“Terminate and Liquidate”: How the Megiddo Ivories were Almost Not Discovered

By Eric H. Cline



At the end of the first week in May 1936, John Wilson, who had just taken over as Director of the Oriental Institute at the University of Chicago, sent a cable to Gordon Loud and the team of archaeologists excavating at the site of Megiddo, in British Mandate Palestine.

Aerial view of Megiddo.

Gordon Loud ca. 1930 in the courtyard of the expedition house at Khorsabad.

regret another megiddo season impossible expedition terminating now stop can you remain to liquidate house and equipment… [please] advise antiquities department of termination

A longer letter was sent the same day. In it, Wilson explained that the Institute administration had been trying for three weeks to figure a way out of a drastic financial dilemma, but had finally concluded that they had to close down all of their excavations immediately, rather than allow them to continue for another year.

What had happened was simple, but entirely unanticipated. In the wake of the sudden death the previous December of James Henry Breasted, the founder and long-time Director, the three Rockefeller foundations which had been financing the Institute and its excavations since the beginning, asked Wilson to come up with a plan in which the overall $700,000 annual budget was drastically reduced by 50 percent or more and the field projects similarly cut to the bone or shut down completely. With Breasted no longer around to personally defend the various overseas undertakings, Wilson had no choice but to comply.

For the small team at Megiddo, this was the end of the world as they knew it; it was their own personal Armageddon. There had been Chicago excavators surveying and digging at Megiddo every year since 1925, but this was apparently the end of the road. More cables, some in code, flew back and forth across the Atlantic in the next several days—three from Loud to Wilson alone. In them, Loud tersely told Wilson that he and the others would remain at the site as long as necessary to liquidate everything. He also asked, plaintively, whether they might excavate for one more season after all, on a shoestring budget of $20,000, but Wilson replied that was impossible.

However, Loud soon informed Wilson that the local conditions were so unsettled that liquidating the dig house and all their equipment would be difficult. He followed up almost immediately with another cable, this time in code, stating that the growing disturbances actually made liquidation totally impossible, and that the government thought the situation could last for weeks. He recommended that they postpone the liquidation until the fall, if things had calmed down by then.

As it turned out, the “disturbances” lasted for a full six months; they marked the beginning of what is now known as the 1936–39 Arab Revolt in British Mandate Palestine. Loud recorded some of the events in his field diary. On 19 April, he noted: “The Garstangs drop in for five minutes after tea . . . but all are whisked away in a hurry by police. Riots are under way in Jaffa and Tel Aviv, and the police are taking precautions in keeping people off the roads here. So far Haifa remains quiet.” The next day he wrote that it remained to be seen what effect the riots would have on them locally. By 22 April, he noted that the riots were quieting down and had not affected their local work situation.

What Loud and the others were experiencing at the time was just the opening stage, which soon morphed into a general strike that lasted from May to October 1936. A second, more violent and deadlier, phase would begin a year later, in the fall of 1937, after the Peel Commission released its findings in July of that year, concluding that British control of the area could not be sustained, and proposing a partition—dividing the land between the Arabs, who would receive 80 percent, and the Jews, who would receive 20 percent. The Peel report led to an escalation of the protests, which lasted until 1939 and resulted in an eventual death toll estimated at 150 British soldiers, 500 Jews, and more than 3,000 Arabs. However, that still lay a bit in the future at this point.

Coded cable sent from Loud to Wilson on 11 May 1936.

On 12 May, Loud made his way down to Jerusalem. The next morning he went to see Ernest Richmond, the director of the Department of Antiquities. Since Richmond was unavailable, Loud met with Richard W. Hamilton, the acting director, and told him that they were finished, not just for the season, but forever. The message resonated with Hamilton, for he had been a member of the Megiddo team for a few weeks back in 1929. A handwritten note that Hamilton penned to Richmond later that same day captures Loud’s reluctant message: “The Oriental Institute has officially closed down the expedition to Megiddo. They are packing up everything except pictures, plants, etc. Mr. Parker will return in the autumn to wind up their affairs. . . . Mr. Loud wishes to keep the matter of the closing of the dig confidential for the present.”

However, the expedition reversed course from potential termination so quickly that word does not seem to have spread far, if at all. Wilson decided that they would be able to allocate $28,000 toward a field season at Megiddo for 1936–37 after all. First, though, they had to make certain that they could get permission to dig again. In early September, Loud sent letters to Richmond, in his role as the director of antiquities, and to the chief secretary in Jerusalem. He explained that recent developments had made another season at Megiddo possible after all, and that they would like to postpone the liquidation and instead dig again beginning in November or December.

Richmond replied positively, so the only thing that Loud had to do now was wait to see whether the general strike would eventually come to an end, allowing them to begin work. He sent cables to Richmond inquiring about the conditions in mid-October and then again in late October, finally receiving a positive reply: “as at present advised work resumeable december.” Richmond also sent a license for Loud and the OI to dig, valid for one year (as per usual), through the end of December 1937.

The dig officially began again on 19 December, less than six months after it had been scheduled for termination and liquidation. It was later in the year than they had ever begun before—in previous years they would have been closing down around this time for the winter break, but now they were just getting started.

Aerial view of Megiddo in 1937.

It was also a very small staff: Loud as field director, along with Geoffrey Shipton and Harry Parker, who had been with the excavation since the early days of PLO Guy almost a decade earlier, and two relative newcomers, Charley and Alice Altman, who had previously worked with Loud at Khorsabad in Iraq. That was it. The Megiddo expedition was back down to the same small size that it had been during the very first excavation season, in the spring of 1926. As Loud told Wilson a few weeks later, “The five of us fairly rattle about in this large house.”

On the bright side, they found themselves with a plethora of labor and were soon overseeing more than two hundred workers each day, in large part because the locals had been driven to the edge of poverty by the general strike, which had only just ended in October. Loud said that there were still bitter feelings throughout the country, but their property had suffered no damage while they were away, and the local villagers had been looking after it of their own accord.

Megiddo excavations. Courtesy of the Oberlin College Archives.

Mending pottery at Megiddo. Courtesy of the Oberlin College Archives.

Pottery room at Megiddo. Courtesy of the Oberlin College Archives.

It was now dangerous to travel at night, though, for fear of being held up by bandits, and trips to Jerusalem could be done safely only in broad daylight. As it turned out, although Wilson continued to be concerned about the political situation, Loud and the others seem to have had no problems during the entire season—or at least none that they reported.

In late January, Loud sent a long missive to Wilson, which began with his blatantly stated desire that they would find something sensational soon: “Your desire for the sensational from Megiddo is no greater than mine,” he wrote. “Something startling would certainly be a big help. My greatest desire for the moment, however, is for a break on the weather so that we might dig to the pot of gold, whatever form it may take.”

As it turned out, Loud’s letter wishing for the “sensational” was prophetic. The clouds eventually parted, the sun came out, birds started singing, and so forth, and toward the end of February, Loud was able to write to Wilson saying that the north area, which he had previously perceived as dull and troublesome, “now takes its full share of interest.” As he described it, the Late Bronze Age palace was proving to be both extensive and magnificent, with walls standing as high as four meters in some places and covered with painted mud plaster.

There was also a “floor of shells which gives the appearance of a mosaic pavement.” Furthermore, the team began finding pieces of carved ivory, some with incised Egyptian hieroglyphics and others decorated with elaborate designs. Soon these initial pieces would be joined by a host of additional artifacts, in the form of a hoard of gold objects followed immediately by a treasure trove of ivory objects. All were found within just a few rooms of the palace in the north area and made this “a most successful season,” as Wilson later put it. In early March, Loud wrote, “There can no longer be any doubt of the importance of this mound.”

They found the first pieces on the first day of March. In his field diary entry the next day, Loud wrote: “Full work the past three days, but so many extras to attend to that non-essentials must slide. All this largely due to what is probably the find of the season—a hoard of gold jewelry, vessels, etc in 3100—an outer room of the north palace. So rich, so varied, and so fragile are the finds that there is infinite work in removing and cleaning them. It began yesterday morning when a shell-shaped dish in which was a green stone jar capped with gold first appeared.”

Stratum VIII gold hoard under floor of Room 3100.

Four days later, he sent a coded cable to Chicago, announcing the find. When decoded on the other end, the message read:

stratum eight palace produces magnificent egyptian gold hoard: —fluted shell-shaped bowl, perfume jars, jewelry, etc. 18th dynasty context [but] style suggests partly middle kingdom origin. unparalleled this country.

Loud also sent a much longer letter later that same day, with all of the details. It began: “Dear John: In one of your letters, you asked for the sensational. If I’m not very much mistaken, I think this is now a fait accompli.” Specifically, they had found a hoard of gold and ivory treasure deliberately buried under the floor in the southwest corner of a small room (3100) located at the northern end of the palace. The pieces were amazing, “a magnificent collection, absolutely unique in Palestine.”

However, all of that was just the appetizer. The main course was yet to come, for it subsequently turned out that there was more than just the gold hoard in this palace. In fact, what they found next eclipsed the hoard almost entirely, at least in terms of discoveries that are today most frequently cited and discussed when it comes to Megiddo.

In the same letter that he sent to Wilson in early March, Loud reported that they were clearing three other rooms, which were turning out to be “veritable mines” of ivory objects. In just one corner of one room, they found “combs, spoons, plaques, medallions, etc. all helter skelter with skeletons of a child and a young camel plus another human skull, and more camel skull!” One of the nicest pieces was still half-buried, he said, but seemed to be part of a cup or goblet with an exquisitely carved design of pomegranates and scrolls.

The Treasury (3073) viewed from the south.

Complete animal skeleton and ivories in the western half of the northern room of the Treasury, looking east.

Ivory pen case with cartouche of Ramses III.

Loud rarely used exclamation marks in his letters, so he must have been truly excited when he wrote all of this. He later explained to Wilson that he had been tempted to send a cable about the discovery of the ivories as well but had refrained “less the shock of so much from Megiddo might be too much for you.” He also told Howard Matthews, who was in charge of financial matters at the Oriental Institute at the time, that since sending his cable about the gold, which Matthews had been the one to decode back in Chicago, the ivories “have so far surpassed the original find that they, rather than the gold, now take first place.”

They had found the famous Megiddo ivories.

It took them more than a month of work, from 6 March until 7 April, just to carefully excavate and remove all of the ivories, all the while entertaining visitors who came to see their finds, including some of the best-known archaeologists working in the area, from the revered Sir William Matthew Flinders Petrie (British archaeologist and Egyptologist extraordinaire) to Nelson Glueck (later president of Hebrew Union College), Eliezer Sukenik (later renowned for purchasing and translating the first three Dead Sea Scrolls), Olga Tufnell (who was excavating at Lachish with James Starkey), and Gerald Lankester Harding (director of the Department of Antiquities of Jordan at the time). Removing the ivories was an elaborate and time-consuming process that involved using celluloid to harden or piece together the fragments; applying solvent to soften the dirt that remained attached; and occasionally sticking paper to the fragments, again using copious amounts of celluloid, which could later be easily peeled off.

Early on, Loud estimated that there were more than a hundred “first-class pieces.” In fact, there are closer to four hundred pieces all told, including items that Loud thought had “Egyptian, Syrian, Cretan, and Assyrian motives.” He was correct—later scholars have confirmed the international nature of this collection, detecting Hittite, Mycenaean, Egyptian, Ugaritic, Canaanite, and Assyrian motifs. They found so many ivories that Loud had to hire a photographer named G. Eric Matson, from the American Colony in Jerusalem, to help out with all of the documentation.

The gold hoard and the ivory treasure found during the spring of 1937 turned out to be the high point of Loud’s four seasons of excavation, in terms of glittering items that would catch the public’s imagination. However, his final seasons proved to be just as important to the overall aims and goals of the expedition. It was during that time they were able to finish digging all the way down to bedrock in Area BB—their east dig—and to complete their reconstruction of the entire occupational sequence of Megiddo, from the earliest indications of inhabitation in Stratum XX to the final abandonment of the mound after Stratum I.

Along the way, though, in these final seasons, they had to deal with the continued dangers that came with living in British Mandate Palestine during the Arab Revolt, which had begun with the general strike in 1936 and was now entering its final and most violent phase. For the team at Megiddo, this included a death threat against Loud, the attempted assassination of their good friend Harry Iliffe from the Antiquities Department, and the murder of an archaeological colleague, James Starkey, the excavator of Lachish, who was en route to the official opening of the new Palestine Archaeological Museum.

But those are stories for another time.

Eric H. Cline is Professor of Classical and Ancient Near Eastern Studies and Anthropology at the George Washington University.

This excerpt is from Digging Up Armageddon: The Search for the Lost City of Solomon (Princeton University Press, 2020). Footnotes or references can be found in the published book. Archival material and quotations are reproduced by permission of the Oriental Institute at the University of Chicago and the Israel Antiquity Authority, as described in greater detail in the book.

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