UPDATE: Research Guide to International Weapons Law

By Gudrun Monika Zagel

Gudrun Zagel is Professor of International Law and Human Rights at the University of the Federal Army Munich. She received her legal education from the University of Salzburg Law School as well as from the University of Texas School of Law at Austin, where she was a Fulbright Scholar. Previous work places include the Department of International Law at the University of Salzburg, where she held the position of an Assistant Professor, and consultant at the Office of the Legal Advisor of the Austrian Ministry of Foreign Affairs. Gudrun is the author of a treatise and numerous articles on international economic law and co-editor of Smit & Herzog on The Law of the European Union (Matthew Bender).

Published January 2017

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Table of Contents

1. Introduction

Since the end of the 19th century, with the development of technically more and more sophisticated weapons that cause increasingly brutal injuries to combatants as well as civilians, states started not only to ban certain types of weapons entirely but also to limit the quantity and to regulate the use of weapons. The 1868 Declaration of St. Petersburg is the first formal agreement banning the use of certain weapons in war. The two Hague Peace Conferences in 1899 as well as in 1907 brought progress in this respect. After fairly unsuccessful attempts in the League of Nations, a true multilateral process of disarmament started after the end of World War II in the framework of the UN, but also on the regional level.

The international law of weapons existing today comprises a large variety of rules. Whereas weapons of mass destruction are governed by a rather comprehensive and restrictive regime, in the field of conventional arms the rules are less widespread and existing treaties usually only govern specific categories of weapons and ammunitions. Also the scope of regulation differs from a complete ban to limitations on the production, stockpiling, use or trade in arms. Likewise, the compliance and verification mechanisms differ considerably depending on the type of arms and ammunition. Finally, there are rules on the use of arms in war time as a means and method of warfare, as well as on the use of arms in peace time for the purpose of law enforcement.

After an overview on general sources on international weapons law (I.) and institutions dealing with weapons, arms control and disarmament (II.), this research guide will, provide references on rules banning or limiting weapons of mass destruction (III.), rules governing conventional weapons (IV.), and rules regulating the use of weapons (V.)

2. General Information

2.1. General Information on Arms and Arms Trade :

2.2. Basic Bibliography :

Burns, Richard Dean, The Evolution of Arms Control, Westport: Praeger Security International 2009.

Casey-Maslen, Stuart, Weapons Under International Human Rights Law, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 2015.

Chevier, Marie Isabelle, Arms Control Policy: A Guide to the Issues, Santa Barbara: Praeger 2012.

: International Supervision and Enforcement, The Hague/Boston/London: Martinus Nijhoff 2001.

Fennell, Simone/Tofan, Claudia/Global Law Association (ed.), Arms Control, Nijmegen: Wolf Legal Publishers 2011 ( Collection of Documents).

Graham, Thomas Jr./LaVera, Damien J., Cornerstones of Security: Arms Control Treaties in the Nuclear Area, Seattle: University of Washington Press 2003 (Collection of Documents with Introductory Remarks).

Hulme, Karen, Weapons, in: White, Nigel D./Henderson, Christian (ed.), Research Handbook on International Conflict and Security Law: Jus ad bellum, Jus in bello, and Jus post bellum, Cheltenham: Elgar 2013, 315-341.

Joyner, Daniel H. (ed.), Arms Control Law, Farnham: Ashgate 2012.

Kalshoven, Frits, Arms, Disarmament and International Law, 191 RdC (1985) 183-342.

· Marauhn, Thilo, Dispute Resolution, Compliance Control and Enforcement of International Arms Control Law, in: Ulfstein, Geir (ed.) Making Treaties Work. Human Rights, Environment and Arms Control, Cambridge: Cambrigde University Press 2010, 243-272.

Meier, Oliver/Daase , Christopher, Arms Control in the 21st Century : Between Coercion and Cooperation, London: Routledge 2013.

Tuzmukhamedov, Bakhtiyar, Disarmament, in: Max Planck Encyclopedia of Public International Law, Oxford: Oxford University Press, last updated: May 2011.

2.3. Leading Journals and Periodicals :

2.4. Research Guides on the Internet :

2.5. Libraries :

2.6. Treaty and Documents Databases :

3. Relevant Institutions

3.1. United Nations

Relevant Bodies:

Further Information:

UN Research Guide on Disarmament

Simma, Bruno, The Charter of the United Nations Set: A Commentary, Oxford: Oxford University Press 2012, Art. 11 (1), Art. 26, Art. 47.

Boothby, Derek, The United Nations and Disarmament, International Relations Studies and the United Nations Occasional Papers 2002.

3.2. League of Nations :

3.3. OSCE :

3.4. NATO :

3.5. ICRC :

3.6. Research Institutions :

3.7. NGOs :

3.8. National Authorities Dealing with Weapons and Disarmament :

4. Weapons of Mass Destruction

With respect to weapons of mass destruction (nuclear, biological and chemical weapons), international treaty law provides the most comprehensive rules on their production, use and non-proliferation, as well as compliance.

4.1. General Bibliography :

4.2. Nuclear Weapons

In contrast to biological and chemical weapons, there is not complete ban of nuclear weapons. There are, however, numerous multilateral treaties governing specific aspects of nuclear weapons, such as the proliferation of nuclear weapons, establishing nuclear-weapon free zones, and banning tests with nuclear weapons.

4.1.2. General Bibliography :

Borrie, John/Caughley, Tim (eds.), Viewing Nuclear Weapons through a Humanitarian Lens, New York, Geneva: UNIDIR 2013.

Darnton, Falk, Nuclear Weapons and International Law (2 nd ed.), Bournemouth: Requirement Analytics 2015.

Huntley, Wade L./ Kurosawa, Mitsuru/Mizumoto, Kazumi (eds.), Nuclear Disarmament in the Twenty-first Century, Hiroshima: Hiroshima Peace Institute 2011.

ILA Study Group on Nuclear Weapons, Non Proliferation & Contemporary International Law, Table of Treaties, Other International Instruments and Case Law, April 2014, available here

Joyner, Daniel H., Recent Developments in International Law Regarding Nuclear Weapons, in: 60 International and Comparative Law Quarterly (2011) 209-224 .

Lodgaard, Sverre, Nuclear Disarmament and Non-Proliferation: Towards a Nuclear-Weapon-Free World?, Abington, New York: Routledge (2011).

N ystuen, Gro, Nuclear Weapons under International Law, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 2015.

Singh, Nagendra, Nuclear Weapons and Contemporary International Law, Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers 1989.

4.2.2. Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons

Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons (NPT) , opened for signature at London, Moscow and Washington on 1 July 1968, entered into force on 5 March 1970, 729 UNTS 161.

, 28 Apr., 2004 - Non-Proliferation of Nuclear, Chemical and Biological Weapons, UN Security Council Res S/RES/1540 (2004):- Non-Proliferation of Nuclear, Chemical and Biological Weapons, http://www.un.org/en/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=S/RES/1540(2004)

International Court of Justice, Obligations concerning Negotiations relating to Cessation of the Nuclear Arms Race and to Nuclear Disarmament (Marshall Islands v. United Kingdom ( http://www.icj-cij.org/docket/index.php?p1=3&p2=1&code=&case=160&k=ef ), Marshall Islands against Pakistan ( http://www.icj-cij.org/docket/index.php?p1=3&p2=1&code=&case=159&k=fc ), Marshal Islands against India ( http://www.icj-cij.org/docket/index.php?p1=3&p2=1&code=&case=158&k=2a ), Judgments of 5 October 2016

· Kiernan, Paul M., ‘Disarmament’ under the NPT: Article VI in the 21st Century, in: 20 Journal of International Law and Practice (2011) 381-400.

· Pietrobon, Alessandra, Nuclear Powers' Disarmament Obligation under the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons and the Comprehensive Nuclear Test Ban Treaty: Interactions Between Soft Law and Hard Law, in: 27 Leiden Journal of International Law (2014),169-188.

· Rockwood, Laura, The Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons (NPT) and the IAEA Safeguards Agreements, in: Ulfstein, Geir (ed.), Making Treaties Work. Human Rights, Environment and Arms Control, Cambridge: Cambrigde University Press 2010, 301-323.

4.2.3. Nuclear Tests

4.2.4. Reduction of Nuclear Arms

During the Cold War, but also after 1990 the US and the USSR have concluded a number of bilateral agreements on the reduction of short range and medium range missiles.

Calvo-Goller, Notburga K./Calvo, Michel A., The SALT Agreements: Content-Application-Verification, Dordrecht: Nijhoff 1987.

Heintze, Hans-Joachim, Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (SALT), in: Max Planck Encyclopedia of Public International Law, Oxford, Oxford University Press, last updated: March 2010.

Klingler, Joseph, Iran, Nuclear Weapons, and International Law: What Might the Final Agreement Add?, ASIL InsightsVol. 19, Issue 14, 19 June 2015.

Patton, Tamara/Podvig, Pavel/Schell, Philip, A New START Model for Transparency in Nuclear Disarmament, New York, Geneva: UNIDIR 2013.

Rebane, Alisa L. (ed.), The New START Treaty Between the US and Russia, New York: Nova Science2011.

4.2.5. Legality of the Use of Nuclear Weapons

De Chazournes, Laurence Boisson, International Law, the International Court of Justice and Nuclear Weapons, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 1999.

· Hayashi, Nobuo, Legality Under "jus ad bellum" of the Threat of Use of Nuclear Weapons, in: Nystuen, Gro/Casey-Maslen, Stuart/Bersagel, Annie Golden (ed.), Nuclear Weapons under International Law, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 2014, 31-58.

International Review of the Red Cross, 1997, No. 316 – Nuclear Weapons: The Advisory Opinion of the International Court of Justice on the Legality of Nuclear Weapons and International Humanitarian Law.

4.2.6. Nuclear-Free Zones

Hellestveit, Cecilie/Mekonnen, Daniel, Nuclear Weapon-free Zones: The Political Context, in: Nystuen, Gro, Nuclear Weapons under International Law. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 2014, 347-373.

Australian National University . Research School of Pacific Studies . Department of International Relations Mack, Andrew, Nuclear-free ones in the 1990s , Canberra: The 1993.

Roscini, Marco, International Law, Nuclear Weapon-free Zones and the Proposed Zone Free of Weapons of Mass Destruction in the Middle East, in: Nystuen, Gro, Nuclear Weapons under International Law, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 2014, 321-346.

Legal Sources:

International Convention for the Suppression of Acts of Nuclear Terrorism (ICSANT) , adopted by the UN General Assembly (A/RES/59/290) on 13 April 2005, opened for signature at New York on 14 September 2005, entered into force on 7 July 2007, 2445 UNTS 89.

, 28 Apr., 2004 on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear, Chemical and Biological Weapons, UN Security Council Res. S/RES/1540 (2004)on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear, Chemical and Biological Weapons, http://www.un.org/en/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=S/RES/1540(2004)

4.2.8. Organizations Monitoring Compliance with Nuclear Treaties :

4.3. Biological and Chemical Weapons

Kelle, Alexander, Prohibiting Chemical and Biological Weapons: Multilateral Regimes and Their Evolution, Boulder, London: Lynne Rienner Publishers 2014.

Tabassi, Lisa W. (ed.), OPCW: The Legal Texts, The Hague: T.M.C. Asser Press 2009

Geneva Protocol 1925.

Baxter, Richard R./Buergenthal, Thomas., Legal spects of the Geneva rotocol of 1925 , in: 64 American Journal of International Law (1970), 853-879.

Gerstein, Daniel M., National Security and Arms Control in the Age of Biotechnology: The Biological and Toxin Weapons Convention, Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield 2013.

Lederberg, Joshua, Biological Weapons: Limiting the Threat, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 1999.

Wright, Susan, Biological Warfare and Disarmament: New Problems/New Perspectives, Lanham, Maryland: Rowman & Littlefield 2002.

Abe, Tatsuya, Effectiveness of the Institutional Approach to an Alleged Violation of International Law: The Case of Syrian Chemical Weapons, in 57 The Japanese Yearbook of International Law (2015), 333-370.

Bothe, Michael/Ronzitti, Natalino/Rosas, Alan, The New Chemical Weapons Convention, Leiden: Brill1998.

Krutzsch, Walter/Myjer, Eric/Trapp, Ralf, Oxford University Press 2014.

Morel , Benoit , Shadows and Substance: The Chemical Weapons Convention , Boulder: Westview Press 1993.

Myjer, Eric P. J., Issues of Arms Control Law and the Chemical Weapons Convention, The Hague: Kluwer 2001.

Weapons Thakur, Ramesh/Haru, Ere (eds.), The Chemical Convention : I mplementation, Challenges and Opportunities , Tokyo: United Nations University Press 2006.

Tabassi, Lisa, The Convention on the Prohibition of the Development, Production, Stockpiling and Use of Chemical Weapons and on their Destruction (Chemical Weapons Convention), in: Ulfstein, Geir (ed.) Making Treaties Work. Human Rights, Environment and Arms Control, Cambridge: Cambrigde University Press, 2010, 273-300.

5. Conventional Weapons and Ammunition

There are a number of treaties addressing conventional weapons and banning or limiting their number, use or proliferation. Some categories of weapons, such as autonomous weapons systems or small arms and ammunition are, however, hardly regulated or regulation is still under discussion.

5.1. 1980 UN Convention on Certain Conventional Weapons

The Convention provides a framework for negotiating the prohibition or restriction of specific conventional weapons that are considered to be excessively injurious or having indiscriminate effects. So far, 5 protocols have been concluded.

CCW Implementation Support Unit (ISU) , established by the Meeting of the High Contracting Parties to the Convention (Geneva, 12 – 13 November 2009).

5.2. Land Mines

· Lawand, Kathleen, The Convention on the Prohibition of the Use, Stockpiling, Production and Transfer of Anti-Personnel Mines and on their Destruction (Ottawa Convention), in Ulfstein, Geir (ed.), Making Treaties Work. Human Rights, Environment and Arms Control, Cambridge: Cambrigde University Press 2010, 324-350:

· Maresca, Louis /Maslen Stuart (eds.), The Banning of Anti-Personnel Landmines. The Legal Contribution of the International Committee of the Red Cross 1955-1999, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 2008.

Maslen, Stuart, The Convention on the Prohibition of the Use, Stockpiling, Production, and Transfer of Anti-Personnel Mines and on their Destruction, Commentaries on Arms Control Treaties, Vol. 1, Second Edition, Oxford: Oxford University Press 2005.

Rutherford, Kenneth R., Disarming States: the International Movement to Ban Landmines , Santa Barbara: Praeger 2011 .

5.3. Cluster Munition s

Convention on Cluster Munitions , concluded at Dublin on 30 May 2008 by the Diplomatic Conference on Cluster Munitions, opened for signature at Oslo on 3 December 2008, entered into force on 1 August 2010, 2688 UNTS 35.

Bibliography:

5.4. Small Arms and Light Weapons (SAWL)

Batchelor, Peter/Kenkel, Kai Michael (eds.), Controlling Small Arms, Consolidation, Innovation and Relevance in Research and Policy , London: Routledge 2014.

Dahinden, Erwin/Dahlitz, Julie/Fischer, Nadia (eds.), Small Arms and Light Weapons: Legal Aspects of National and International Regulations, New York: United Nations 2002.

Green, Oweb/Marsh, Nicolas, Small Arms, Crime and Conflict, Global Governance and the Threat of Armed Violence, London, New York: Routledge 2012.

Parker, Sarah/Green, Katherine, A Decade of Implementing the United Nations Programme of Action on Small Arms and Light Weapons: Analysis of National Reports, Geneva: UN Institute for Disarmament Research (UNIDIR) 2012.

Rogers, Damian, Postinternationalism and Small Arms Control: Theory, Politics, Security, Burlington: Ashgate 2009.

5.5. Autonomous Weapon Systems

Legal Sources

So far, there is no specific treaty governing the prohibition, limitation of use or trade in autonomous weapon’s systems. Accordingly, the existing rules of treaty law and customary international law on the use of weapons apply (Cf. infra Chapter V.)

Anderson, Kenneth/Reisner, Daniel/Waxman, Matthew C., Adapting the Law of Armed Conflict to Autonomous Weapon Systems, in: 90 International Law Studies ( 2014), 386-411 .

Asaro, Peter, On Banning Autonomous Weapon Systems: Human Rights, Automation, and the Dehumanizing of Lethal Decision-Making, in 94 International Review of the Red Cross (2012), 687-709.

· Bradan, Thomas, Autonomous Weapon Systems: The Anatomy of Autonomy and the Legality of Lethality, in: 37 Houston Journal of International Law (2015), 235-274.

· Crootof, Rebecca, The Varied Law of Autonomous Weapon Systems, in: Williams, Andrew/Scharre, Paul (eds.), NATO Allied Command Transformation, Autonomous Systems: Issues for Defence Policy Makers, Norfolk: HQ SACT 2015, 98-126.

Crootof, Rebecca, War Torts: Accountability for Autonomous Weapons, in: 164 University of Pennsylvania Law Review (2016), 1347-1402.

ICRC, Expert Meeting, Autonomous Weapons Systems: Technical, Military, Legal and Humanitarian Aspects, Geneva, Switzerland, 26 to 28 March 2014, 102 p, available here

Liu, Hin-Yan, Categorization and Legality of Autonomous and Remote Weapons Systems, in: 94 International Review of the Red Cross (2012), 627-652.

Melzer, Nils, Human Rights Implications of the Usage of Drones and Unmanned Robots in Warfare. Study for the European Parliament, Brussels: European Union 2013, available at http://www.europarl.europa.eu/RegData/etudes/etudes/join/2013/410220/EXPO-DROI_ET(2013)410220_EN.pdf.

Saxon, Dan (ed.), International Humanitarian Law and the Changing Technology of War, Leiden: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers 2013.

Cyber Weapons

So far, there is no specific legal instrument on cyber weapons, consequently the rules on the use of weapons (Cf. infra Chapter V) apply.

Bibliography:

Harrison Dinniss, Heather, Cyber Warfare and the Laws of War: Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 2012

Roscini, Marco, Cyber Operations and the Use of Force in International Law, Oxford, Oxford University Press 2014

Schmitt, Michael N., Tallinn Manual on the International Law Applicable to Cyber Warfare, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 2013

Solis, Gary D., The Law of Armed Conflict: International Humanitarian Law in Armed Conflict (2nd ed.), Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 2016, 673-709 (Cyberwarfare).

Tsagourias, Nicholas/Buchan, Russell (ed.), Research Handbook on International Law and Cyberspace: Cheltenham: Edward Elgar Publishing 2015

5.6. Trade in Conventional Arms

Another possibility to limit the use of conventional weapons is to limit their availability. This is done through a number of regimes limiting and regulating the trade in arms.

Legal Sources:

5.7. Arm’s Embargoes

Fruchart, Damien/et al., United Nations Arms Embargoes, Their Impact on Arms Flows and Target Behaviours, Stockholm/Uppsala: SIPRI, Uppsala University 2007.

Brzoska, Michael/Lopez Bingley, George A. (eds.), Putting Teeth in the Tiger: Improving the Effectiveness of Arms Embargoes, Bradford: Emerald Group Pub. 2009 .

5.8. Reduction and Limitation of Conventional Arms

Monitoring Compliance:

Bibliography:

The Conventional Armed Forces in Europe Treaty, in: Graham, Thomas Jr./LaVera, Damien J., Cornerstones of Security: Arms Control Treaties in the Nuclear Area, Seattle: University of Washington Press 2003, 592-821.

6. Rules Regulating the Use of Weapons

The use of weapons that are not prohibited by one of the regimes mentioned in Part III or IV of this guide is governed by the rules of international law. In times of armed conflict, the rules of international humanitarian law apply, in times of peace, the use of weapons must comply with the requirements of international human rights law.

6.1. During Armed Conflict

During armed conflict, Hague and Geneva Law apply to the use of all weapons that are not banned or regulated by specific treaties (see Part II and IV). These rules are of special importance for new categories of weapons not yet covered by specific treaties (e.g. autonomous weapon systems, cyber weapons, for both categories see also infra Part. IV).

6.2. During Peace Time

During peace time, arms may be used according to the national legal framework. However, states hold obligations under international law to ensure that basic human rights (in particular the right to life) are respected when weapons are used. 75 percent of all small arms are held by civilians, private security companies, armed groups or gangs, whereas only 25 per cent are held by law enforcement personnel. The use of weapons by law enforcement personnel is directly attributable to the state and thus states are obliged to ensure that the use of weapons by officials comply with international human rights law. But also regarding the use of weapons by civilians, states have obligations under human rights law to protect other persons under their jurisdiction from death and non-lethal violence caused by weapons in situations of homicide, suicide, extrajudicial killings.

Prevention of Human Rights Violations Committed with Small Arms and Light Weapons, UN Human Rights Commission, Sub-Commission on the Promotion and Protection of Human Rights, Res. 2006/22 of 24 August 2006, Annex.

UN Basic Principles on the Use of Force and Firearms by Law Enforcement Officials 1990, adopted by the Eighth United Nations Congress on the Prevention of Crime and the Treatment of Offenders, Havana, Cuba, 27 August to 7 September 1990.

Principles on the Effective Prevention and Investigation of Extra-legal, Arbitrary and Summary Executions, ECOSOC Res. 1989/65 of 24 May 1989.

UN Code of Conduct for Law Enforcement Officials, UN General Assembly Res. 34/169 of 17 December 1979.

Bibliography: