Notes

The pronunciation key is intended to give English-speaking readers a close approximation of the word in Arabic. It can not provide a perfect equivalent, however, because some Arabic sounds do not exist in English.



IMPORTANT TERMS IN ISLAM

Islam

Islam (ih-SLAM) is a monotheistic religion, which teaches that only one God exists. It originated in the Arabian city of Mecca around 610 CE. Muslims see Islam as following from the same monotheistic tradition as Judaism and Christianity. The three religions together are sometimes called Abrahamic faiths, because they trace their history back to the Biblical figure, Abraham(PBUH). According to a 2009 study by the Pew Research Center, Islam is followed by 23% of the world population—over 1.5 billion people.

Islamic

The word “Islamic” is an adjective that refers to things—not people—connected to the religion of Islam. For example, we may talk about Islamic history, an Islamic nation, or Islamic art. When referring to people who follow the religion of Islam, we use the adjective “Muslim.”

Islamic Law

Islamic law is a legal system that is based on shari’ah. Shari’ah drew from the Qur’an, hadith and decisions made by early rulers of Islam. It provided Muslims with guidance in many areas of life. However, Muslim rulers wanted a way to make shari’ah into law. To do that, they had to create fixed rules out of the flexible guidance of shari’ah. The result was Islamic law. However, there is not just one Islamic law. Since Islamic law was created by people, there are different versions of Islamic law based on different Islamic schools of thought.

Muslim

A Muslim is someone who believes in only one god (God, or Allah) and believes that Muhammad(PBUH) was a messenger, or prophet, of God. In practice, it also means someone who calls him- or herself a Muslim. The plural of Muslim is Muslims.

PBUH

PBUH stands for “peace be upon him.” The Arabic equivalent (“SAWS”) is sometimes used instead. These phrases are used by Muslims after the name of any prophet, as a way of showing honor and respect.

Qur’an

The Qur’an (kewr-ANN) is the holy book of Muslims. It is sometimes also written “Koran.” The Qur’an is written in poetic form in Arabic. It contains 114 chapters, which vary in length from 3 verses to 286 verses. Muslims believe that the Qur’an was revealed to the Prophet Muhammad(PBUH) in a series of divine revelations between 610 CE and 632 CE. During his lifetime, Muslims memorized all the verses of the Qur’an and began writing them down. After Muhammad(PBUH) died, his followers put the verses of the Qur’an together in one book, in the order they are in now.

Shari’ah

Shari’ah (SHA-ree-ah) comes from the Arabic for “way” or “path”. Shari’ah is not a legal system, although the word is often used to mean “Islamic law.” Shari’ah is the entire way of life in Islam, as people understand it according to traditional, early interpretations. [To learn more about the basis of shari’ah, read the Literary Zikr article “Is Islamic Family Law today really based on Shari’a?” adapted from the work of Dr. Abdullahi Ahmed An-Na’im here.]

Sodom

According the Qur’an, the Prophet Lut(PBUH) was sent as a prophet to the people of Sodom. When they did not heed Lut’s warnings, the city was destroyed.

Zina

Muslim jurists believed that the Arabic term zina in the Qur’an referred to adultery, based on passages of the Qur’an. Adultery—commonly called “having an affair”—refers to sexual activity between a married man or woman and a person to whom he or she is not married.

These jurists then reasoned that sex between an unmarried man and a woman to whom he is not married—sometimes called “fornication”—is also a crime but with a lighter penalty. Muslim jurists did not agree about whether sex between two males or between two females qualified as zina and whether it was a crime equivalent to adultery.

Islamic schools of thought

Islamic schools of thought—or madhab—are based on the works of early scholars. In the Sunni (SUE-nee) tradition, these include the Hanafi, Maliki, Shafi’i and Hanbali schools of thought. In the Shi’a (SHE-ah) tradition, the most notable is the Jafari school of thought. Other schools of thought exist, such as Ismaili, Zaidi, Ahmedi, and numerous Sufi (SUE-fee) groups. The plural of madhab (MATH-hab, with TH like “than”) is madhahib (math-ah-HEEB).

Hanafi school of thought

It was founded by Abu Hanifa an-Nu’man ibn Thābit (699-767 CE).

It was one of the first schools of thought to develop and most widespread.

It originated in Iraq.

It was officially supported by the Abbasid Caliphate earlier; and the Ottoman Empire more recently.

The Hanafi school puts the greatest emphasis on reason.

It is primarily followed in Afghanistan, Turkey, Iraq, Syrian, Balkan states, Cyprus, Jordan, Sudan, Israel and Palestine, Egypt, the Indian Subcontinent, Afghanistan.

Zahiri school of thought

It was founded by Da’ud ibn Khalaf, also known as Da’ud al-Zahiri (died 883 CE).

Da’ud ibn Khalaf was known as al-Zahiri (which derives from the word “literal”) because of his focus on the literal meaning of the Qur’an.

Persecution by both Sunnis and Shi’as led to the near disappearance of this school of thought.

The modern Salafi school of thought has been influenced by the Zahiri school.



IMPORTANT FIGURES IN ISLAM

Al-Ghazali

Abu-Hamid Muhammad ibn Muhammad Al-Ghazali, also referred to as Imam Al-Ghazali, was an early Muslim theologian, jurist and philosopher who lived from 1058 to 1111 CE in Tus, a city in modern day Iran.

Al-Kisa’i

Muhammad ibn Abdallah Al-Kisa’i is believed to have lived in the 12th or 13th century. He wrote some of the most famous Qisas al-Anbiya (stories of the Prophets). His work can be found in English in Tales of the Prophets (Qisas al-anbiya). Translated by Wheeler M. Thackston, Jr. Great Books of the Islamic World, ed. Seyyed Hossein Nasr. Chicago, IL: KAZI Publications, 1997.

God

Muslims believe in one God, who created the world and everything in it—the same God in whom Jews and Christians believe. In Arabic, the word for God is Allah (uh-LA) and it is used by both Arabic-speaking Muslims and Christians.

Jibra’il

In Islam, Jibra’il (Jib-ra-EEL, or Gabriel in English) is an archangel who communicates God’s messages to prophets. Muslims believe that Jibra’il appeared to the Prophet Muhammad(PBUH) and instructed him to teach others about Islam.

Prophet Lut(PBUH)

Muslims believe that Lut(PBUH) (LOOT)—called Lot in English—was a prophet in the time of Ibrahim (Abraham). His story is told or mentioned in a number of places in the Qur’an.

Prophet Muhammad(PBUH)

Muhammad(PBUH) (mew-HA-med) was the founder of Islam. Muslims believe he was a prophet and messenger of God, following in a long line of prophets dating back to the Biblical figures Noah(PBUH), Abraham(PBUH) and Moses(PBUH). He was born in the city of Mecca and lived roughly between 570 and 632 CE. Initially a merchant, he began receiving divine revelations at the age of 40. To escape persecution, he and his early followers emigrated to the nearby city of Yathrib, which was renamed Medina. Muhammad’s name is sometimes spelled in different ways, such as Mohamed.

Umm Salama

Born Hind al Makhzumia, Umm Salama was a wife of the Prophet Muhammad. She and her first husband were among the early converts to Islam.

The pronunciation key is intended to give English-speaking readers a close approximation of the word in Arabic. It can not provide a perfect equivalent, however, because some Arabic sounds do not exist in English.



SEX AND RELATED TERMS

Sex

Sex has several meanings.

Sex refers to any kind of sexual activity, such as vaginal, oral, anal or manual sex. It can include sexual activity between people of the same gender or people of different genders.

Sex can refer to someone’s biological sex—in other words, whether a person is “male,” “female” or “intersex.”

Sex is often used interchangeably with gender, in which case it refers to whether someone is a “man” or “woman.”

Sexuality

Sexuality has to do with feelings of desire and the way a person relates to other people, as well as actual sex acts.

Lust

Sometimes people refer to any kind of desire or want as “lust.” According to Merriam Webster’s dictionary, though, “lust” means an “intense or unbridled sexual desire.” So “lust” isn’t just any desire—it’s more like desire that is out of control.

Rape

Rape refers to sex that occurs by force or by threat of injury. Rape may include any kind of sex, such as vaginal, anal, oral or manual (by hand). It can occur between members of different genders (such as men raping women) or between members of the same gender (such as men raping men or women raping women). Both victims and perpetrators of rape may be of any gender (women or men). Victims and perpetrators may be cisgender (in other words, they may identify as the gender they were assigned at birth) or transgender (in other words, they may identify as a gender different from the one they were assigned at birth).



GENDER AND RELATED TERMS

Gender

Gender usually refers to a person’s identity as a “man” or “woman.” Gender also may include identity as something different, such as “genderqueer” or “third gender.”

Cisgender

Cisgender is an adjective that refers to people who identify with their biological sex at birth or the gender they were assigned. Most people are cisgender. Cisgender is the opposite of transgender.

Cisgender people may be straight, bisexual, gay or lesbian.

Intersex

Intersex is an adjective that refers to people who are born with physical traits (such as genitals) or chromosomes that are difficult to identify as clearly male or female. It is estimated that intersex conditions occur in around 1% of births. Usually, intersex children are assigned to one gender (“boy” or “girl”) shortly after birth. If an intersex person decides that the gender he or she was assigned at birth was wrong or that the genders “boy” and “girl” do not reflect who they are, they may also identify as transgender. The outdated term for intersex is hermaphrodite. This term is considered inaccurate because it means “having both sexes,” which is not necessarily true. There are at least 16 different intersex conditions, some of which are not physically visible and can only be determined by looking at the person’s chromosomes.

Some intersex children are subjected to surgery to bring their physical traits closer to what is typical for their assigned gender. However, most of these surgeries are medically unnecessary and often irreversible. They do not take into account how the child will identify their gender when they are older. At this time, surgery of this kind is controversial in many places, including the United States.

Intersex people may be straight, bisexual, gay or lesbian.

Mukhanath

The word mukhanath was used during the Prophet Muhammad’s lifetime for males who were seen as “acting like women.” They may have been males who did not see themselves as men, in which case they would be considered transgender today. They also may have been men whose behavior, appearance or sexuality made them seem different from other men and more like women. They may have been what people would consider gay, today. It is problematic to try to apply today’s labels to people from a different time, though. A mukhanath’s understanding of his sexuality or gender may have been different from how people understand those things today.

Transgender

Transgender is an adjective that refers to people who do not identify with their biological sex at birth or the gender they were assigned—in other words, they are not the gender everyone assumed they were when they were born. The word transgender is often used as an “umbrella” term to include people who identify with the opposite gender—for example, a person assigned the gender girl or woman at birth but identifies as a man, or vice versa—as well as people who feel that neither “girl/woman,” nor “boy/man” is the right label for them. Transgender people usually dress, act and prefer to be called by the gender with which they identify. For example, a person who was born male but identifies as a woman usually will prefer to be called by a female name, referred to as “she,” and will dress and act like a woman.

Transgender people may be straight, bisexual, gay or lesbian.



SEXUAL ORIENTATION AND RELATED TERMS

Sexual Orientation

Sexual orientation refers to a pattern of enduring emotional, romantic, or sexual attraction to other people. In other words, sexual orientation describes who a person is attracted to. Various labels describing sexual orientation include lesbian, bisexual, gay, and straight.

Asexual

A person who does not experience sexual attraction.

Bisexual

The word bisexual refers to a person who is sexually attracted to people of the same gender and other genders, or towards people regardless of gender. It may be used as an adjective or a noun.

Heterosexual

Heterosexual is an adjective used to refer to people who are attracted to people of the opposite gender (whether cisgender or transgender). Heterosexual men are attracted to women. Heterosexual women are attracted to men. It is more common in casual conversation to refer to heterosexual people as “straight.”

Homosexuality

Homosexuality refers to desire for sexual intimacy with a member of the same gender (whether cisgender or transgender). Some may experience homosexual desire but not act on it. When someone has sex with a member of the same gender without experiencing any desire to do so—as when someone is raped—that is not an example of homosexuality.

Homosexual

Homosexual is an adjective used to describe a person who is attracted to others of the same gender (whether cisgender or transgender). It applies both to men, who may also be called “gay,” and to women, who may also be called “lesbian.” In the United States, homosexual is considered a more formal and scientific term for same-sex attraction. It is preferable to use words like “gay” and “lesbian” in casual communication. Some people find the term homosexual offensive because it was originally used to describe attraction to the same sex as a mental illness or disease.

Gay

Gay is usually an adjective that refers to men who are sexually attracted to other men (including cisgender men and transgender men). Sometimes it is also used to refer to any person who is primarily attracted to members of the same gender, though a woman might prefer to be called lesbian. It is a synonym for “homosexual,” but is more acceptable in casual conversation. As an adjective, one might use it to say “a gay man.” It is sometimes used as a plural noun to refer to gay (and lesbian) people as a group, as in “Gays marched in a parade.” It is not correct to use it as a singular noun (“a gay” or “the gay”). That is considered offensive by many people who identify as gay.

Lesbian

Lesbian refers to women who are sexually attracted to other women (including cisgender women and transgender women). It may be used as an adjective or a noun, as in “a lesbian woman wrote the book” or “a lesbian wrote the book.”

Straight

Straight is a common adjective used to refer to people who are heterosexual (attracted to people of the opposite gender).

The pronunciation key is intended to give English-speaking readers a close approximation of the word in Arabic. It can not provide a perfect equivalent, however, because some Arabic sounds do not exist in English.



DIFFERENT WAYS OF READING TEXTS

Semantically

Reading something semantically involves looking at individual words, but considering more than just their literal definitions. Semantics includes the culturally understood meanings of words.

Thematically

Reading something thematically involves looking at the themes in a piece of writing, rather than just the individual words. Themes can include ideas, such as “prayer,” or places, such as “the city of Mecca” or “places of worship.” Themes can also refer to types of narratives, like “stories of battles.” Whether they are ideas, images, places or types of narrative, themes are structures within a piece of writing that have deeper meaning than the meanings of the individual words used.

An example where Muslims read the Qur’an thematically:

The Qur’an tells the story of Moses’ conflict with the Pharaoh of Egypt. The Hebrews were slaves in Egypt at the time of Moses’ birth. In the story, Moses demanded that Pharaoh free his people. The verses tell the story in a very simple way as a story of a combat: there was a good side and a bad side, oppressed slaves against a powerful ruler and his followers. If people were to read only these verses and take them literally, they might conclude that Egyptians are evil and they might learn to hate all Egyptians. Yet the Qur’an praises the Pharaoh’s wife for helping Moses and for being righteous. It also praises other Egyptians who disagreed with the Pharaoh. A thematic reading lets the reader put this story together with other stories in the Qur’an that are about oppressive rulers to see that the lesson of this story is not “Egyptians are bad” but rather “oppression is bad.” A simple reading of the story of Moses might also lead to the conclusion “all rulers oppress people.” This could lead people to resist all authority. Yet a thematic reading helps the reader to see that it is not the ruler’s power that causes oppression, because rulers can use their power in just, fair ways. Instead, the reader can see that oppression comes from the misuse of power.



OTHER TERMS

CE

CE stands for Common Era. It is used with the Gregorian (Christian) calendar. CE is a secular term used instead of AD, which stands for Anno Domini and means “The Year of Our Lord”, a Christian-based reference to the birth of Jesus(PBUH).

Coerce

To coerce (ko-URS) means to make someone do something by putting so much pressure on them that they have little choice. For example, threatening someone is a way to coerce him or her.

Colonization

European powers—especially Britain, France, and the Netherlands—had control of nearly all countries where Muslims are the majority of the population today. The exceptions were Iran, Turkey and Saudi Arabia. In these three countries, there was strong colonial influence, but there was no military conquest or occupation. The period of European colonialism started as early in the 1700s in some places, such as Indonesia (colonized by the Netherlands) and India (colonized by Britain). However, colonialism had the greatest effect during the 1800s and early 1900s.

Homophobia

Homophobia refers to a “fear” of homosexuality or prejudice against homosexuals.

Monarch

A monarch is a ruler whose right to rule is hereditary—in other words, it is inherited within a family. A ruling monarch may be called a king, queen, prince, caliph, emir or another title. Traditionally, monarchies had few limits on their power. Today, some monarchies are very powerful while others are limited, sharing power with elected representatives. Countries with monarchies today include the United Kingdom of Great Britain, the Kingdom of Morocco and the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia.

Patriarchy/Patriarchal

Patriarchy is a common system of organizing society that puts the majority of power in the hands of men, makes women and children dependent on men and establishes inheritance laws that follow the male line.

Patriarchal is an adjective that is used to describe any society that is organized as a patriarchy. Patriarchal also can describe ideas, beliefs or other systems that privilege (give advantage) or give power to men.

Permissive

Permissive is an adjective that means a person or group is not very strict about rules or has rules that allow people to follow their desires. It is usually used in a negative way and implies that the speaker does not approve of the other person or group’s treatment of rules.

Prejudice

Prejudice usually refers to a negative belief a person or people holds about another person or group, based on a judgement made unfairly or without enough information. For example, a negative belief about an entire group of people is a prejudice because it involves a judgement made about all the people in the group without knowing enough about each one to make that judgement.

Sexism

Sexism is a form of prejudice and discrimination based on a person’s sex or gender.

Slavery

Slavery is mentioned in the Qur’an but the Qur’an does not promote slavery. In fact, it demands humane treatment of slaves and emphasizes freeing slaves. However, it does give some rules relating to slaves because slavery was a real part of society at the time the Qur’an was written. The slavery that existed in the Prophet Muhammad’s day was very different from the more recent slavery of Africans by European nations and the United States. Slaves in the time of the Prophet Muhammad were prisoners of war, who had the right to earn their freedom and might be freed if the political situation changed. They had rights and were treated as human beings—however, they were human beings at the bottom of the social “ladder.”



ABOUT THE AUTHOR

DR. SCOTT SIRAJ AL-HAQQ KUGLE

Dr. Scott Siraj Al-Haqq Kugle is a professor at Emory University. He teaches about Islamic culture, theology and ethics. On the topic of gender and sexuality, Dr. Kugle has written:

"Living Out Islam: Voices of Gay, Lesbian and Transgender Muslims" (New York: New York University Press (December 2013).

"Homosexuality in Islam: Critical Reflection on Gay, Lesbian, and Transgender Muslims” (Oxford: Oneworld Publications, 2010).

”AIDS, Homosexuality and Muslims” co-authored with Sarah Chiddy, in Farid Esack (ed.), When Sin Becomes Widespread—AIDS, Ethics and Justice in Islam (Oxford: Oneworld, 2008).

”Sexual Diversity in Islam” in Vincent Cornell, Gray Henry and Omid Safi (eds.), Voices of Islam, volume 5 (New York: Praeger Press, 2007).

”Sultan Mahmud’s Make-Over: Colonial Homophobia and Persian-Urdu Poetics” in Ruth Vanita (ed), Queering India: same-sex love and eroticism in Indian culture and society (New York: Routledge, 2001).

For more information, visit Dr. Kugle’s website: http://www.mesas.emory.edu/home/people/faculty/kugle.html.