Last time we saw that Scala’s standard function values weren’t going to help us in our goal of mapping over an HList because they’re insufficiently polymorphic. In this article I’m going to start exploring how we can address that problem. The techniques I’m going to explain are fairly well known and extremely useful where applicable, but ultimately they’re not quite enough to get us all the way there — however they will set the scene for a solution which is.

As our running examples of polymorphic functions, let’s take the singleton function from last time (which given an argument of type T should return a single element Set[T] containing it), the headOption function (which given an argument of type List[T] gives us back its head as an Option[T] ), the identity function (which returns its argument unchanged), and a generic size function which will compute an integer size appropriate to the type of its argument (eg. the size of a List or a String will be its length).

This is how we expect them to behave in the REPL,

scala > singleton ( "foo" ) res0 : Set [ String ] = Set ( foo ) scala > identity ( 1.0 ) res1 : Double = 1.0 scala > headOption ( List ( 1 , 2 , 3 )) res2 : Option [ Int ] = Some ( 1 ) scala > size ( "foo" ) res3 : Int = 3 scala > size ( List ( 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 )) res4 : Int = 4

The function-like signatures for each of these are as follows,

singleton (∀T) T => Set[T] identity (∀T) T => T headOption (∀T) List[T] => Option[T] size (∀T) T => Int

I say “function-like” here because, of course, Scala can’t directly express generic function value types of this form — that’s the problem we’re trying to solve.

Polymorphism lost, polymorphism regained

Recall from the preceeding article that the explanation for Scala’s function values being monomorphic is that the polymorphism of the FunctionN traits is fixed at the point at which they’re instantiated rather than the point at which they’re applied. This follows immediately from the position that their type parameters occur in their definition. For example, for Function1 ,

trait Function1 [ -T , +R ] { def apply ( t : T ) : R }

As you can see, the argument and result type parameters are declared at the trait level and hence are fixed for each invocation of the apply method.

The natural move at this point is try to shift the type parameters off Function1 and onto the apply method making it polymorphic independently of its enclosing trait — as we saw last time, the combination of polymorphic methods and call site eta-expansion gets us something that looks very much like a polymorphic function value.

We still want to be left with a first class type, values of which can be passed as arguments to higher-order functions, so we have to keep an enclosing type of some sort. A first naive pass at this might look something like,

trait PolyFunction1 { def apply [ T , R ]( t : T ) : R }

But this won’t do at all, as we discover as soon as we try to implement it.

The problem we immediately run up against is that the result type of the apply method of our PolyFunction1 trait is completely unconstrained. But the signatures we’re trying to implement require that the result type be determined by the argument type ( singleton , identity , headOption ) or constant ( size ). There’s no way that we can map those signatures into the form required for the common trait.

Unconstrained result type parameters are in any case problematic when it comes to type inference, as I discussed in an earlier article, so let’s start by focussing on the singleton case where it’s easy to view the result type as a simple function of the argument type. This leads us to a second pass at a polymorphic function trait which captures that idea directly in terms of a higher-kinded trait-level type parameter — the higher-kinded type parameter is going act as a type-level function,

trait PolyFunction1 [ F [ _ ]] { def apply [ T ]( t : T ) : F [ T ] }

We can now define singleton as follows,

object singleton extends PolyFunction1 [ Set ] { def apply [ T ]( t : T ) : Set [ T ] = Set ( t ) }

and this behaves more or less as you’d expect — in particular, note the inferred result types,

scala > singleton ( 23 ) res0 : Set [ Int ] = Set ( 23 ) scala > singleton ( "foo" ) res1 : Set [ String ] = Set ( foo )

So far so good. Now, can we squeeze identity into the same mould? To do that we need to find a higher-kinded type for the F type-argument to PolyFunction1 such that F[T] = T — a type-level identity function in fact! Scala’s type aliases make such a type extremely straightforward to define — it’s just,

type Id [ T ] = T

Now we can define and apply the identity function like so,

object identity extends PolyFunction1 [ Id ] { def apply [ T ]( t : T ) : T = t } scala > identity ( 23 ) res0 : Int = 23 scala > identity ( "foo" ) res1 : java.lang.String = foo

Next up is headOption . In this case we have a signature that has constraints on its argument type as well, not just on its result type as was the case for singleton and identity . Hopefully, though, it should be clear that we can repeat the same trick, and view both the argument type and the result type as functions of a common underlying type. This leads us to a third pass at the polymorphic function trait which this time has two higher-kinded trait-level type parameters — one to constrain the argument type and one to constrain the result type,

trait PolyFunction1 [ F [ _ ] , G [ _ ]] { def apply [ T ]( f : F [ T ]) : G [ T ] }

And now we can define our first three functions as follows,

object singleton extends PolyFunction1 [ Id , Set ] { def apply [ T ]( t : T ) : Set [ T ] = Set ( t ) } object identity extends PolyFunction1 [ Id , Id ] { def apply [ T ]( t : T ) : T = t } object headOption extends PolyFunction1 [ List , Option ] { def apply [ T ]( l : List [ T ]) : Option [ T ] = l . headOption } scala > singleton ( "foo" ) res0 : Set [ java.lang.String ] = Set ( foo ) scala > identity ( 1.0 ) res1 : Double = 1.0 scala > headOption ( List ( 1 , 2 , 3 )) res2 : Option [ Int ] = Some ( 1 )

That just leaves the size function. Handling that entails making the constant result type Int take the form of a higher-kinded type as well. We can do that with the help of a type lambda representing a type-level function from an arbitrary type T to some constant type C ,

type Const [ C ] = { type λ [ T ] = C }

For the particular case of type Const[Int] , it is a structural type with a higher-kinded type member λ[_] which is equal to Int no matter what type argument it is applied to. So the type Const[Int]#λ[T] will be equal to type Int whatever type we substitute for T . Here’s short REPL session demonstrating that,

scala > implicitly [ Const [ Int ] # λ [ String ] =:= Int ] res0 : =:=[ Int , Int ] = < function1 > scala > implicitly [ Const [ Int ] # λ [ Boolean ] =:= Int ] res1 : =:=[ Int , Int ] = < function1 >

This is a type-level rendering of the value-level constant function that you might also know as the K combinator from the SKI calculus (or as a “Kestrel” if you’re a Ray Smullyan fan),

def const [ T ]( t : T )( x : T ) = t scala > val const3 = const ( 3 ) _ const3 : Int => Int = < function1 > scala > const3 ( 23 ) res6 : Int = 3

With this in hand we can begin to define a size function that implements the same PolyFunction1 trait as singleton , identity and headOption ,

object size extends PolyFunction1 [ Id , Const [ Int ] # λ ] { def apply [ T ]( t : T ) : Int = 0 } scala > size ( List ( 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 )) res0 : Int = 0 scala > size ( "foo" ) res1 : Int = 0

We have the signature right, at least, but what about the implementation of the apply method? Just returning a constant 0 isn’t particularly interesting. Unfortunately we don’t have much to work with — the use of Id on the argument side is what allows this function to be applicable to both List and String , but the direct consequence of that generality is that within the body of the method we have no knowledge about the type of the argument, so we have no immediate way of computing an appropriate result.

We can pattern match here of course, but as we’ll see that’s not a particularly desirable solution. For now let’s just go with that, and note a distinct lingering code smell,

object size extends PolyFunction1 [ Id , Const [ Int ] # λ ] { def apply [ T ]( t : T ) : Int = t match { case l : List [ _ ] => l . length case s : String => s . length case _ => 0 } } scala > size ( List ( 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 )) res0 : Int = 4 scala > size ( "foo" ) res1 : Int = 3 scala > size ( 23 ) res2 : Int = 0

A spoon full of sugar

Parenthetically, I’d like to flag up a small syntactic tweak that we can make to the PolyFunction1 trait which takes advantage of symbolic names in Scala and the ability to write types with two type arguments using an infix notation. The latter allows us to write types of the form T[X, Y] as X T Y . And if we choose the name T carefully this can give us a very syntactically elegant way of expressing the concept we’re trying to render.

Here we’re talking about the types of function-like things, so something which puns on Scala’s function arrow symbol => is a good choice — let’s use ~> . Our trait now looks like this,

trait ~> [ F [ _ ] , G [ _ ]] { def apply [ T ]( f : F [ T ]) : G [ T ] }

and our definitions look a lot more visibly function-like,

object singleton extends ( Id ~> Set ) { def apply [ T ]( t : T ) : Set [ T ] = Set ( t ) } object identity extends ( Id ~> Id ) { def apply [ T ]( t : T ) : T = t } object headOption extends ( List ~> Option ) { def apply [ T ]( l : List [ T ]) : Option [ T ] = l . headOption } object size extends ( Id ~> Const [ Int ] # λ ) { def apply [ T ]( t : T ) : Int = t match { case l : List [ _ ] => l . length case s : String => s . length case _ => 0 } }

Function-like?

I’ve been careful to describe these things as “function-like” values rather than as functions to emphasize that they don’t and can’t conform to Scala’s standard FunctionN types. The immediate upshot of this is that they can’t be directly passed as arguments to any higher-order function which expects to receive an ordinary Scala function argument. For example,

scala > List ( 1 , 2 , 3 ) map singleton < console >: 11 : error: type mismatch ; found : singleton. type ( with underlying type object singleton ) required: Int => ?

We can fix this however — whilst ~> can’t extend Function1 , we can use an implicit conversion to do a job similar to the one that eta-expansion does for polymorphic methods,

implicit def polyToMono [ F [ _ ] , G [ _ ] , T ] ( f : F ~> G ) : F [ T ] => G [ T ] = f ( _ )

This is along the right lines, but unfortunately due to a current limitation in Scala’s type inference this won’t work for functions like singleton that are parametrized with Id or Const because those types will never be inferred for F[_] or G[_] . We can help out the Scala compiler with a few additional implicit conversions to cover all the relevant permutations of those cases,

implicit def polyToMono2 [ G [ _ ] , T ]( f : Id ~> G ) : T => G [ T ] = f ( _ ) implicit def polyToMono3 [ F [ _ ] , T ]( f : F ~> Id ) : F [ T ] => T = f ( _ ) implicit def polyToMono4 [ T ]( f : Id ~> Id ) : T => T = f [ T ]( _ ) implicit def polyToMono5 [ G , T ]( f : Id ~> Const [ G ] # λ ) : T => G = f ( _ ) implicit def polyToMono6 [ F [ _ ] , G , T ] ( f : F ~> Const [ G ] # λ ) : F [ T ] => G = f ( _ )

With these in place we can map singleton over an ordinary Scala List ,

scala > List ( 1 , 2 , 3 ) map singleton res0 : List [ Set [ Int ]] = List ( Set ( 1 ), Set ( 2 ), Set ( 3 ))

Natural transformations and their discontents

This encoding of polymorphic function values in Scala has been around for quite some time — in fact more or less from the point at which higher-kinded types arrived in the language. And, as a representation of a natural transformation, it’s been put to good use in scalaz.

So we’re done, right? Well, no, not really. Whilst function-like values of this form are undoubtedly useful, they have a number of shortcomings which make them less than ideal in general. Let’s have a look at some of them now.

The first problem we saw earlier in the implementation of the size function,

object size extends ( Id ~> Const [ Int ] # λ ) { def apply [ T ]( t : T ) : Int = t match { case l : List [ _ ] => l . length case s : String => s . length case _ => 0 } }

Because the apply method’s type parameter T is completely unconstrained, the type of the argument t within the method body is effectively Any . In other words, the compiler knows nothing at all about its shape, specifically it can’t know that it has a length method yielding an Int .

We can pattern match to recover some type information as we’ve done above, but this is unsatisfactory for several reasons. First, we have to be careful to handle all cases or risk being hit by a MatchError — that forces us to include a possibly artifical default case, or take our chances at runtime. It’s also hopelessly non-modular — if we want to add cases for additional types then we have to modify this definition rather than adding orthogonal code to handle the new cases. Not good.

Second we have to be aware of the limitations of pattern matching in the face of type erasure. For example, suppose we had wanted to define the size of a List[String] as the sum of the lengths of its String elements. We might try something like,

object size extends ( Id ~> Const [ Int ] # λ ) { def apply [ T ]( t : T ) : Int = t match { case l : List [ String ] => l . map ( _ . length ). sum case l : List [ _ ] => l . length case s : String => s . length case _ => 0 } }

We get a warning from this definition,

warning : non variable type -argument String in type pattern List [ String ] is unchecked since it is eliminated by erasure

but let’s carry on regardless and try it out on the REPL,

scala > size ( List ( "foo" , "bar" , "baz" )) res0 : Int = 9

So far so good. But suppose we try with a list of non- String ,

scala > size2 ( List ( 1 , 2 , 3 )) java . lang . ClassCastException : java.lang.Integer cannot be cast to java.lang.String

Oops! — that unchecked warning was telling us that Scala’s pattern matching runtime infrastructure (or rather, the parts of the JVM’s runtime infrastructure which support Scala’s pattern matching) is unable to verify the types of the elements of a List because the element type is erased at runtime. Consequently the first case, List[String] , is always selected, and this fails at runtime if handed a list of anything other than String elements. Also not good.

The conclusion to draw from this is that implementing a polymorphic function of this form via pattern matching is unworkable if we want type safety, modularity or type-specific cases which are distinguished by particular type arguments of a common type constructor.

If pattern matching is ruled out, then what can we do? Well, we can do anything which doesn’t depend on the shape of T . That’s trivially the case for the identity function — it simply returns it’s argument unexamined. And it’s also the case for methods which are themselves polymorphic in the the same way that our apply method is. That’s what’s happening in the definition of singleton . Here it is again with a little less syntactic sugar,

object singleton extends ( Id ~> Set ) { def apply [ T ]( t : T ) : Set [ T ] = Set . apply [ T ]( t ) }

The apply method (parametric in T ) is implemented in terms of the Set companion object’s apply method (also parametric in T ). No information is needed about the shape of T here because the Set factory method doesn’t need to examine its arguments, it just needs to wrap them in a fresh container.

Things like headOption are also fine, this time because we do have a constraint on the type of the argument to the apply method — here we know that the outer type constructor is List[_] . That means that we can implement the method in terms of any methods defined on List which don’t themselves need to know anything about the shape of T (this excludes methods like sum and product for example).

Clearly this gives us quite a bit to work with, and if you can manage with the constraints that parametricity imposes, then it’s definitely the way to go. But it’s a real constraint with sharp teeth — we won’t be able to implement polymorphic functions like size in this way.

The fact that our problems are caused by lacking information about the shape of T might encourage us to explore the option of modifying the ~> trait to add bounds on T (ordinary type bounds or view or context bounds). This is an interesting exercise to attempt, but ultimately it adds a lot of complexity without solving the problem fully generally. I encourage you to give it a try — if you do, you’ll very quickly find yourself wanting to be able to abstract over function signatures more generally, and that’s going to take us in a different direction as we’ll see in the next part of this series.