Megastore is the data engine supporting the Google Application Engine . It’s a scalable structured data store providing full ACID semantics within partitions but lower consistency guarantees across partitions.

I wrote up some notes on it back in 2008 Under the Covers of the App Engine Datastore and posted Phil Bernstein’s excellent notes from a 2008 SIGMOD talk: Google Megastore . But there has been remarkably little written about this datastore over the intervening couple of years until this year’s CIDR conference papers were posted. CIDR 2011 includes Megastore: Providing Scalable, Highly Available Storage for Interactive Services .

My rough notes from the paper:

· Megastore is built upon BigTable

· Bigtable supports fault-tolerant storage within a single datacenter

· Synchronous replication based upon Paxos and optimized for long distance inter-datacenter links

· Partitioned into a vast space of small databases each with its own replicated log

· Each log stored across a Paxos cluster

· Because they are so aggressively partitioned, each Paxos group only has to accept logs for operations on a small partition. However, the design does serialize updates on each partition

· 3 billion writes and 20 billion read transactions per day

· Support for consistency unusual for a NoSQL database but driven by (what I believe to be) the correct belief that inconsistent updates make many applications difficult to write (see I Love Eventual Consistency but … )

· Data Model:

· The data model is declared in a strongly typed schema

· There are potentially many tables per schema

· There are potentially many entities per table

· There are potentially many strongly typed properties per entity

· Repeating properties are allowed

· Tables can be arranged hierarchically where child tables point to root tables

· Megastore tables are either entity group root tables or child tables

· The root table and all child tables are stored in the same entity group

· Secondary indexes are supported

· Local secondary indexes index a specific entity group and are maintained consistently

· Global secondary indexes index across entity groups are asynchronously updates and eventually consistent

· Repeated indexes: supports indexing repeated values (e.g. photo tags)

· Inline indexes provide a way to denormalize data from source entities into a related target entity as a virtual repeated column.

· There are physical storage hints:

· “IN TABLE” directs Megastore to store two tables in the same underlying BigTable

· “SCATTER” attribute prepends a 2 byte hash to each key to cool hot spots on tables with monotonically increasing values like dates (e.g. a history table).

· “STORING” clause on an index supports index-only-access by redundantly storing additional data in an index. This avoids the double access often required of doing a secondary index lookup to find the correct entity and then selecting the correct properties from that entity through a second table access. By pulling values up into the secondary index, the base table doesn’t need to be accessed to obtain these properties.

· 3 levels of read consistency:

· Current: Last committed value

· Snapshot: Value as of start of the read transaction

· Inconsistent reads: used for cross entity group reads

· Update path:

· Transaction writes its mutations to the entity groups write-ahead log and then apply the mutations to the data (write ahead logging).

· Write transaction always begins with a current read to determine the next available log position. The commit operation gathers mutations into a log entry, assigns an increasing timestamp, and appends to log which is maintained using paxos.

· Update rates within a entity group are seriously limited by:

· When there is log contention, one wins and the rest fail and must be retried.

· Paxos only accepts a very limited update rate (order 10^2 updates per second).

· Paper reports that “limiting updates within an entity group to a few writes per second per entity group yields insignificant write conflicts”

· Implication: programmers must shard aggressively to get even moderate update rates and consistent update across shards is only supported using two phase commit which is not recommended.

· Cross entity group updates are supported by:

· Two-phase commit with the fragility that it brings

· Queueing and asynchronously applying the changes

· Excellent support for backup and redundancy:

· Synchronous replication to protect against media failure

· Snapshots and incremental log backups

Overall, an excellent paper with lots of detail on a nicely executed storage system. Supporting consistent read and full ACID update semantics is impressive although the limitation of not being able to update an entity group at more than a “few per second” is limiting.

The paper: http://www.cidrdb.org/cidr2011/Papers/CIDR11_Paper32.pdf .

Thanks to Zhu Han , Reto Kramer , and Chris Newcombe for all sending this paper my way.

–jrh

James Hamilton

e: jrh@mvdirona.com

w: http://www.mvdirona.com