I recently did a corporate TLA+ workshop and some people asked what TLA+ specs look like in practice. If you looked at the most common public examples, you’d probably come away thinking that people only used it for critical consensus algorithms. This is a problem for two reasons: first, it makes it harder to learn TLA+, as there aren’t simpler examples to experiment with. Second, it makes it hard for people to see how TLA+ is useful for them. My problem isn’t verifying Paxos, it’s figuring out why my microservices aren’t deduping the message queue.

Let’s spec out some messaging! In this post we’ll write simple specs for pub/sub and message queues, in the process showing how we can represent high-level concepts in TLA+ and how we can represent complications. This post assumes knowledge of TLA+: you can read gentler introductions here and here.

Message Queues

Let’s start with something like Amazon SQS: we have some readers and some writers. Writers add messages to a FIFO queue. Readers pop messages off the queue and process them.

---- MODULE messaging ---- EXTENDS Sequences, Integers, TLC, FiniteSets CONSTANTS Writer, Readers, Data, NULL, MaxQueue ASSUME Writer

otin Readers ASSUME NULL

otin Data

Initial constants. MaxQueue doesn’t necessarily mean we’re modeling bounded queues: I’m mostly adding it to keep the model itself bounded. I won’t have the writer block on a full-queue. I’ll instead add it as a state constraint later.

SeqOf(set, n) == UNION {[ 1 .. m -> set] : m \in 0 .. n} seq ( + ) elem == Append(seq, elem)

A couple of helper operators. SeqOf generates all sequences no longer than n consisting of elements in set . (+) slaps an element onto the end of a sequence, in case I need to do something like Tail(seq) (+) Head(seq) .

(*--algorithm polling variables queue = <<>> ; \* Ordered messages define TypeInvariant == queue \in SeqOf(Data, MaxQueue) end define ;

TLA+ is an untyped formalism. Lamport argued that type systems in specifications are often a hindrance. However, while TLA+ is untyped, the system we’re building does have types. We express that as a type invariant, which is a regular invariant that places constraints on the values our variables can take. The type of queue is “Any finite sequence of Data .” But I could just as easily make types like “two-digit primes except 11” or “sequences of messages no reader has seen yet.”

Again, we need to be explicit that in our particular case, TypeInvariant is catching both spec failures and model failures. If an element of queue is not a piece of data, then that’s a spec failure. If queue has more than MaxQueue elements, then it’s a model failure: we forgot to add our state constraint. If part of our spec was that we were using a bounded model and queue had more than MaxQueue elements, then that would be a spec failure too. Mixing spec invariants and model constraints is bad practice. You should really separate them out.

process writer = Writer variable d \in Data begin Write: while TRUE do queue := queue ( + ) d; end while ; end process ; process reader \in Readers variables local = NULL; begin Read: while TRUE do await queue /= <<>> ; local := Head(queue); queue := Tail(queue); end while ; end process ; end algorithm; *) ====

Rest of it isn’t too hard. We need to assign values our constaints and add state constraints:

Data <- [model value] {d1, d2} MaxQueue <- 3 NULL <- [model value] Readers <- [model value] {r1, r2} Writer <- [model value] INVARIANT TypeInvariant CONSTRAINT Len(queue) < MaxQueue

And this passes with no failures. Of course, this is a very simple model. SQS guarantees at-least once delivery. What this means exactly depends on how much we care about modeling our broker’s mechanism of enforcing this. I see at least three different ways of defining “at-least once” for different purposes of modeling:

The system will only declare a message received if a client received it. (1) holds and if the client and system are both weakly fair, then the message will at some point be marked “received”. Clients might receive the message multiple times.

The difference between (1) and (2) is that (2) is stronger: the first case permits the client to never receive the message if it stutters, or (very roughly) is allowed to “crash”. Saying the client is “fair” means that it will never “crash” and always make progress if it can. The difference between them and (3) is that (1) and (2) are properties of the system, while (3) is a detail about our system that implictly assumes those properties. If we were modeling the messaging protocol itself, we’d probably want to use (1) or (2). If we’re modeling a system using the message protocol, (3) is closer to what we want. Here’s one way to model it:

while TRUE do await queue /= <<>>; local := Head(queue); - queue := Tail(queue); + either + queue := Tail(queue); + DoStuff: + \* blah blah blah skip; + or + skip; + end either;

Instead of the client always removing the received message from the queue, sometimes it sets local without tailing the queue. This means on the next request, another client might receive the same message. We’d want our properties to still hold even if the message is duplicated. We could also easily permit the client to fail to process the message, but “clean up” by popping it from the queue and putting it on the end:

either queue := Tail(queue); + or + queue := Tail(queue) (+) local; or skip; end either;

Or sometimes fail to ack we’ve received the message and fail to process it, in which case the message gets duplicated.

either queue := Tail(queue); or skip; end either; + DoStuff: + either + \* blah blah blah + or + queue := queue (+) local; + end either;

Now imagine if we actually wanted to bound the queue. We’d tell the writer not to write by adding an await and remove our state constraint.

Write: while TRUE do + await Len(queue) < MaxQueue; queue := queue (+) d; end while; - CONSTRAINT Len(queue) < MaxQueue

This now fails, a reader can append to a full queue during DoStuff . We’ll undo these changes for the next section.

Complex data

If we actually wanted to spec a system, we’d want to fill out DoStuff with logic based on the messages or other bits of state. Just having the messages be model constants doesn’t give us much flexibility. To show what a more flexible system would look like, let’s also attach the sender to each message.

+ set ++ e == set \union {e} + Messages == [from: Readers ++ Writer, msg: Data] (*--algorithm polling

Messages is the set of all possible structures with those keys and values. It includes elements like [from |-> r1, msg |-> d1] , [from |-> Writer, msg |-> d2] , etc. Our TypeInvariant can be changed to be a sequence of all possible complex messages. We can change writer and reader to use the new format.

TypeInvariant == - queue \in SeqOf(Data, MaxQueue) + queue \in SeqOf(Messages, MaxQueue) Write: while TRUE do - queue := queue (+) d; + queue := queue (+) [from |-> Writer, msg |-> d]; end while; Read: while TRUE do await queue /= <<>>; local := Head(queue); either queue := Tail(queue); DoStuff: skip; or - queue := Tail(queue) (+) local; + queue := Tail(queue) (+) [from |-> self, msg |-> local] or skip; end either; end while;

Our spec now fails as TypeInvariant is violated. We forgot to extract the data from msg , so we ended with a message like [from |-> r1, msg |-> [from |-> Writer, msg |-> d1] . One soluton would be to instead set local to Head(queue).msg , but then we lose information about the source. Another choice would be to instead have from be the set of all nodes that put this particular message on the queue.

- Messages == [from: Readers ++ Writer, msg: Data] + Messages == [from: SUBSET (Readers ++ Writer), msg: Data] Write: while TRUE do - queue := queue (+) [from |-> Writer, msg |-> d]; + queue := queue (+) [from |-> {Writer}, msg |-> d]; end while; Read: while TRUE do await queue /= <<>>; local := Head(queue); either queue := Tail(queue); DoStuff: skip; or - queue := Tail(queue) (+) [from |-> self, msg |-> local] + queue := Tail(queue) (+) [from |-> local.from ++ self, msg |-> local.msg] or skip; end either;

We could then add retry logic, for example “if this reader has seen this message already, ignore it instead of retrying”:

or + if self

otin local.from then queue := Tail(queue) (+) [from |-> local.from ++ self, msg |-> local.msg] + end if;

On the other hand, if we can’t change our old fields for legacy reason, we can add another field to the structure: [from: ..., msg: ..., through: ...] .

Pub-Sub

A pub-sub messaging system is one where there are multiple clients which receive each message the server sends. We can represent this as each reader having its own queue. The writer, instead of appending its message to a single queue, simply appends it to all of them.

\* same constants and operators as last time (*--algorithm pubsub variables queues = [ r \in Readers |-> <<>> ]; \* Ordered messages

Instead of a single queue, we have one queue for each reader. This is represented with a TLA+ function, which maps elements from some set to some value. For people who don’t see the “math” there, the best analogy is a python dictionary comprehension: this is sort of like writing {r: [] for r in Readers} .

Of course, since we no longer have a single queue, we need to change our TypeInvariant :

TypeInvariant == queues \in [Readers -> SeqOf(Data, MaxQueue)]

[A -> B] is the function set where the domain is A and all of the values are in B . Function sets are one of the biggest stumbling blocks for people new to TLA+, but they are amazingly powerful once you get used to them.

And for the rest of the code:

process writer = Writer variable d \in Data begin Write: while TRUE do queues := [ r \in Readers |-> queues[ r ] ( + ) d ]; end while ; end process ; process reader \in Readers variables local = NULL; begin Read: while TRUE do await queues[self] /= <<>> ; local := Head(queues[self]); queues[self] := Tail(queues[self]); end while ; end process ;

We have to adjust our constraint, too:

CONSTRAINT \A r \in Readers: Len(queues[ r ]) < MaxQueue

This works as normal. Pub-sub is usually at-most once delivery. No client will receive a given message more than one time. We can pretty easily model this by simply having the clients occasionally drop messages in their queue:

process reader \in Readers variables local = NULL; begin Read: while TRUE do await queues[self] /= <<>>; + either local := Head(queues[self]); + or + local := NULL; + end either; queues[self] := Tail(queues[self]); end while; end process;

Subscription

Not all readers may be subscribed to every writer. Their subscription state is also time dependent, and they might change what they subscribe to over the course of our run. Here’s one way of representing that that:

(*--algorithm pubsub variables queues = [r \in Readers |-> <<>>]; \* Ordered messages + subscribed = {}; define TypeInvariant == - queues \in [Readers -> SeqOf(Data, MaxQueue)] + /\ queues \in [Readers -> SeqOf(Data, MaxQueue)] + /\ subscribed \in SUBSET Readers end define; Write: while TRUE do queues := [r \in Readers |-> + IF r \in subscribed THEN queues[r] (+) d + ELSE queues[r] ]; end while; Read: while TRUE do + either + \* receive await queues[self] /= <<>>; either local := Head(queues[self]); or local := NULL; end either; queues[self] := Tail(queues[self]); + or + await self

otin subscribed; + Subscribe: + subscribed := subscribed ++ self; + or + await self \in subscribed; + Unsubscribe: + subscribed := subscribed \ {self}; + end either; end while; end process;

Now, instead of sending each message to every single reader, the writer only sends messages to readers that are subscribed to it. We could more compactly write the message logic this way:

- queues := [r \in Readers |-> - IF r \in subscribed THEN - queues[r] (+) d - ELSE queues[r] - ]; + queues := [r \in subscribed |-> queues[r] (+) data] @@ queues

Where @@ is the “function merge” operator imported from TLC.

One way we could make this more complex (if your model needs it) is to instead have readers subscribe to topics, and writers message all readers for a given topic. This would be useful if one writer was writing to two sets of readers, or two writers were messaging one set of readers.

Thoughts

I really need to make a library or cookbook or whatever of common TLA+/PlusCal patterns. It took me only a couple minutes to whip each example up but I’ve been doing this a while- it’s probably a lot harder to ‘see’ these if you’re just starting out. Having a library would go a long way to making it easier for people to pick things up.

I’ve regularly used these messaging designs as part of larger specs. Hopefully you find them useful! You can find other examples in my new book, too!

Interested in using TLA+ at work? Hire me as a consultant!

Thanks to Andrew Helwer for feedback.