, practices -- used to frequent

verb; 3rd person plural imperfect indicative active, conjunct, of frequents, practices énḟlaith -- noun; compound of <én> bird + lenited nominative singular feminine, i-stem, of; <flaith> rule; domain; ruler -- a flock of birds

noun; compound of bird + lenited nominative singular feminine, i-stem, of; rule; domain; ruler maġ -- noun; accusative singular neuter, s-stem, of <mag> plain, field -- the plain

noun; accusative singular neuter, s-stem, of plain, field ar L -- preposition; <ar L , air L > before, for, in front of, east of -- east of

preposition; before, for, in front of, east of Eṁuin -- toponym; dative singular feminine, i-stem of <Emain, Emuin> Emain Macha -- Emain Macha

Expand All na L -- verbal particle; compound form of verbal particle <no> (introduces imperfect) + infixed pronoun 3rd person singular neuter; <a L > it -- it

verbal particle; compound form of verbal particle (introduces imperfect) + infixed pronoun 3rd person singular neuter; it ġelltis -- verb; 3rd person plural imperfect indicative active, conjunct, of <gelid> grazes, devours -- they used to devour

verb; 3rd person plural imperfect indicative active, conjunct, of grazes, devours conná -- conjunction; compound form of conjunct particle <con, co N > until; so that; and + dependent negative particle; <ná, na> not, nor -- until... not

conjunction; compound form of conjunct particle until; so that; and + dependent negative particle; not, nor fácbatis -- verb; 3rd person plural imperfect indicative active, prototonic, of <fo°ácaib> leaves -- they left

verb; 3rd person plural imperfect indicative active, prototonic, of leaves ciḋ -- conjunction; compound form of conjunction <cía> although, even if + suffixed enclitic present subjunctive of copula; <is> is -- even

conjunction; compound form of conjunction although, even if + suffixed enclitic present subjunctive of copula; is mecnu -- noun; accusative plural masculine, o-stem, of <mecon, mecan> root -- roots

noun; accusative plural masculine, o-stem, of root na -- dependent negative particle; <ná, na> not, nor -- nor

dependent negative particle; not, nor fér -- noun; accusative singular neuter, o-stem, of <fér> grass -- grass

noun; accusative singular neuter, o-stem, of grass ná -- dependent negative particle; <ná, na> not, nor -- nor

dependent negative particle; not, nor lossa -- noun; accusative plural masculine, u-stem, of <luss, lus> herb, plant, vegetable -- herbs

noun; accusative plural masculine, u-stem, of herb, plant, vegetable i N -- preposition; <in, i N > in, into -- on

preposition; in, into dalaṁ -- noun; nasalized dative singular masculine, n-stem, of <talam> earth, ground -- the ground

Expand All ba H -- verb; 3rd person singular preterite indicative, absolute, of copula <is> is -- was

verb; 3rd person singular preterite indicative, absolute, of copula is tochoṁracht -- verbal noun; nominative singular feminine, ā-stem, of <tochomracht> distress, weariness, vexation -- distress(ing)

verbal noun; nominative singular feminine, ā-stem, of distress, weariness, vexation la H -- preposition; <la H > among, by, with -- for

preposition; among, by, with hUltu -- proper name; aspirated accusative plural masculine, o-stem, of <Ulaid> Ulidians, Ulstermen -- the Ulstermen

proper name; aspirated accusative plural masculine, o-stem, of Ulidians, Ulstermen a N -- possessive pronoun 3rd person plural; <a N > their -- ...

possessive pronoun 3rd person plural; their naicsiu -- verbal noun; nasalized nominative singular feminine, n-stem, of <aicsiu> seeing -- to see

verbal noun; nasalized nominative singular feminine, n-stem, of seeing oc -- preposition; <oc> at, with, by -- ...

preposition; at, with, by colluḋ -- verbal noun; dative singular neuter, u-stem/s-stem, of <collud> damaging, destroying -- the destruction

verbal noun; dative singular neuter, u-stem/s-stem, of damaging, destroying a N -- possessive pronoun 3rd person plural; <a N > their -- their

possessive pronoun 3rd person plural; their nírenn -- noun; nasalized genitive singular feminine, n-stem, of <íriu> land, earth, soil -- of... land

Expand All inlaat -- verb; 3rd person plural present indicative active, deuterotonic, of <in°lá> undertakes, arranges, adjusts -- they yoke

verb; 3rd person plural present indicative active, deuterotonic, of undertakes, arranges, adjusts noí -- indeclinable numeral; <noí> nine -- nine

indeclinable numeral; nine cairptiu -- noun; accusative plural masculine, o-stem, of <carpat> war-chariot, wagon -- chariots

noun; accusative plural masculine, o-stem, of war-chariot, wagon dia N -- preposition; compound form of preposition <du L , do L > to + suffixed possessive pronoun 3rd person plural; <a N > their -- to... them

preposition; compound form of preposition to + suffixed possessive pronoun 3rd person plural; their dofunn -- verbal noun; nasalized dative singular neuter, o-stem, of <tafann> hunting, pursuing, expelling -- chase... away

verbal noun; nasalized dative singular neuter, o-stem, of hunting, pursuing, expelling láa N -- noun; accusative singular neuter, yo-stem, of <láa N , lá N > day, daylight -- one day

noun; accusative singular neuter, yo-stem, of day, daylight nand -- pronominalized preposition; nasalized 3rd person singular neuter dative of <in, iN> in, into -- then

Expand All ar -- conjunction; <air, ar> for -- for

conjunction; for ba H -- verb; 3rd person singular preterite indicative, absolute, of copula <is> is -- was

verb; 3rd person singular preterite indicative, absolute, of copula is bés -- noun; nominative singular masculine, u-stem, of <bés> custom, habit -- a custom

noun; nominative singular masculine, u-stem, of custom, habit leusoṁ -- pronominalized preposition; 3rd person plural accusative of <la H > among, by, with + emphasizing particle 3rd person plural; <seom, som> he, it -- with them

pronominalized preposition; 3rd person plural accusative of among, by, with + emphasizing particle 3rd person plural; he, it foriṁ -- verbal noun; nominative singular neuter, n-stem, of <forim> chase -- the chase

verbal noun; nominative singular neuter, n-stem, of chase én -- noun; genitive plural masculine, o-stem, of <én> bird -- of birds

Expand All Conchuḃur -- proper name masculine; nominative singular of <Conchubur, Conchobar> Conchobar -- Conchobar

proper name masculine; nominative singular of Conchobar dano -- enclitic emphatic particle; <dano, dono> again, now, then -- then

enclitic emphatic particle; again, now, then i N -- preposition; <in, i N > in, into -- ...

preposition; in, into suḋiu -- verbal noun; dative singular neuter, yo-stem, of <sude, suide> sitting -- sitting

verbal noun; dative singular neuter, yo-stem, of sitting inna L -- preposition; compound form of preposition <in, i N > in, into + suffixed possessive pronoun 3rd person singular masculine; <a L > his, its -- in his

preposition; compound form of preposition in, into + suffixed possessive pronoun 3rd person singular masculine; his, its charput -- noun; lenited dative singular masculine, o-stem, of <carpat> war-chariot, wagon -- chariot

noun; lenited dative singular masculine, o-stem, of war-chariot, wagon ocus -- conjunction; <ocus> and -- and

conjunction; and a L -- possessive pronoun 3rd person singular masculine; <a L > his, its -- his

possessive pronoun 3rd person singular masculine; his, its inġen -- noun; nominative singular feminine, ā-stem, of <ingen> daughter -- daughter

noun; nominative singular feminine, ā-stem, of daughter Deichtire -- proper name feminine; nominative singular of <Deichtire, Deichtine> Deichtire -- Deichtire

proper name feminine; nominative singular of Deichtire os -- verb; participle present of copula <is> is -- being

verb; participle present of copula is sí L -- personal pronoun 3rd person singular feminine of; <(h)é, sí L , (h)ed> he, she, it -- she

personal pronoun 3rd person singular feminine of; he, she, it ṁacḋacht -- indeclinable; <macdacht> adult -- an adult

Expand All is -- verb; 3rd person singular present indicative, absolute, of copula <is> is -- it is

verb; 3rd person singular present indicative, absolute, of copula is sí L -- personal pronoun 3rd person singular feminine of; <(h)é, sí L , (h)ed> he, she, it -- she

personal pronoun 3rd person singular feminine of; he, she, it ḃa H -- verb; 3rd person singular preterite indicative, absolute, syntactically relative, of copula <is> is -- who was

verb; 3rd person singular preterite indicative, absolute, syntactically relative, of copula is harae -- noun; aspirated nominative singular masculine, dental stem, of <are, arae, ara> charioteer -- charioteer

noun; aspirated nominative singular masculine, dental stem, of charioteer dia H -- preposition; compound form of preposition <du L , do L > to + suffixed possessive pronoun 3rd person singular feminine; <a H > her -- to her

preposition; compound form of preposition to + suffixed possessive pronoun 3rd person singular feminine; her hathair -- noun; aspirated dative singular masculine, r-stem, of <athir, athair> father -- father

Expand All erriḋ -- noun; nominative plural masculine, dental stem, of <eirr, err> chariot-fighter, champion, warrior -- the champions

noun; nominative plural masculine, dental stem, of chariot-fighter, champion, warrior Ulaḋ N -- noun; genitive plural masculine, o-stem, of <Ulaid> Ulidians, Ulstermen -- of the Ulstermen

noun; genitive plural masculine, o-stem, of Ulidians, Ulstermen olchenae -- adverb; <olchenae> besides -- also

adverb; besides inna N -- preposition; compound form of preposition <in, i N > in, into + suffixed possessive pronoun 3rd person plural; <a N > their -- in their

preposition; compound form of preposition in, into + suffixed possessive pronoun 3rd person plural; their garptiḃ -- noun; nasalized dative plural masculine, o-stem, of <carpat> war-chariot, wagon -- chariots

noun; nasalized dative plural masculine, o-stem, of war-chariot, wagon .i. -- abbreviation of; <ed-ón> that is -- that is

abbreviation of; that is Conall -- proper name masculine; nominative singular of <Conall> Conall -- Conall

proper name masculine; nominative singular of Conall ocus -- conjunction; <ocus> and -- and

conjunction; and Lóeġuire -- proper name masculine; nominative singular of <Lóegaire, Lóeguire> Loegaire -- Loegaire

proper name masculine; nominative singular of Loegaire ocus -- conjunction; <ocus> and -- and

conjunction; and cách -- pronominal; nominative singular masculine of <cách> everybody, everyone -- everybody

pronominal; nominative singular masculine of everybody, everyone olchenae -- adverb; <olchenae> besides -- else

Expand All Bricriu -- proper name masculine; nominative singular of <Bricriu> Bricriu -- Bricriu

proper name masculine; nominative singular of Bricriu dano -- enclitic emphatic particle; <dano, dono> again, now, then -- too

enclitic emphatic particle; again, now, then leu -- pronominalized preposition; 3rd person plural accusative of <laH> among, by, with -- with them

Expand All fosruṁat -- verb; variant of 3rd person plural present indicative, deuterotonic, of <for°ruimi> sets, places; goes -- go

verb; variant of 3rd person plural present indicative, deuterotonic, of sets, places; goes ind L -- article; nominative plural masculine of <in, a N , ind L > the -- the

article; nominative plural masculine of the éuin -- noun; nominative plural masculine, o-stem, of <én> bird -- birds

noun; nominative plural masculine, o-stem, of bird reṁiḃ -- pronominalized preposition; 3rd person plural dative of <re N > before -- before them

pronominalized preposition; 3rd person plural dative of before dia N -- preposition; compound form of preposition <du L , do L > to + suffixed possessive pronoun 3rd person plural; <a N > their -- to their

preposition; compound form of preposition to + suffixed possessive pronoun 3rd person plural; their ndaiṁ -- noun; nasalized dative singular feminine, u-stem, of <dom, dam> house, home -- abode

noun; nasalized dative singular feminine, u-stem, of house, home tar -- preposition; <tar> across, over -- over

preposition; across, over Slíaḃ Fúait -- toponym; accusative singular of <Slíab Fúait> Wooden Hill -- Sliab Fuait

toponym; accusative singular of Wooden Hill tar -- preposition; <tar> across, over -- over

preposition; across, over Edṁuinn -- toponym; accusative singular of <Edmann> Edmonn, Edmand -- Edmand

toponym; accusative singular of Edmonn, Edmand tar -- preposition; <tar> across, over -- over

preposition; across, over Breġa -- toponym; accusative singular of <Brega> Brega -- Brega

Expand All ní -- independent negative particle; <ní, ni> not -- not

independent negative particle; not bíḋ -- verb; 3rd person singular consuetudinal present, absolute, of substantive verb <attá> is -- there would... be

verb; 3rd person singular consuetudinal present, absolute, of substantive verb is claḋ -- noun; nominative singular masculine, o-stem, of <clad> ditch, dyke -- a dyke

noun; nominative singular masculine, o-stem, of ditch, dyke ná -- dependent negative particle; <ná, na> not, nor -- nor

dependent negative particle; not, nor airḃe -- noun; nominative singular neuter, yo-stem, of <airbe> hedge, fence -- a fence

noun; nominative singular neuter, yo-stem, of hedge, fence ná -- dependent negative particle; <ná, na> not, nor -- or

dependent negative particle; not, nor caisel -- noun; nominative singular masculine, o-stem, of <caisel> stone wall, rampart -- a stone wall

noun; nominative singular masculine, o-stem, of stone wall, rampart im L -- preposition; <imb L , imm L > around, about; mutually -- around

preposition; around, about; mutually thír -- noun; lenited accusative singular neuter, s-stem, of <tír> earth, territory, land -- the land

noun; lenited accusative singular neuter, s-stem, of earth, territory, land i N -- preposition; <in, i N > in, into -- in

preposition; in, into nÉre -- toponym; nasalized dative singular feminine, n-stem, of <Ériu> Ireland -- Ireland

toponym; nasalized dative singular feminine, n-stem, of Ireland ind -- article; accusative singular feminine of <in, a N , ind L > the -- at

article; accusative singular feminine of the amsir -- noun; accusative singular feminine, ā-stem, of <aimser, amsir> time, period, season -- time

noun; accusative singular feminine, ā-stem, of time, period, season sin -- anaphoric demonstrative pronoun; <sin> this, that, those, the aforementioned -- that

anaphoric demonstrative pronoun; this, that, those, the aforementioned acht -- preposition; <acht> except, only, save, but -- but

preposition; except, only, save, but maiġe -- noun; accusative plural neuter, s-stem, of <mag> plain, field -- fields

noun; accusative plural neuter, s-stem, of plain, field réiḋi -- adjective; accusative plural neuter of <réid> smooth, even, level -- even

Expand All ba H -- verb; 3rd person singular preterite indicative, absolute, of copula <is> is -- it was

verb; 3rd person singular preterite indicative, absolute, of copula is hálaind -- adjective; aspirated nominative singular masculine of <álaind> beautiful, lovely -- delightful

adjective; aspirated nominative singular masculine of beautiful, lovely ocus -- conjunction; <ocus> and -- and

conjunction; and ba H -- verb; 3rd person singular preterite indicative, absolute, of copula <is> is -- it was

verb; 3rd person singular preterite indicative, absolute, of copula is caín -- adjective; nominative singular masculine of <caín> fine, excellent, beautiful -- beautiful

adjective; nominative singular masculine of fine, excellent, beautiful in -- article; nominative singular masculine of <in, a N , ind L > the -- the

article; nominative singular masculine of the ténlorg -- noun; compound of <én> bird + nominative singular masculine, o-stem, of; <lorg> trail, path, course -- bird-flight

noun; compound of bird + nominative singular masculine, o-stem, of; trail, path, course ocus -- conjunction; <ocus> and -- and

conjunction; and in -- article; nominative singular masculine of <in, a N , ind L > the -- the

article; nominative singular masculine of the ténaṁar -- noun; compound of <én> bird + nominative singular masculine, o-stem, of; <amar> singing, song -- bird-song

noun; compound of bird + nominative singular masculine, o-stem, of; singing, song boí L -- verb; 3rd person singular preterite indicative, syntactically relative, of substantive verb <attá> is -- that was

verb; 3rd person singular preterite indicative, syntactically relative, of substantive verb is leu -- pronominalized preposition; 3rd person plural accusative of <laH> among, by, with -- with them

Expand All noí -- indeclinable numeral; <noí> nine -- nine

indeclinable numeral; nine fichit -- numeral; nominative plural masculine, nt-stem, of <fiche> twenty -- units of twenty

numeral; nominative plural masculine, nt-stem, of twenty én -- noun; genitive plural masculine, o-stem, of <én> bird -- birds

noun; genitive plural masculine, o-stem, of bird dóiḃ -- pronominalized preposition; 3rd person plural dative of <du L , do L > to -- to them

pronominalized preposition; 3rd person plural dative of to rond -- noun; nominative singular masculine, u-stem, of <rond, ronn> chain, bond -- a chain

noun; nominative singular masculine, u-stem, of chain, bond argit -- noun; genitive singular masculine, o-stem, of <arcat, argat> silver -- of silver

noun; genitive singular masculine, o-stem, of silver eter -- preposition; <eter> between, among -- between

preposition; between, among cach -- pronominal; nominative singular masculine of <cach, cech> each, every, any -- every

pronominal; nominative singular masculine of each, every, any dá L -- numeral; accusative dual masculine of <dá L , dí L , dá N > two -- two

numeral; accusative dual masculine of two én -- noun; accusative dual masculine, o-stem, of <én> bird -- birds

Expand All cach -- pronominal; nominative singular masculine of <cach, cech> each, every, any -- each

pronominal; nominative singular masculine of each, every, any fiche -- numeral; nominative singular masculine, nt-stem, of <fiche> twenty -- unit of twenty

numeral; nominative singular masculine, nt-stem, of twenty inna L -- preposition; compound form of preposition <in, i N > in, into + suffixed possessive pronoun 3rd person singular masculine; <a L > his, its -- in its

preposition; compound form of preposition in, into + suffixed possessive pronoun 3rd person singular masculine; his, its lurg -- noun; dative singular masculine, o-stem, of <lorg> trail, path, course -- flight

noun; dative singular masculine, o-stem, of trail, path, course fo L -- preposition; <fo L > under -- on

preposition; under leith -- noun; dative singular neuter, s-stem, of <leth> side, direction -- a side

noun; dative singular neuter, s-stem, of side, direction noí -- indeclinable numeral; <noí> nine -- nine

indeclinable numeral; nine luirg -- noun; nominative plural masculine, o-stem, of <lorg> trail, path, course -- trails

noun; nominative plural masculine, o-stem, of trail, path, course dóiḃ -- pronominalized preposition; 3rd person plural dative of <duL, doL> to -- to them

Expand All saṁlaiḋ -- adverb; <samlaid, amlaid> thus, so, in this way -- thus

adverb; thus, so, in this way dá L -- numeral; nominative dual masculine of <dá L , dí L , dá N > two -- two

numeral; nominative dual masculine of two én -- noun; nominative dual masculine, o-stem, of <én> bird -- birds

noun; nominative dual masculine, o-stem, of bird bátar -- verb; 3rd person plural preterite indicative relative of substantive verb <attá> is -- that were

verb; 3rd person plural preterite indicative relative of substantive verb is reṁiḃ -- pronominalized preposition; 3rd person plural dative of <re N > before -- before them

pronominalized preposition; 3rd person plural dative of before cuing -- noun; nominative singular feminine, ā-stem, of <cuing> yoke, chain -- a yoke

noun; nominative singular feminine, ā-stem, of yoke, chain argit -- noun; genitive singular masculine, o-stem, of <arcat, argat> silver -- of silver

noun; genitive singular masculine, o-stem, of silver etarru -- pronominalized preposition; 3rd person plural accusative of <eter> between, among -- between them

Expand All toscartha -- verb; 3rd person plural preterite indicative passive, deuterotonic, of <do°scara> overthrows, ruins -- were separated

verb; 3rd person plural preterite indicative passive, deuterotonic, of overthrows, ruins trí H -- numeral; nominative plural masculine of <trí, tri, teoir> three -- three

numeral; nominative plural masculine of three héuin -- noun; aspirated nominative plural masculine, o-stem, of <én> bird -- birds

noun; aspirated nominative plural masculine, o-stem, of bird díḃ -- pronominalized preposition; 3rd person plural dative of <di L , de L > from, of -- from them

pronominalized preposition; 3rd person plural dative of from, of co H -- preposition; <co H > to, until -- by

preposition; to, until haidchi -- noun; aspirated accusative singular feminine, yā-stem, of <adaig> night -- night

Expand All lotir -- verb; 3rd person plural preterite indicative of <luith, luid> moves; flies -- they flew

verb; 3rd person plural preterite indicative of moves; flies reṁiḃ -- pronominalized preposition; 3rd person plural dative of <re N > before -- before them

pronominalized preposition; 3rd person plural dative of before i N -- preposition; <in, i N > in, into -- to

preposition; in, into gend -- noun; nasalized accusative singular neuter, o-stem, of <cenn> head, front; end -- the end

noun; nasalized accusative singular neuter, o-stem, of head, front; end in L -- article; genitive singular masculine of <in, a N , ind L > the -- of the

article; genitive singular masculine of the Ḃroġo -- toponym; genitive singular masculine, u-stem, of <brug, bruig> region, district -- Brug na Boinne

Expand All is -- verb; 3rd person singular present indicative, absolute, of copula <is> is -- is

verb; 3rd person singular present indicative, absolute, of copula is and -- pronominalized preposition; 3rd person singular neuter dative of <in, i N > in, into -- there

pronominalized preposition; 3rd person singular neuter dative of in, into ba H -- verb; 3rd person singular preterite indicative, absolute, syntactically relative, of copula <is> is -- that... was

verb; 3rd person singular preterite indicative, absolute, syntactically relative, of copula is haḋaiġ -- noun; aspirated nominative singular feminine, yā-stem, of <adaig> night -- night

noun; aspirated nominative singular feminine, yā-stem, of night for -- preposition; <for> on, over -- on

preposition; on, over feraiḃ -- noun; dative plural masculine, o-stem, of <fer> man -- the warriors

noun; dative plural masculine, o-stem, of man UlaḋN -- noun; genitive plural masculine, o-stem, of <Ulaid> Ulidians, Ulstermen -- of the Ulstermen

Expand All feraiḋ -- verb; 3rd person singular present indicative active, absolute, of <feraid> grants, affords, supplies, gives; performs; pours, sheds -- it pours

verb; 3rd person singular present indicative active, absolute, of grants, affords, supplies, gives; performs; pours, sheds snechtae -- noun; nominative singular masculine, yo-stem, of <snechtae, snechta> snow -- snow

noun; nominative singular masculine, yo-stem, of snow mór -- adjective; nominative singular masculine of <már, mór> big, great -- big

adjective; nominative singular masculine of big, great foraiḃ -- pronominalized preposition; 3rd person plural dative of <for> on, over -- on them

pronominalized preposition; 3rd person plural dative of on, over dano -- enclitic emphatic particle; <dano, dono> again, now, then -- then

Expand All asbert -- verb; 3rd person singular preterite indicative active, deuterotonic, of <as°beir> says, speaks -- said

verb; 3rd person singular preterite indicative active, deuterotonic, of says, speaks Conchuḃur -- proper name masculine; nominative singular of <Conchubur, Conchobar> Conchobar -- Conchobar

proper name masculine; nominative singular of Conchobar fria L -- preposition; compound form of preposition <frith L , fri H > against, towards + suffixed possessive pronoun 3rd person singular masculine; <a L > his, its -- to his

preposition; compound form of preposition against, towards + suffixed possessive pronoun 3rd person singular masculine; his, its ṁuintir -- noun; accusative singular feminine, ā-stem, of <muinter> family; party, followers; retinue, company -- party

noun; accusative singular feminine, ā-stem, of family; party, followers; retinue, company ara -- conjunction; <ar-a N > so that, in order that, that -- that

conjunction; so that, in order that, that scortis -- verb; 3rd person plural past subjunctive active, conjunct, of <scuirid> unyokes -- they should unyoke

verb; 3rd person plural past subjunctive active, conjunct, of unyokes a N -- possessive pronoun 3rd person plural; <a N > their -- their

possessive pronoun 3rd person plural; their gairptiu -- noun; nasalized accusative plural masculine, o-stem, of <carpat> war-chariot, wagon -- chariots

noun; nasalized accusative plural masculine, o-stem, of war-chariot, wagon ocus -- conjunction; <ocus> and -- and

conjunction; and ara -- conjunction; <ar-a N > so that, in order that, that -- that

conjunction; so that, in order that, that cortis -- verb; 3rd person plural past subjunctive active, conjunct, of <fo°cuirethar> puts, throws -- they should put

verb; 3rd person plural past subjunctive active, conjunct, of puts, throws cor -- verbal noun; accusative singular masculine, o-stem, of <cor> putting; throwing; letting go -- a delegation

verbal noun; accusative singular masculine, o-stem, of putting; throwing; letting go do L -- preposition; <du L , do L > to -- to

preposition; to chuindchiḋ -- verbal noun; lenited dative singular masculine, i-stem, of <cuingid, cuindchid> seeking, requesting -- the seeking

verbal noun; lenited dative singular masculine, i-stem, of seeking, requesting tiġe -- noun; genitive singular neuter, s-stem, of <teg, tech> house, dwelling -- of shelter

noun; genitive singular neuter, s-stem, of house, dwelling dóiḃ -- pronominalized preposition; 3rd person plural dative of <duL, doL> to -- for them

Lesson Text

Boí Conchuḃur ocus maithi UlaḋN iN nEṁuin. No tathigtis énḟlaith maġ arL Eṁuin. NaL ġelltis conná fácbatis ciḋ mecnu na fér ná lossa iN dalaṁ. BaH tochoṁracht laH hUltu aN naicsiu oc colluḋ aN nírenn. Inlaat noí cairptiu diaN dofunn láaN nand. Ar baH bés leusoṁ foriṁ én. Conchuḃur dano iN suḋiu innaL charput ocus aL inġen Deichtire os síL ṁacḋacht. Is síL ḃaH harae diaH hathair. Erriḋ UlaḋN olchenae innaN garptiḃ .i. Conall ocus Lóeġuire ocus cách olchenae. Bricriu dano leu. Fosruṁat indL éuin reṁiḃ diaN ndaiṁ tar Slíaḃ Fúait, tar Edṁuinn, tar Breġa. Ní bíḋ claḋ ná airḃe ná caisel imL thír iN nÉre ind amsir sin acht maiġe réiḋi. BaH hálaind ocus baH caín in ténlorg ocus in ténaṁar boíL leu. Noí fichit én dóiḃ, rond argit eter cach dáL én. Cach fiche innaL lurg foL leith, noí luirg dóiḃ. Saṁlaiḋ dáL én bátar reṁiḃ, cuing argit etarru. Toscartha tríH héuin díḃ coH haidchi. Lotir reṁiḃ iN gend inL Ḃroġo. Is and baH haḋaiġ for feraiḃ UlaḋN. Feraiḋ snechtae mór foraiḃ dano. Asbert Conchuḃur friaL ṁuintir ara scortis aN gairptiu ocus ara cortis cor doL chuindchiḋ tiġe dóiḃ.

Translation

Conchobar and the nobles of the Ulstermen were in Emain Macha. A flock of birds used to frequent the plain east of Emain Macha. They used to devour it until they left nothing on the ground, not even roots or grass or herbs. To see the destruction of their land was distress(ing) for the Ulstermen. One day they yoke nine chariots to chase them away. For the chase of birds was a custom with them. Conchobar then, sitting in his chariot, and his daughter Deichtire, she being an adult. It is she who was charioteer to her father. Also the champions of the Ulstermen in their chariots, that is Conall and Loegaire and everybody else. Bricriu, too, (was) with them. The birds go before them to their abode, over Sliab Fuait, over Edmand, over Brega. There would not be a dyke, nor a fence or a stone wall around the land in Ireland at that time, but (just) even fields. It was delightful and it was beautiful the flight and the singing of those birds. Nine units of twenty birds to them, a chain of silver between every two birds. Each unit of twenty separated in its flight, nine trails (there were) to them. Thus (it was) two birds that were before them, a yoke of silver between them. Three birds were separated from them by the night. They flew before them to the end of Bruig na Boinne. It is there that night was on the warriors of the Ulstermen. Then it pours big snow on them. Conchobar said to his party that they should unyoke their chariots and that they should put a delegation to the seeking of shelter for them.

Grammar

1 Spelling and Pronunciation

1.1 The Phonological System and its Orthographical Representations

The phonetic values of the constituents of the Old Irish phonological system can be inferred from their pronunciation in the modern language as well as from textual variants and from secondary sources, such as e.g. Old Norse manuscripts.

The Old Irish phonological system is made up of the following phonemes:

Vowels and Diphthongs

Short vowels a e i o u Long vowels á é í ó ú Diphthongs áu , ái ( áe ) éu ( éo ) íu , ía oí ( óe ) úa , uí

Consonants

Labial Dental Palato-velar Stops Voiceless p t k Voiced b d g Fricatives Voiceless f θ x , h Voiced v, ṽ/β~ ð ɣ Nasals m n ŋ Liquids r , l Sibilants s

Depending on their vocalic environment, consonants can have either palatal or non-palatal, that is velar or neutral quality. Palatal quality occurs after the vowels /e/ and /i/, whether short, long, or the second element of a diphthong (though <e> can also indicate a preceding palatal and a following nonpalatal consonant); velar quality occurs after the vowels /o/ and /u/, long and short or as second element of a diphthong; long and short /a/ or diphthongs containing it as the second element cause neutral quality of a following consonant.

The oldest extant written material of Old Irish consists of sepulchral stone inscriptions, carved into rectangular stone pillars according to a peculiar dots and line-system called ogam-alphabet. The distinction between vowels (represented by one to five notches on the central line, which is the edge of the stone pillar) and consonants (represented by one to five strokes cut across the central line), and the classification of the sounds into four sets, roughly according to their type of articulation, point to the fact that the writers were familiar with the Classical grammatical tradition and probably adapted an earlier numeral system to the Latin alphabet.

The Latin alphabet, which was used for all other purposes, had the major disadvantage of possessing a poor inventory of symbols representing fricatives, so that not every Irish sound could be orthographically represented by a specific letter. Therefore, in the manuscripts certain Latin letters denote various Irish phonemes, such as the letters <p t c>, which represent both voiced and voiceless stops [b d g p t k] (in the latter 3 instances they are sometimes written double), because the letters <b d g> are used to indicate voiced fricatives. Voiceless fricatives are indicated by <ph th ch>. The letter <m> stands not only for [m], but also for the voiced nasalized fricatives [β~] and [ṽ].

The following table shows the Old Irish consonant system as expressed by the Latin letters, and the phonetic values these represent in Old Irish:

p represents [p] and [b]

represents [p] and [b] t represents [t] and [d]

represents [t] and [d] c represents [k] and [g]

represents [k] and [g] b represents [v] and [b]

represents [v] and [b] d represents [ ð ] and [d]

represents [ ] and [d] g represents [ ɣ ] and [g]

represents [ ] and [g] ph represents [f]

represents [f] th represents [ θ ]

represents [ ] ch represents [x]

represents m represents [m], [ ṽ ] and [ β~ ]

represents [m], [ ] and [ ] n represents [n] and [ ŋ ]

represents [n] and [ ] r represents [r]

represents [r] l represents [l]

represents [l] s represents [s]

represents [s] ṡ represents [h], as a morphophonemic variant of /s/

represents [h], as a morphophonemic variant of /s/ f represents [f]

represents [f] ḟ represents lenited f, which is silent

represents lenited f, which is silent h represents [h], as prefixed to vowels (as by the initial mutation called gemination, cf. lesson 2, section 6.3)

The phonetic value of those letters which represent several phonemes is determined by its context. That is to say, whether e.g. /b d g m/ are pronounced as stops or as fricatives depends on their position in the word and in the sentence. Word-internally in intervocalic position or between vowel and sonorant, as well as word-finally in postvocalic position and after vowel+liquid, they undergo so-called lenition, which means they have laxer articulation. The phenomenon also affects /n r l/ in intervocalic and post-vocalic word final position; yet while lenited /b d g m/ in later manuscripts came to be written bh, dh, gh and mh respectively, there is no orthographic indication of this phenomenon with respect to /n r l/ (but they are sometimes written double when they are not lenited).

The same mutation also occurs between syntactically related words, where it has to a great extent developed into a grammatical phenomenon, i.e. beyond the phonetic one it originally was. Initial lenition will be discussed in lesson 2, section 6, together with the two other types of initial mutation, i.e. nasalization and gemination, which cause prefixing of an n- and h-, respectively, to a following vowel (where nasalization takes place, there is also voicing of voiceless stops, yet this is not orthographically indicated in the manuscripts or in the present text). There are many examples for the various mutations in the present text. In the first sentence alone, we find instances of lenited c, b, m and d in Conchuḃur, nEṁuin, and UlaḋN. The dative of the toponym Eṁuin is furthermore nasalized by the preceding nasalizing preposition iN, thus nEṁuin. Sentence four contains an example of gemination, where the preposition laH causes aspiration of the vocalic initial of the following noun Ultu, thus hUltu.

That a word in certain syntactical contexts causes mutation of the initial of the following word is indicated in the present work by L, N or H respectively after the word in question. To facilitate correct pronunciation of the Old Irish texts, lenited consonants are orthographically indicated in the first two lessons, even if these clues are not present in the actual manuscripts.

1.2 Accentuation

As can be inferred from the reduction of unstressed syllables (viz. word-internal syncope and word-final apocope), as well as from the pronunciation in most modern dialects, Old Irish had a strong stress accent, which falls on the first syllable in uncompounded words susceptible of full stress as well as in nominal compounds. Only in verbal compounds does the first preverb not form a close compound with the second element, so that the stress is usually on the second syllable of the compound; this can be either the verbal stem itself or another preverb. Compound verbs following this stress pattern are called deuterotonic. An example from the text is found in sentence three, where naL (i.e. the verbal particle no + pronoun aL) precedes the 3 plural imperfect indicative ġelltis, which bears the accent on the first syllable, thus naLġelltis. If the first position, however, is occupied by certain conjunctions and particles, the stress falls on the first syllable, i.e. on the first preverb of a compound verb. The compound is then said to have prototonic form. In the text, this is illustrated by the verbal form fácbatis in the third sentence, which is preceded by the conjunction conná, consisting of the conjunct particle conN + suffixed negative particle ná. The verbal compound fo°ácaib accordingly has prototonic form, thus fácbatis. Prototonic verbal forms are also required in a few other constructions (cf. lesson 5, section 22.2). Unstressed words, such as the article, prepositions, and many pronouns are attached either to the following or the preceding word as proclitics or enclitics.

2 Word Order

2.1 The Basic Word Order of Old Irish

In Old Irish, nominal as well as verbal predicates stand at the head of the sentence, preceding subjects and objects. Only certain elements like pretonic prepositions, conjunctions, interrogatives, negative particles and infixed personal pronouns can precede the verb; all other elements, when focussed and hence placed left of the verb, require a relative marker. According to typological classification, Old Irish is therefore a language of the VSO type, because its basic word order is Verb-Subject-Object. Sentences like the first two illustrate the VSO word order with initial position of the verb, which in the first sentence is the copula boí, followed by the subject Conchuḃur, and in the second the compound verb form no tathigtis, followed by the subject énḟlaith and the direct object maġ arL Eṁuin. Sentence twelve constitutes an example of the finite verb -- in this instance the copula bíḋ -- being preceded by the negative particle ní.

The VSO order also implies further syntactical as well as certain morphological characteristics and even phonological features. As to syntax, the determinans follows the determinatum, that is to say, nominal modifiers such as genitives, descriptive adjectives and relative constructions follow the noun they modify, complements follow finite verbs etc. The aforementioned constructions can be seen in the text: in the first sentence, the genitive UlaḋN follows the noun it modifies, maithi 'the nobles of the Ulstermen'; the same is true in sentences 4 and 12, where we find colluḋ aN n-írenn 'the destruction of their land', and in imaḋ na treḃ 'the rivalry of the tribes'. In sentence 11, the noun maiġe is followed by its modifier, the adjective réiḋi, thus 'even fields'. A determinatum-determinans relation in form of a relative construction following the noun it modifies can be found in sentence 13, where boí leu 'that was with them' follows the nouns in t-énlorg ocus in t-énaṁar 'the flight of the birds and the singing of the birds'.

2.2 Word Order in Nominal Syntagms and Compounds

In nominal syntagms, the verbal or predicate element is placed at the head of the sentence.

In nominal compounds, such as the determinative compounds énlorg 'flight of the birds' and énaṁar 'singing of the birds', the VSO-specific syntactical order of modifier and modified element appears reversed. Here, we find determinans-determinatum instead of determinatum-determinans, with the logical genitive én 'birds' preceding lorg 'flight' and aṁar 'singing' respectively, which it modifies. The explanation for this lies in the fact that compounds generally tend to preserve archaic patterns and Irish, like all other ancient Indo-European languages, originally belonged to the SOV type but later underwent a typological change.

2.3 Residues of the Older SOV Structure

Apart from the word order in nominal compounds, which were formed according to the older syntactic structure still preserved in the older Goidelic layers, remnants of the original SOV structure can also be found in some of the earliest texts, where verbs may be placed at the end of their clause. In this situation, simple verbs take conjunct forms (see below, section 3.3), while compound verbs take prototonic forms (see above, section 1.2). The phenomenon was identified by Osborn Bergin ("On the Syntax of the Verb in Old Irish," Ériu 12, 1938, 197-214) and is therefore referred to as Bergin's Law. Another type of residual OV construction is to be seen in sentence 3, where the non-compound verb ġelltis is preceded by the object pronoun aL, which is infixed between the verb itself and the imperfect-marker no. Remnants of SVO are also attested, as probably the deuterotonic inlaat (with implicit subject) followed by the direct object noí cairptiu in sentence 5.

3 The Verb

3.1 Sentences without Verb

In Old Irish, the verb is frequently omitted in any type of clause, especially where it would have been a form of the 3rd person indicative, but also in descriptions, peremptory commands, and even replies to questions. Omission of the verb 'to be' is especially common, as in the present text sentences such as 7, 9 and 10 show, which begin with the subject of the clause: Conchuḃur, Erriḋ UlaḋN, and Bricriu, respectively.

3.2 Nominal Forms of the Verb

In Old Irish, verbal action is frequently expressed by nouns, the so-called verbal nouns, whose subject or object is usually in the genitive. In the last sentence of the present text, the verbal noun of con°dieig, cuindchiḋ, which is itself in the dative and is governed by the preposition doL, has the genitive tiġe as its object. Literally translated, the phrase thus means 'for the seeking of shelter', though in English it corresponds to an infinitive construction 'to seek shelter'. Verbal nouns may also occur without an object; in still other constructions the subject or object of the action may be placed before the nominative or accusative of the verbal noun, as the following phrase from Fingail Rónain illustrates: Is mór bríg do mac aithig guin maic ríg, 'It is a much too serious matter for the son of a villain to kill the son of a king' (lit. 'for the son of a villain the killing of the son of a king'), where the logical subject mac aithig 'son of a villain' precedes the verbal noun guin 'killing', and the object maic ríg 'son of a king' follows in the genitive.

Other nominal forms of the verb are the past participle passive, which is inflected like an adjective, and the verbal of necessity, which is not inflected and, used only in predicative constructions, has the same meaning as Latin gerundives such as agenda 'things to be done'.

3.3 Inflected Verbal Forms

In Old Irish, verbs are inflected for voice, mood, tense, number and person.

There are two voices, active and passive. In the active, two inflections are distinguished, active and deponent, the latter of which is in its form similar to the passive but actually based on the Indo-European middle voice, which denotes that an action is carried out with reference or benefit to the subject. In the present selection, only active and passive finite verbal forms occur. There are numerous examples of active forms, e.g. boí 'it was', inlaat 'they prepare', fosruṁat 'they go', lotir 'they flew', etc. A passive form is found e.g. in sentence eighteen, in the 3 plural preterite passive toscartha 'they were separated'.

The passive has a special form for the 3rd person plural only, whereas the form of the 3rd person singular is used for all other persons; in these contexts an infixed pronoun (1st/2nd person singular/plural) must then be added to indicate the subject.

Three moods are distinguished. The indicative is used in declarative statements, the subjunctive indicates uncertainty, in subordinate clauses also volition or expectation, and the imperative serves for commands.

In the indicative, five tenses are distinguished: present, imperfect, preterite, future and secondary future. The present is used for present and universal or indefinite time, and is also very often employed as historical present to make a narration more vivid. This is observed e.g. in sentences five, eleven and twenty-one of the present text. The imperfect denotes repeated or customary action in the past, as illustrated by the verbs in sentences two and three, which describe the habitual behaviour of the birds. The preterite indicates past action or state. As is to be expected in narration, most of the verbal forms of the text are in the preterite. The future indicates future action, also action completed at a point of time in the future. The secondary future indicates an action which, when viewed from a definite point of past time, lay in the future, and also serves as potentialis and irrealis.

The subjunctive mood only differentiates between present and past, whereby the present subjunctive corresponds to the present and future indicative, and the past subjunctive corresponds to the imperfect and preterite indicative, and in some subordinate clauses can also serve as subjunctive of the secondary future.

In order to indicate that an act or state is perfect, completed, the verbal particle ro, which in origin is a preposition, can be combined with nearly all simple and most compound verbs. It gives perfective force to the preterite indicative and the past subjunctive, which otherwise have the meaning of a simple past, and with the imperfect denotes that an action is repeatedly completed in the past. It also has modal function, expressing possibility or ability (e.g. as°ro-ba(i)r 'he can say', from as°beir 'says').

The tenses and moods of the verbs are formed from five different stems:

present stem for present and imperfect indicative as well as the imperative (active/deponent and passive forms);

for present and imperfect indicative as well as the imperative (active/deponent and passive forms); subjunctive stem for present and past subjunctive (active/deponent and passive forms);

for present and past subjunctive (active/deponent and passive forms); future stem for primary and secondary future indicative (active/deponent and passive forms);

for primary and secondary future indicative (active/deponent and passive forms); active preterite stem for the preterite indicative, active and deponent;

for the preterite indicative, active and deponent; passive preterite stem for the passive preterite indicative.

Two main classes of verbs, strong and weak, can be distinguished according to the way in which they form these stems. Strong verbs are without exception primary, never derived, while weak verbs are mainly denominative. The difference between the two classes is most obvious in the 3 singular present indicative active, where a weak verb in the so-called conjunct inflection has the ending -a or -i, while a strong verb has no visible ending.

There are two numbers, singular and plural. Dual subjects take a plural verb. Both numbers distinguish three persons.

Inflection may be either absolute or conjunct. Absolute inflection is employed for simple verbs in absolute sentence-initial position. Conjunct inflection is used after all kinds of preceding elements, such as prepositions, the verbal particles ro and no, the conjunctions and particles usually termed conjunct particles, and in the archaic construction where the verb stands at the end of its clause. An example of conjunct inflection is found in the second and third sentence, where the verbs, viz. notathigtis, naLġelltis, and connáfácbatis, are in the imperfect and therefore necessarily conjunct, since the imperfect has no absolute forms; its forms must therefore be preceded by the semantically void particle no whenever there is no preverb or conjunct particle to introduce them.

Special relative forms of the verb incorporating the pronominal element exist in the absolute inflection for the third person singular and plural, active and passive, and generally also for the first person plural active in the present and future indicative as well as in the present subjunctive (cf. lesson 5, section 21).

Not all paradigms given in the following lessons are complete. This does not necessarily mean that the forms did not exist, but rather that no textual evidence has been found for them yet; forms which are preceded by an asterisk are reconstructions.

3.4 Impersonal Constructions

Impersonal constructions are very common in Old Irish. They are generally used where the emphasis is on the semantic content of the verb, rather than on the logical subject of the action. Many of these constructions involve prepositions, as for example in sentence four, which reads BaH tochoṁracht laH hUltu and would be literally translated as 'it was weariness with the Ulstermen', i.e. 'the Ulstermen were weary', or in sentence six, where we find the construction ḃaH bés leusoṁ, 'it was a custom with them', i.e. 'they had the custom'. Another type of impersonal construction is found in the Irish passive constructions, where the emphasis on the verbal action is even stronger, while the persons involved are of no importance; there are also actual impersonal forms within the Old Irish passive paradigms.

4 The Noun

Old Irish distinguishes three grammatical genders, masculine, feminine, and neuter. In nominal inflection, the three Indo-European numbers, singular, plural and dual -- the latter denoting units of two -- are preserved. Four cases are still differentiated: nominative, accusative, genitive, and dative. They have the following primary functions:

The nominative is the case of the grammatical subject.

is the case of the grammatical subject. The accusative is the case of the direct object. It is also used with verbs of coming and going to indicate direction, and to indicate time, usually duration, as well as after certain prepositions.

is the case of the direct object. It is also used with verbs of coming and going to indicate direction, and to indicate time, usually duration, as well as after certain prepositions. The dative is the case of the indirect object. It is also used after certain prepositions.

is the case of the indirect object. It is also used after certain prepositions. The genitive is the case of the subject of possession. It is used to specify or even to describe another noun (as in e.g. senóir clérigh léith , lit. 'an old man of a grey cleric', i.e. 'an old, grey-haired cleric'). It also indicates the subject or object of a verbal noun.

Old Irish also possesses a vocative, which is strictly speaking not a case but a special grammatical form of address for nouns, which are then preceded by the leniting particle aL, áL.

It must be noted that not all cases are formally differentiated by all three genders or in all three numbers, and distinction is furthermore dependent on the stem-class to which a noun belongs. Old Irish distinguishes twelve different stem-classes, six vocalic and six consonantal, according to the sound in which the stem originally ended. These will be discussed in detail in the subsequent lessons.

5 Prepositions

Prepositions introduce prepositional phrases, comparable to those in English, and are very common in VSO languages. They require the accusative (e.g. friL 'against', laH 'with') or the dative (e.g. doL, duL 'to'; diL, deL 'of, from') of the following noun or pronoun, or either the accusative or dative depending on whether they denote direction or location (e.g. iN, in 'in; into'; foL 'under'). They are frequently followed by enclitic personal or possessive pronouns, as in diaN 'to their', from prep. doL 'to' + suffixed possessive pronoun 3 plural aN 'their' in sentence five, innaN 'in their', from prep. inN + suffixed possessive pronoun 3 plural aN 'their' in sentence nine, dóiḃ 'to them', from prep. doL + enclitic personal pronoun -iḃ 'them' in sentences fifteen and sixteen, etc. Due to the frequent occurrence of these combinations of prepositions plus personal pronouns, they are not transparent anymore and therefore treated as inflectional paradigms in the grammars, where they are usually referred to as conjugated prepositions (cf. lesson 7, section 35); here, for the sake of clarity, they are referred to as pronominalized prepositions.

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