WASHINGTON—The Senate on Friday passed its first Republican budget in nearly a decade, in a vote infused with accelerating GOP presidential jockeying.

The conservative spending blueprint, which covers the fiscal year beginning Oct. 1, was adopted 52-46 in the early morning hours Friday, after more than 15 hours of voting on amendments. Only two Republicans opposed the budget: Sens. Ted Cruz of Texas, who announced his presidential bid earlier this week, and Rand Paul of Kentucky, who also is expected to run.

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