This article has been edited and approved by Karen Coumbe MRCVS , H&H’s veterinary advisor since 1991.

The decision to put a horse under a general anaesthetic should not be taken lightly as one in every 100 healthy horses will not survive the procedure or the seven days that follow surgery

General anaesthesia in horses: Risks | Preparation | Five stages of anaesthesia | Pain control | Post-anaesthesia care

When a horse has to undergo anything beyond minor standing surgery, which can be achieved under heavy sedation, a general anaesthetic is required so that the animal is safely immobilised, unconscious and provided with suitable pain relief throughout the procedure.

While the challenges associated with placing a horse under general anaesthesia should not be under-estimated as the risks associated with it are significant, there has been a notable increase in the knowledge, equipment and medications available to anaesthetise horses safely in recent years. This allows veterinary teams to successfully perform much more complicated procedures, such as colic surgery and repair certain fractures, than was previously possible.

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"}

MA VetMB CertEP CertVA MRCVS Our equine veterinary expert has more than 30 years experience in practice. She is an FEI vet and has attended the past three Olympic and two World Equestrian Games in her role. She has a particular interest in anaesthesia, pre-purchase examinations, ophthalmology and dermatology amongst other clinical concerns. She has been Horse & Hound’s official veterinary advisor since 1991. Karen is part of the Bell Equine team.

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