"Friendship" in C++ is commonly thought of as a means of allowing non-member functions and other classes to access the private data of a class. This might be done to allow symmetric conversions on non-member comparison operators, or allow a factory class exclusive access to the constructor of a class, or any number of things.

However, this is not the only use of friendship in C++, as there is an additional property to declaring a function or function template a friend: the friend function is now available to be found via Argument-Dependent Lookup (ADL). This is what makes operator overloading work with classes in different namespaces.

Argument Dependent Lookup at Work

Consider the following code snippet:

namespace A{ class X{ public: X(int i):data(i){} private: int data; friend bool operator==(X const& lhs,X const& rhs){ return lhs.data==rhs.data; } }; } int main(){ A::X a(42),b(43); if(a==b) do_stuff(); }

This code snippet works as you might expect: the compiler looks for an implementation of operator== that works for A::X objects, and there isn't one in the global namespace, so it also looks in the namespace where X came from ( A ), and finds the operator defined as a friend of class X . Everything is fine. This is ADL at work: the argument to the operator is an A::X object, so the namespace that it comes from ( A ) is searched as well as the namespace where the usage is.

Note, however, that the comparison operator is not declared anywhere other than the friend declaration. This means that it is only considered for name lookup when one of the arguments is an X object (and thus is "hidden" from normal name lookup). To demonstrate this, let's define an additional class in namespace A , which is convertible to 'X':

namespace A{ class Y{ public: operator X() const{ return X(data); } Y(int i):data(i){} private: int data; }; } A::Y y(99); A::X converted=y; // OK

Our Y class has a conversion operator defined, so we can convert it to an X object at will, and it is also in namespace A . You might think that we can compare Y objects, because our comparison operator takes an X , and Y is convertible to X . If you did, you'd be wrong: the comparison operator is only visible to name lookup if one of the arguments is an X object.

int main(){ A::Y a(1),b(2); if(a==b) // ERROR: no available comparison operator do_stuff(); }

If we convert one of the arguments to an X then it works, because the comparison operator is now visible, and the other argument is converted to an X to match the function signature:

int main(){ A::Y a(1),b(2); if(A::X(a)==b) // OK do_stuff(); }

Similarly, if we declare the comparison operator at namespace scope, everything works too:

namespace A{ bool operator==(X const& lhs,X const& rhs); } int main(){ A::Y a(1),b(2); if(a==b) // OK now do_stuff(); }

In this case, the arguments are of type Y , so namespace A is searched, which now includes the declaration of the comparison operator, so it is found, and the arguments are converted to X objects to do the comparison.

If we omit this namespace scope definition, as in the original example, then this function is a hidden friend.

This isn't just limited to operators: normal functions can be defined in friend declarations too, and just as with the comparison operator above, if they are not also declared at namespace scope then they are hidden from normal name lookup. For example:

struct X{ X(int){} friend void foo(X){}; }; int main(){ X x(42); foo(x); // OK, calls foo defined in friend declaration foo(99); // Error: foo not found, as int is not X ::foo(x); // Error: foo not found as ADL not triggered }

Benefits of Hidden Friends

The first benefit of hidden friends is that it avoids accidental implicit conversions. In our example above, comparing Y objects doesn't implicitly convert them to X objects to use the X comparison unless you explicitly do something to trigger that behaviour. This can avoid accidental uses of the wrong function too: if I have a function wibble that takes an X and wobble that takes a Y , then a typo in the function name won't trigger the implicit conversion to X :

class X{ friend void wibble(X const&){} }; class Y{ friend void wobble(Y const&){} public: operator X() const; }; int main(){ Y y; wibble(y); // Error no function wibble(Y) }

This also helps spot errors where the typo was on the definition: we meant to define wibble(Y) but misspelled it. With "normal" declarations, the call to wibble(y) would silently call wibble(X(y)) instead, leading to unexpected behaviour. Hopefully this would be caught by tests, but it might make it harder to identify the problem as you'd be checking the definition of wobble , wondering why it didn't work.

Another consequence is that it makes it easier for the compiler: the hidden friends are only checked when there is a relevant argument provided. This means that there are fewer functions to consider for overload resolution, which makes compilation quicker. This is especially important for operators: if you have a large codebase, you might have thousands of classes with operator== defined. If they are declared at namespace scope, then every use of == might have to check a large number of them and perform overload resolution. If they are hidden friends, then they are ignored unless one of the expressions being compared is already of the right type.

In order to truly understand the benefits and use them correctly, we need to know when hidden friends are visible.

Rules for Visibility of Hidden Friends

Firstly, hidden friends must be functions or function templates; callable objects don't count.

Secondly, the call site must use an unqualified name — if you use a qualified name, then that checks only the specified scope, and disregards ADL (which we need to find hidden friends).

Thirdly, normal unqualified lookup must not find anything that isn't a function or function template. If you have a local variable int foo; , and try to call foo(my_object) from the same scope, then the compiler will rightly complain that this is invalid, even if the type of my_object has a hidden friend named foo .

Finally, one of the arguments to the function call must be of a user-defined type, or a pointer or reference to that type.

We now have the circumstances for calling a hidden friend if there is one:

my_object x; my_object* px=&x; foo(x); foo(px);

Both calls to foo in this code will trigger ADL, and search for hidden friends.

ADL searches a set of namespaces that depend on the type of my_object , but that doesn't really matter for now, as you could get to normal definitions of foo in those namespaces by using appropriate qualification. Consider this code:

std::string x,y; swap(x,y);

ADL will find std::swap , since std::string is in the std namespace, but we could just as well have spelled out std::swap in the first place. Though this is certainly useful, it isn't what we're looking at right now.

The hidden friend part of ADL is that for every argument to the function call, the compiler builds a set of classes to search for hidden friend declarations. This lookup list is built as follows from a source type list, which is initially the types of the arguments supplied to the function call.

Our lookup list starts empty. For each type in the source type list:

If the type being considered is a pointer or reference, add the pointed-to or referenced type to the source type list

Otherwise, if the type being considered is a built-in type, do nothing

Otherwise, if the type is a class type then add it to the lookup list, and check the following: If the type has any direct or indirect base classes, add them to the lookup list If the type is a member of a class, add the containing class to the lookup list If the type is a specialization of a class template, then: add the types of any template type arguments (not non-type arguments or template template arguments) to the source type list if any of the template parameters are template template parameters, and the supplied arguments are member templates, then add the classes of which those templates are members to the lookup list

Otherwise, if the type is an enumerated type that is a member of a class, add that class to the lookup list

Otherwise, if the type is a function type, add the types of the function return value and function parameters to the source type list

Otherwise, if the type is a pointer to a member of some class X , add the class X and the type of the member to the source type list

This gets us a final lookup list which may be empty (e.g. in foo(42) ), or may contain a number of classes. All the classes in that lookup list are now searched for hidden friends. Normal overload resolution is used to determine which function call is the best match amongst all the found hidden friends, and all the "normal" namespace-scope functions.

This means that you can add free functions and operators that work on a user-defined type by adding normal namespace-scope functions, or by adding hidden friends to any of the classes in the lookup list for that type.

Adding hidden friends via base classes

In a recent blog post, I mentioned my strong_typedef implementation. The initial design for that used an enum class to specify the permitted operations, but this was rather restrictive, so after talking with some others (notably Peter Sommerlad) about alternative implementation strategies, I switched it to a mixin-based implementation. In this case, the Properties argument is now a variadic parameter pack, which specifies types that provide mixin classes for the typedef. jss::strong_typedef<Tag,Underlying,Prop> then derives from Prop::mixin<jss::strong_typedef<Tag,Underlying,Prop>,Underlying> . This means that the class template Prop::mixin can provide hidden friends that operate on the typedef type, but are not considered for "normal" lookup. Consider, for example, the implementation of jss::strong_typedef_properties::post_incrementable :

struct post_incrementable { template <typename Derived, typename ValueType> struct mixin { friend Derived operator++(Derived &self, int) noexcept( noexcept(std::declval<ValueType &>()++)) { return Derived{self.underlying_value()++}; } }; };

This provides an implementation of operator++ which operates on the strong typedef type Derived , but is only visible as a hidden friend, so if you do x++ , and x is not a strong typedef that specifies it is post_incrementable then this operator is not considered, and you don't get accidental conversions.

This makes the strong typedef system easily extensible: you can add new property types that define mixin templates to provide both member functions and free functions that operate on the typedef, without making these functions generally visible at namespace scope.

Hidden Friends and Enumerations

I had forgotten that enumerated types declared inside a class also triggered searching that class for hidden friends until I was trying to solve a problem for a client recently. We had some enumerated types that were being used for a particular purpose, which we therefore wanted to enable operations on that wouldn't be enabled for "normal" enumerated types.

One option was to specialize a global template as I described in my article on Using Enum Classes as Bitfields, but this makes it inconvenient to deal with enumerated types that are members of a class (especially if they are private members), and impossible to deal with enumerated types that are declared at local scope. We also wanted to be able to declare these enums with a macro, which would mean we couldn't use the specialization as you can only declare specializations in the namespace in which the original template is declared, and the macro wouldn't know how to switch namespaces, and wouldn't be usable at class scope.

This is where hidden friends came to the rescue. You can define a class anywhere you can define an enumerated type, and hidden friends declared in the enclosing class of an enumerated type are considered when calling functions that take the enumerated as a parameter. We could therefore declare our enumerated types with a wrapper class, like so:

struct my_enum_wrapper{ enum class my_enum{ // enumerations }; }; using my_enum=my_enum_wrapper::my_enum;

The using declaration means that other code can just use my_enum directly without having to know or care about my_enum_wrapper .

Now we can add our special functions, starting with a function to verify this is one of our special enums:

namespace xyz{ constexpr bool is_special_enum(void*) noexcept{ return false; } template<typename T> constexpr bool is_special_enum() noexcept{ return is_special_enum((T*)nullptr); } }

Now we can say xyz::is_special_enum<T>() to check if something is one of our special enumerated types. By default this will call the void* overload, and thus return false . However, the internal call passes a pointer-to- T as the argument, which invokes ADL, and searches hidden friends. We can therefore add a friend declaration to our wrapper class which will be found by ADL:

struct my_enum_wrapper{ enum class my_enum{ // enumerations }; constexpr bool is_special_enum(my_enum*) noexcept { return true; } }; using my_enum=my_enum_wrapper::my_enum;

Now, xyz::is_special_enum<my_enum>() will return true . Since this is a constexpr function, it can be used in a constant expression, so can be used with std::enable_if to permit operations only for our special enumerated types, or as a template parameter to specialize a template just for our enumerated types. Of course, some additional operations can also be added as hidden friends in the wrapper class.

Our wrapper macro now looks like this:

#define DECLARE_SPECIAL_ENUM(enum_name,underlying_type,...)\ struct enum_name##_wrapper{\ enum class enum_name: underlying_type{\ __VA_ARGS__\ };\ constexpr bool is_special_enum(enum_name*) noexcept\ {\ return true;\ }\ };\ using enum_name=enum_name##_wrapper::enum_name;

so you can declare a special enum as DECLARE_SPECIAL_ENUM(my_enum,int,a,b,c=42,d) . This works at namespace scope, as a class member, and at local scope, all due to the hidden friend.

Summary

Hidden Friends are a great way to add operations to a specific type without permitting accidental implicit conversions, or slowing down the compiler by introducing overloads that it has to consider in other contexts. They also allow declaring operations on types in contexts that otherwise you wouldn't be able to do so. Every C++ programmer should know how to use them, so they can be used where appropriate.

Posted by Anthony Williams

[/ cplusplus /] permanent link

Tags: cplusplus, friends

Stumble It! | Submit to Reddit | Submit to DZone

Comment on this post

If you liked this post, why not subscribe to the RSS feed or Follow me on Twitter? You can also subscribe to this blog by email using the form on the left.