WASHINGTON—President Trump canceled Secretary of State Mike Pompeo’s scheduled weekend trip to North Korea in a series of tweets Friday after a briefing, signaling for the first time frustration with deadlocked nuclear talks.

“I have asked Secretary of State Mike Pompeo not to go to North Korea, at this time, because I feel we are not making sufficient progress with respect to the denuclearization of the Korean Peninsula…” Mr. Trump said on Twitter.

Mr....