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Shared state is easy to understand and use, but can lead to subtle bugs that are extremely hard to track down. Especially when only part of your data structures are passed around by reference. A slice is a good example of this. I’ll explain this in more detail later.

Immutable data structures are very useful when dealing with data that goes through several stages of transformation, or states. Immutable just means that the original structure is not changed, instead a new copy of the structure is created with the new property value.

Let’s first look at a simple case:

type Person struct {

Name string

FavoriteColors []string

}

Obviously we can instantiate a Person and modify properties at will. There is nothing wrong with this approach, per se. However, when you get into more complicated nested structures that pass around references, slices and copy through channels, shared copies of the data can be modified in ways that create very subtle bugs.

Why Haven’t I Run Into These Issues Before?

If you are not heavily using channels or your code works in a very linear fashion then it’s unlikely you will run into subtle bugs because by definition only one thing is operating on your data at one time.

However, there are other benefits to immutable data structures beyond avoiding bugs:

Since the state never changed in place, it’s great for general debugging and recording each step of the transition to be carefully inspected later. Undo, or the ability to “go back in time” is not only possible but trivial as it’s done with an assignment. Shared state is widely considered to be a bad idea because to be implemented correctly and safety requires the performance hit and complexity of carefully placed/tested memory locking.

Getters and Withers

Getters return data, setters mutate state, withers create a new state.

With getters and withers we can control exactly which properties are allowed to be changed. It also gives us a great way to record transitions (later).

The new code looks like this:

type Person struct {

name string

favoriteColors []string

} func (p Person) WithName(name string) Person {

p.name = name

return p

} func (p Person) Name() string {

return p.name

} func (p Person) WithFavoriteColors(favoriteColors []string) Person {

p.favoriteColors = favoriteColors

return p

} func (p Person) FavoriteColors() []string {

return p.favoriteColors

}

The important things to note here are:

The Person properties are private so that external packages cannot circumvent the methods. The functions for Person do not receive a *Person . This ensures that the structure is passed by value and returned by value. Notice that I use the word “With” rather than “Set” to make the distinction that it’s the returned value that’s important and the original object is not modified as a setter would imply. The properties are still accessible (and therefore mutable) by other code in this package. You should never interact with the property directly, always use the methods even in the same package. Each of the withers returns Person so they can be chained:

me := Person{}.

WithName("Elliot").

WithFavoriteColors([]string{"black", "blue"})



fmt.Printf("%+#v

", me) // main.Person{name:"Elliot", favoriteColors:[]string{"black", "blue"}}

Handling Slices

So far it’s still not ideal because we are returning a slice for the favourite colors. Since slices are passed by reference we can see an example of a bug that might otherwise go unnoticed:

func updateFavoriteColors(p Person) Person {

colors := p.FavoriteColors()

colors[0] = "red"



return p

} func main() {

me := Person{}.

WithName("Elliot").

WithFavoriteColors([]string{"black", "blue"})



me2 := updateFavoriteColors(me)



fmt.Printf("%+#v

", me)

fmt.Printf("%+#v

", me2)

} // main.Person{name:"Elliot", favoriteColors:[]string{"red", "blue"}}

// main.Person{name:"Elliot", favoriteColors:[]string{"red", "blue"}}

We intended to change the first color, but it has the side effect of mutating the me variable as well. Since this isn’t something that would prevent the code proceeding in a more complex application trying to hunt down a mutation like this can be really frustrating and time consuming.

One solution is to make sure we never assign by index and always assign a new slice:

func updateFavoriteColors(p Person) Person {

return p.

WithFavoriteColors(append([]string{"red"}, p.FavoriteColors()[1:]...))

} // main.Person{name:"Elliot", favoriteColors:[]string{"black", "blue"}}

// main.Person{name:"Elliot", favoriteColors:[]string{"red", "blue"}}

This is clunky and error-prone in my opinion. A better way is to never return the slice in the first place. Expand your getters and withers to operate only on elements (rather than the whole slice):

func (p Person) NumFavoriteColors() int {

return len(p.favoriteColors)

} func (p Person) FavoriteColorAt(i int) string {

return p.favoriteColors[i]

} func (p Person) WithFavoriteColorAt(i int, favoriteColor string) Person {

p.favoriteColors = append(p.favoriteColors[:i],

append([]string{favoriteColor}, p.favoriteColors[i+1:]...)...)

return p

}

Now we can safely use:

func updateFavoriteColors(p Person) Person {

return p.WithFavoriteColorAt(0, "red")

}

Check out this great wiki for slice tricks: https://github.com/golang/go/wiki/SliceTricks

Constructors

In some cases we can assume that the struct defaults are sensible. However, it’s best to always create a constructor so that if we do need to change defaults in the future it exists in a single place:

func NewPerson() Person {

return Person{}

}

You can instantiate Person however you like, but I prefer to always do state transitions through the setters to keep it consistent:

func NewPerson() Person {

return Person{}.

WithName("No Name")

}

Interfaces

Up to this point we have still been using a public struct. This can be painful for testing as we are at the mercy of these methods and creating mocks may have unwanted side effects.

We can create an interface of the same name and make the struct private by renaming it to person :

type Person interface {

WithName(name string) Person

Name() string

WithFavoriteColors(favoriteColors []string) Person

NumFavoriteColors() int

FavoriteColorAt(i int) string

WithFavoriteColorAt(i int, favoriteColor string) Person

} type person struct {

name string

favoriteColors []string

}

Now we can create testing mocks by only overriding the logic we wish to stub:

type personMock struct {

Person

receivedNewColor string

} func (m personMock) WithFavoriteColorAt(i int, favoriteColor string) Person {

m.receivedNewColor = favoriteColor

return m

}

The test code may looking something like this:

mock := personMock{}

result := updateFavoriteColors(mock)



result.(personMock).receivedNewColor // "red"

Recording Changes

As I mentioned earlier full state transitions are great for debugging and we can catch all or some transitions by hooking into the withers:

func (p person) nextState() Person {

fmt.Printf("nextState: %#+v

", p)

return p

} func (p person) WithName(name string) Person {

p.name = name

return p.nextState() // <- Use "nextState" whenever you return.

}

If you have more complex logic, or if you prefer, you can use a defer instead:

func (p person) WithFavoriteColors(favoriteColors []string) Person {

defer func() {

p.nextState()

}() p.favoriteColors = favoriteColors

return p

}

Now we can see the changes:

nextState: main.person{name:"No Name", favoriteColors:[]string(nil)}

nextState: main.person{name:"Elliot", favoriteColors:[]string(nil)}

nextState: main.person{name:"Elliot", favoriteColors:[]string{"black", "blue"}}

You may want to add a lot more information to this. Such as timestamps, stack traces or other custom context to make debugging easer.

History and Rollback

Instead of printing the changes we can collect the states as a history:

type Person interface {

// ...

AtVersion(version int) Person

} type person struct {

// ...

history []person

} func (p *person) nextState() Person {

p.history = append(p.history, *p)

return *p

} func (p person) AtVersion(version int) Person {

return p.history[version]

} func main() {

me := NewPerson().

WithName("Elliot").

WithFavoriteColors([]string{"black", "blue"})



// We discard the result, but it will be put into the history.

updateFavoriteColors(me) fmt.Printf("%s

", me.AtVersion(0).Name())

fmt.Printf("%s

", me.AtVersion(1).Name())

} // No Name

// Elliot

This is great for when introspection needs to happen at the end. It’s also useful to record all the history to be logged if something goes wrong later, otherwise the history can be just discarded with the instance.