One of the most common issues I encounter as an editor is the use of imprecise verbs in scientific research. It is possible that the author cannot be more precise, because the experiments have not been done to determine how the change occurred or because the conditions may produce diverse outcomes. However, these should be made clear for the reader, otherwise the reader may interpret the ambiguous language inaccurately.

If the response is diverse, then state this clearly. For example, many transcriptional regulators function as both promoters and repressors of gene expression. If that is the case, then state “transcription factor X can stimulate or repress gene expression,” rather than using the ambiguous verb “regulates.” If the gene that you measure as the readout is stimulated by the transcriptional regulator, then use stimulates (or promotes or increases) rather than “regulates.”

As an example of unnecessary ambiguity common in signaling research, consider the phrase “changes the phosphorylation” as in “Exposure to hypoxia changes the phosphorylation of protein X.” Does the amount of phosphorylated protein X increase or decrease? Does the relative proportion of the total amount of protein X that is phosphorylated increase or decrease? Is the change related to a change in stability or overall abundance of protein X? Did the study provide data to unambiguously determine what the authors mean by “changes the phosphorylation?” Did the authors quantify the abundance of both the phosphorylated and nonphosphorylated forms of protein X?

As an author, you never want to leave the reader guessing at your meaning. You want to be clear, concise, accurate, and precise.

It is acceptable to introduce a concept with less precise language and then explain in more detail with more precision. However, when word count is limited, this takes extra space that may be needed to present other data or make other points in the grant or manuscript.

Here, I provide a short list of phrases (note the verbs) to avoid and examples of more precise phrases that could be used instead, depending on how much mechanistic detail is known. Often the text will start by describing an initial observation and then subsequent data will explore the mechanistic details. Be careful not to put the details in the description of the initial observation. Only state what the data that have been shown so far support.

Do not sacrifice accuracy for precision.

Do not draw mechanistic conclusions that are not supported by the published literature or the data shown in an attempt at precise, concise presentation. I use the phrase gene expression as an example. If you measure mRNA abundance and do not provide circumstantial (transcription factor binding to the promoter or enhancer) or direct evidence (nuclear run-on assay) for gene expression, then you cannot know unambiguously how a change in the mRNA abundance occurred. If you measured mRNA abundance or transcript abundance, then state the data as such and then you can use that data to infer a change in gene expression. You should clearly state that you are using the change in mRNA as a proxy for or to infer a change in gene expression. There are multiple mechanisms by which the abundance of a transcript can change and gene expression is only one mechanism. By assuming that the reader “knows” this is an inferred mechanism and that others are possible, the text can inadvertently mislead the reader or a computer performing text mining.

Writing Precisely: From Imprecise to Precise

Samples of imprecise, ambiguous words and examples of more informative phrases or terms that can be used depending on the mechanistic details that are known or supported by the data.

Imprecise Precise example Precise with mechanistic details Regulates expression Increases mRNA abundance Stimulates gene expression to increase transcript abundance

OR

Reduces mRNA degradation to increase transcript abundance

OR

Reduces the amount of an miRNA targeting the mRNA to increase transcript abundance Affects surface expression Reduces the amount at the cell surface Stimulates endocytosis to reduce the amount at the cell surface

OR

Impairs recycling of internalized protein to reduce the abundance at the cell surface

OR

Promotes cleavage, stimulating release from the cell surface

OR

Represses gene expression, resulting in less protein to deliver to the cell surface Impacts phosphorylation state Enhances the phosphorylation Enhances phosphorylation by increasing the activity of the kinase

OR

Enhances phosphorylation by increasing the interaction between the kinase and the target protein

OR

Enhances phosphorylation by reducing the abundance of a phosphatase that targets the protein Influences abundance Reduces the abundance Reduces the abundance by stimulating proteasomal degradation

OR

Reduces the abundance by destabilizing the encoding transcript

OR

Reduces the abundance through a posttranslational mechanism

OR

Reduces the abundance by repressing expression of the encoding gene Alters nucleocytoplasmic distribution Accumulates in the nucleus Stimulates the translocation from the cytosol into the nucleus

OR

Increases the amount in the nucleus by impairing nuclear export

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Cite as: N. R. Gough, Writing Tips: Words to Avoid. BioSerendipity (19 March 2018) https://www.bioserendipity.com/writing-tips-words-to-avoid/