(This essay appears in the e-book What I've Learned From Failure: A quarter-century of experience shipping software, distilled into fixnum bittersweet essays)





Critical Chain is an amazing book. The narrative form—a novella detailing a technical project team and their search for a way to manage an uncertain process—is a big win, it highlights the important ways that Critical Chain Project Management handles risks and uncertainty and makes it visible where everyone can manage it.



The section on estimating tasks alone is priceless. If you can’t afford a copy and your library doesn’t stock it, borrow mine. You must read this book if you participate in software development teams.



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Twenty years later, The Mythical Man-Month: Essays on Software Engineering is still one of the most important books ever written about developing software, from the small to the large. Read the book that spawned the expression, “there is no silver bullet.”



Measuring software productivity by lines of code is like measuring progress on an airplane by how much it weighs.

—Bill Gates

As the project progresses, the client’s requirements change. This is especially true if the client is given the opportunity to interact with the team and engage in the learning process: Agile’s claim that requirements are subject to change is a self-fulfilling prophesy.

There is no simpler or surer way to increase customer satisfaction over the long term than to let them experience the application as it grows and to rate your progress by how much their satisfaction increases with the software itself.



Life is not all project management and wrestling with customers. is the most enjoyable text on the subject of combinatory logic ever written. What other textbook features starlings, kestrels, and other songbirds? Relax with a copy and let your mind process the business side of development in the background. You’ll be a better manager for it!

Life is not all project management and wrestling with customers. To Mock a Mockingbird is the most enjoyable text on the subject of combinatory logic ever written. What other textbook features starlings, kestrels, and other songbirds? Relax with a copy and let your mind process the business side of development in the background. You’ll be a better manager for it!

Hire people with a minimal competency. Do not be seduced into accepting “help” from people who are not able to contribute to the team at this level.

Minimize parallelism. Exploit the talent of your best developers by giving them chunks of related work.

Measure progress by continually re-estimating the work to be done and by customer satisfaction. Educate the customer to prefer completed work over documentation and promises.

I’m just finishing off some work with a corporate client before moving back to my natural position in product development (with a really exciting company !).It’s a good time to reflect back over what was straightforward and what was difficult, what worked and what didn’t. It has been a very positive experience overall, and I have learned a few more things. Here are a hotch-potch of thoughts about corporate projects, clumsily organized around a single metaphor.Although very few managers ever express it directly this way, many behave as if developing a piece of software is like building something fairly simple out of bricks. It might be something large . But it’s still fairly simple.This is tempting. The inexperienced person thinks that bricks are easy to understand: they’re all the same: if you know how to work with one, you know how to work with them all. You can measure the progress of building something out of bricks by counting the bricks in place. And anyone can contribute, even if only by moving bricks from one place to another using brute force.When you have a brick by brick mentality, deep in your soul you believe that a project contains a fixed amount of work.. There are so many screens, so many lines of code. You think this to be true because when you examine finished applications, you can count these things. So you engage in a discovery step up front where you estimate how many screens and how much code will be needed, then you play some games with numbers of people and the amount of work they can do per day, and out comes an estimated ship date.You believe that since the finished work contains a fixed number of bricks, it is possible to know in advance how many bricks will be needed, and where they belong in the finished software This model of software development leads to several natural assumptions about how to organize a project. These assumptions are logical consequences of the belief that software is made of bricks:The brick by brick mentality thinks of software development as making a pile of bricks. Think of the stereotypical Egyptian Pyramid as an example. There are so many bricks to pile and then you’re done. If it’s all about moving bricks,That’s a comforting thought. Just keep those bricks moving. This helps us with all sorts of problems. Some people debate whether star programmers really are twenty times more productive than doofuses. Who cares? As long as the doofus can move bricks, eventually the work will get done.So if you have a poor performer, someone who is slow and not very careful, you can use them on a project. Just find the right place for them where they can’t accidentally wreck the whole pyramid, and they can help. Ok, they are not good with the tricky booby traps or aligning the windows to allow light to strike the altar at the solstice. Fine. But what about ferrying bricks from the dhow to the base of the pyramid? Doesn’t that move the project forward?Can’t you hire almost any warm body with ten working fingers and put them to work somewhere? Perhaps they can fiddle with page layouts, or copy the work of more experienced developers when implementing new features that are similar to existing features. But an extra pair of hands is always helpful, right?software is more complicated than bricksThis assumption is wrong. The reason it is wrong is that software is deep. It is not a simple pile of bricks. Examining a finished piece of software, it is easy to discern surface forms like patterns, variable names, or rough organization. But the motivations for these choices are often subtle and opaque to the journeyman.You can observe this the next time you are interviewing developer candidates. Ask them to name a design pattern: perhaps they respond, “ Singleton .” Design patterns are surface forms. Now ask them to explain what problem the pattern solves. They respond, “Ensuring there is exactly one of something.” We are still working with the surface form.Ask why we just want just one of something like a database connection pool. What problem are we solving? Why can’t we use class or static methods to solve this problem? What are the real-world issues with having 1,000 threads sharing a single database connection pool? How would you build ten pools? Or share connections without a single pool?All of these questions drive at the deeper issues underlying development choices. A developer who treats their work as moving bricks, who simply copies the surface form of code they encounter, is oblivious to the motivations behind the code. They do not know when to use it and when to forgo it. They do not understand alternative ways of solving the same problem. They reproduce it blindly (and often incorrectly).The result is software that superficially appears to be of acceptable quality because its surface form has things in common with good software. However, just because good software may be constructed out of commands and strategies , this does not mean that software constructed of commands and strategies is good.What is needed on a software development project are people who understand the nuances, the requirements, the underlying problems. If you think that you are building a pyramid, what you want are architects, not slaves.When you add people to a project who do not deeply understand their work or the problems the project faces, you create the superficial appearance of progress (look at all the bricks!), but you are slowly building up a mass of unworkable code. You may not see the problems immediately, but in time you will discover that everything they have touched needs to be re-written.determine the baseline competence required for a project and don’t violate itOnce you understand that software is not a simple pile of bricks, you understand that the minimum level of competence required to contribute positively to a project is non-trivial. You can decide for yourself whether you need the mythical great hackers or not. But there is a minimum level of competence, and if you do not allow persons below that level onto your project, you will succeed.If fact, you are far better off with a core of competent people and no sub-competent help than you are with the same group of people and the assistance of “helpers” on the side. Those “helpers” require three or four times as much management attention as the core contributors if you are to keep them from breaking things. And as we’ll see below, re-organizing your project such that there are tasks to keep them busy is usually harmful in and of itself.Protecting yourself from people unlikely to make a positive contribution may require adroit maneuvering on your part. On one project, I explained that we could not complete the work in the time requested by the client. The response was to offer us some part-time assistance by employees of the client. Those particular employees may have been talented, but their experience was not a direct fit for the technical work of the project, and they did not have a full-time commitment to the success of the project.Rejecting such “assistance” is tricky: other managers may have trouble with the idea that the project will move more slowly with the extra help, rather than move more quickly. Those managers see your project as a pile of bricks, and you’ll need to educate them if you are to avoid disaster.The metaphor of a pyramid being built, brick by laborious brick is useful for illustrating another principle. When you assume that an application is a pile of a million bricks, you assume that you can move bricks in parallel. You can have one thousand people on the project, and if each places one brick per hour you will move forward at a constant rate of one thousand bricks per hour.Software is not like this. Parallelizing development has serious and sometimes fatal consequences. The main problem is that the pieces are usually coupled in some way. There are techniques for lowering coupling between “bricks,” but when you set out to place two related bricks simultaneously, you must, perforce, do some kind of design or thinking ahead of time as to how they relate so that you can place them properly.Consider two pieces,and. The natural dependency between them is thatdepends on. The right thing to do is to build, and thenwhen you are happy with. But the zealous manager with bricks on her mind asks, “why can’t we decide on an interface,, betweenand, then build both at once?” They want to build, thenandsimultaneously.Of course, this constrainsandtremendously. As you are building them, any flaw or shortcoming withyou discover as you build the pieces will result in rewriting bothand. Only you are under time constraints so, you just patch and kludge, because the schedule does not have time allocated for redoing things: your motivation in parallelizingandwas to save time, so the schedule has no room for the possibility that it will take longer to writeandin parallel than in series.This makes no sense to the person who thinks software is made of bricks! Looking at the finished brick, what’s the problem, it takeshours to makehours to make, why would making them in parallel take longer thaninstead of roughlyTry the following: give pieceto one person, wait for it to be done, and then give pieceto another. Whoops, when the person working onhas a question about howworks, they have to track down the author and interrupt her. And if working onteaches you something about, is the person working onsupposed to change? Or is the original developer supposed to backtrack and change it?This explains a well-known nugget of wisdom: One reason adding people to a late project will cause it to slip further is that you are increasing parallelism. If the project was originally at or beyond its natural limit, further parallelism lowers productivity.Or another example. You have 100 reported bugs to fix. You have 100 people. Do you assign one bug to each person? No way! Experience shows that bugs are rarely fully de-coupled form each other. You have to analyze the bugs as a team and try to guess their causes and relationships. If bug forty-nine is a simple text change on a page, anyone can fix it. But if bugs one, four and nine are all related, you need one contributor to address them simultaneously. Sending three people in to fix them in parallel thing would be a disaster.Any time two or more pieces are strongly related either by design or by coupling in the application, it is a mistake to give each one to different people to build or fix.In software, you want to minimize dependencies between pieces, which in turn means being very, very careful to minimize parallelism. Obviously, there must be some parallelism on any project with more than one contributor. But every project has a natural maximum amount of parallelism. Gratuitously chopping tasks into bricks to increase parallelism beyond this natural limit lowers productivity rather than increases it.how to make the team twice as productive without parallelizing everythingWhat if you need two pieces,and, and you can’t wait for the normal amount of time to developand then? Here’s an idea: instead of treating them like bricks and trying to developandin parallel, why not simply hire one person who works twice as quickly? And have them developandin series?Think about this for a moment. There are a lot of claims out there that good people are three, five, ten, even twenty times as productive as the average. This seems intuitively wrong: when you look at their finished work, it rarely looks that much different from the work of the average person. So you figure the claims can’t be correct.The finished work of the allegedly great person doesn’t look too outlandish. Ok, it hasandinstead of loops, and now that we look at it, the so-called great person seems to deliver fewer bricks, not more. What’s going on?Let’s think about bricks for a moment. What if this essay right, and many times building bricks in parallel takes more time than building bricks serially? What if it’s very hard to coördinate the interfaces and contracts between pieces that are built by different people?If most projects assign related bricks to different people, and most projects further compound this error by trying to “exploit parallelism,” you can get a big productivity win just by bucking the popular choice and asking one person to do all of the related work themselves. They’ll be as productive as a team of other people simply because they aren’t burdened with the heavy cost of parallelism and from the wrong people working on pieces.Of course, you need someone who is able to keep two pieces in their head at one time. That’s one of the advantages of hiring good people: they don’t necessarily need to build things that are twice as complicated: if they can keep twice as much in their head at one time, they can build related things without incurring the costs of splitting development between people.The other wrong assumption about software being like bricks is that you can measure progress on a software development project by examining physical features of the software, by counting bricks.The underlying thought is that you imagine the finished software as a pyramid of bricks, a pile of them. You count how many bricks will be in the finished application. Now you can measure your progress by counting how many bricks are “done.”This is very wrong, and it leads to troubled projects. The first problem with this assumption has been given above: if you need a million bricks for your application, you ought to be able to make use of absolutely anyone to move the project forward in some small capacity. As long as they move a brick an hour, they are helping. So, a brick a day, a million bricks… let’s employ 1,000 sweating slaves for ten hours a day for one hundred days and we’ll have our pyramid. All we need are an architect and a team of overseers with sharp whips to see to it that they work without flagging.But what happens when the millionth brick is placed and we are nowhere near completion? It turns out that software’s requirements are fluid, so fluid that you could place as many bricks as you like and still not be finished.In fact, moving a lot of bricks is counterproductive: the physical manifestation of software, like written code, design specifications, unit tests, and so forth, have mass just like bricks. And if you want to redo things, the more mass you have, the harder it is to move and reshape it. In that sense, software is exactly like bricks.Only, what you want to is to move the minimum number of bricks required to test your assumptions about whether the software is complete enough. It will never be complete, but trying to measure completeness by bricks is wrong.There are only two meaningful ways to measure progress on a software development project: the first is to ask the team to estimate how much work remains, given the most up-to-date expectation for the form of the finished application. The second is to measure customer satisfaction.how to measure progress on software development projects with estimated work remainingGiven the most current understanding of what is to be done to complete the application, it is meaningful to ask the team to estimate how much time will be required to complete the work.This sounds conservative, even traditional. Doesn’t every project do this when they prepare the plan? What’s the catch? The catch is, if you only do it once, you only know your progress once. This differs markedly from the traditional model, where you plan once, estimate once, and thereafter you measure progress against your plan, rather than estimating again.To measure meaningful progress, you must re-estimate on a regular basis. If you wish to give a meaningful progress report every two weeks, you must ask the team to estimate the work remaining every two weeks. if, instead, you simply take how many bricks you thought you needed a few months ago, count how many have been moved to date, and calculate the work remaining through simple subtraction, your reports are drifting further and further away from reality every fortnight.We know that this does not work, both from experience in the field and from critical thinking: as the project progresses, the client’s requirements change. This is especially true if the client is given the opportunity to interact with the team and engage in the learning process: Agile’s claim that requirements are subject to change is a self-fulfilling prophesy.We also know that as we work with the software itself, we learn more about how much work is required to complete the software. For example, if you load a project’s team up with in appropriate contributors, maximize parallelism, and perhaps go three for three by minimizing testing and bug fixing, you will compound a tremendous “technical debt” over time.Measuring “progress” against the original plan does not include the technical debt in your estimate of the work to be completed. Asking the team to estimate the amount of work to be done gives them an opportunity to factor the consequences of technical debt into their estimates. Or of any other factor that reflects what the team is learning over time.In essence, you have an opportunity to include off-balance sheet items in your measurement of progress, whereas measuring against bricks would have excluded those factors.how to measure progress on software development projects with customer satisfactionMeasuring customer satisfaction is easy. All you have to do is ask the customer. A successful project increases satisfaction over time. An unsuccessful project does not. I boldly posit that any project that increases customer satisfaction over time is a successful project, regardless of what was originally written in a specification.Customer satisfaction is a key metric because software is not a pile of bricks. It is impossible to predict with certainty the set of requirements that will result in maximum customer satisfaction at the end of the project, so you must measure satisfaction as you go. That being said, there is a pitfall looming when you ask the customer to judge their own satisfaction.Some customers have difficulty understanding the features and characteristics of software that will meet their needs in a cost-effective way. They have trouble distinguishing good software from bad, good applications from lemons.Although such a customer may need a not-so-big application , they may demand an Enterprise Solution This manifests itself in the customer demanding proof of progress in the form of elaborate documents, plans, and diagrams instead of working software that solves a portion of their problem. It manifests in the customer demanding proof that you’ve “hired up” to meet their needs. Although these things have their place, none of them are working software. They are promises to develop software, and subprime promises at that.It is easy to obtain short-term success with such a client: deliver what they ask for. This is the exact business model followed by real estate developers specializing in inexperienced, first-time buyers: offer the superficial features that provide short-term excitement at the expense of long-term satisfaction. In the case of software, you can dazzle the inexperienced customer with head counts, power points, and diagrams showing Jenga-piles of technology.Should you do this? That is up to you, it depends on whether you wish to build short-term customer satisfaction at the expense of long-term satisfaction with the software itself. If you wish to deliver long-term satisfaction with the software, you may need to educate the customer to focus on the software itself.And that means delivering increments of a functioning application for the client to experience. There is no simpler or surer way to increase customer satisfaction over the long term than to let them experience the application as it grows and to rate your progress by how much their satisfaction increases with the software itself.Sometimes, it really does boil down to a few simple ideas, working in concert:

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