This is the second in a series of posts about Rust compiler errors. Each one will talk about a particular error that I got recently and try to explain (a) why I am getting it and (b) how I fixed it. The purpose of this series of posts is partly to explain Rust, but partly just to gain data for myself. I may also write posts about errors I’m not getting – basically places where I anticipated an error, and used a pattern to avoid it. I hope that after writing enough of these posts, I or others will be able to synthesize some of these facts to make intermediate Rust material, or perhaps to improve the language itself.

Other posts in this series:

The error: closures capture too much

In some code I am writing, I have a struct with two fields. One of them ( input ) contains some data I am reading from; the other is some data I am generating ( output ):

use std :: collections :: HashMap ; struct Context { input : HashMap < String , u32 > , output : Vec < u32 > , }

I was writing a loop that would extend the output based on the input. The exact process isn’t terribly important, but basically for each input value v , we would look it up in the input map and use 0 if not present:

impl Context { fn process ( & mut self , values : & [ String ]) { self .output .extend ( values .iter () .map (| v | self .input .get ( v ) .cloned () .unwrap_or ( 0 )), ); } }

However, this code will not compile:

error[E0502]: cannot borrow `self` as immutable because `*self.output` is also borrowed as mutable --> src/main.rs:13:22 | 10 | self.output.extend( | ----------- mutable borrow occurs here ... 13 | .map(|v| self.input.get(v).cloned().unwrap_or(0)), | ^^^ ---- borrow occurs due to use of `self` in closure | | | immutable borrow occurs here 14 | ); | - mutable borrow ends here

As the various references to “closure” in the error may suggest, it turns out that this error is tied to the closure I am creating in the iterator. If I rewrite the loop to not use extend and an iterator, but rather a for loop, everything builds:

impl Context { fn process ( & mut self , values : & [ String ]) { for v in values { self .output .push ( self .input .get ( v ) .cloned () .unwrap_or ( 0 ) ); } } }

What is going on here?

Background: The closure desugaring

The problem lies in how closures are desugared by the compiler. When you have a closure expression like this one, it corresponds to deferred code execution:

| v | self .input .get ( v ) .cloned () .unwrap_or ( 0 )

That is, self.input.get(v).cloned().unwrap_or(0) doesn’t execute immediately – rather, it executes later, each time the closure is called with some specific v . So the closure expression itself just corresponds to creating some kind of “thunk” that will hold on to all the data it is going to need when it executes – this “thunk” is effectively just a special, anonymous struct. Specifically, it is a struct with one field for each local variable that appears in the closure body; so, something like this:

MyThunk { this : & self }

where MyThunk is a dummy struct name. Then MyThunk implements the Fn trait with the actual function body, but each place that we wrote self it will substitute self.this :

impl Fn for MyThunk { fn call ( & self , v : & String ) -> u32 { self .this.input .get ( v ) .cloned () .unwrap_or ( 0 ) } }

(Note that you cannot, today, write this impl by hand, and I have simplified the trait in various ways, but hopefully you get the idea.)

So what goes wrong?

So let’s go back to the example now and see if we can see why we are getting an error. I will replace the closure itself with the MyThunk creation that it desugars to:

impl Context { fn process ( & mut self , values : & [ String ]) { self .output .extend ( values .iter () .map ( MyThunk { this : & self }), // ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ // really `|v| self.input.get(v).cloned().unwrap_or(0)` ); } }

Maybe now we can see the problem more clearly; the closure wants to hold onto a shared reference to the entire self variable, but then we also want to invoke self.output.extend(..) , which requires a mutable reference to self.output . This is a conflict! Since the closure has shared access to the entirety of self , it might (in its body) access self.output , but we need to be mutating that.

The root problem here is that the closure is capturing self but it is only using self.input ; this is because closures always capture entire local variables. As discussed in the previous post in this series, the compiler only sees one function at a time, and in particular it does not consider the closure body while checking the closure creator.

To fix this, we want to refine the closure so that instead of capturing self it only captures self.input – but how can we do that, given that closures only capture entire local variables? The way to do that is to introduce a local variable, input , and initialize it with &self.input . Then the closure can capture input :

impl Context { fn process ( & mut self , values : & [ String ]) { let input = & self .input ; // <-- I added this self .output .extend ( values .iter () .map (| v | input .get ( v ) .cloned () .unwrap_or ( 0 )), // ----- and removed the `self.` here ); } }

As you can verify for yourself, this code compiles.

To see why it works, consider again the desugared output. In the new version, the desugared closure will capture input , not self :

MyThunk { input : & input }

The borrow checker, meanwhile, sees two overlapping borrows in the function:

let input = &self.input – shared borrow of self.input

– shared borrow of self.output.extend(..) – mutable borrow of self.output

No error is reported because these two borrows affect different fields of self.

A more general pattern

Sometimes, when I want to be very precise, I will write closures in a stylized way that makes it crystal clear what they are capturing. Instead of writing |v| ... , I first introduce a block that creates a lot of local variables, with the final thing in the block being a move closure ( move closures take ownership of the things they use, instead of borrowing them from the creator). This gives complete control over what is borrowed and how. In this case, the closure might look like:

{ let input = & self .input ; move | v | input .get ( v ) .cloned () .unwrap_or ( 0 ) }

Or, in context:

impl Context { fn process ( & mut self , values : & [ String ]) { self .output .extend ( values .iter () .map ({ let input = & self .input ; move | v | input .get ( v ) .cloned () .unwrap_or ( 0 ) })); } }

In effect, these let statements become like the “capture clauses” in C++, declaring how precisely variables from the environment are captured. But they give added flexibility by also allowing us to capture the results of small expressions, like self.input , instead of local variables.

Another time that this pattern is useful is when you want to capture a clone of some data versus the data itself:

{ let data = data .clone (); move || ... do_something ( & data ) ... }

How we could accept this code in the future

There is actually a pending RFC, RFC #2229, that aims to modify closures so that they capture entire paths rather than local variables. There are various corner cases though that we have to be careful of, particularly with moving closures, as we don’t want to change the times that destructors run and hence change the semantics of existing code. Nonetheless, it would solve this particular case by changing the desugaring.

Alternatively, if we had some way for functions to capture a refence to a “view” of a struct rather than the entire thing, then closures might be able to capture a reference to a “view” of self rather than capturing a reference to the field input directly. There is some discussion of the view idea in this internals thread; I’ve also tinkered with the idea of merging views and traits, as described in this internals post. I think that once we tackle NLL and a few other pending challenges, finding some way to express “views” seems like a clear way to help make Rust more ergonomic.

Discussion

I’ve opened a users thread to discuss this blog post (along with other Rust pattern blog posts).