A bunch of stuff has happened since I published my post on The State of GPGPU in Rust. Most importantly, Denys Zariaiev (@denzp) released his work on a custom linker for Rust CUDA kernels, and a build.rs helper crate to make it easier to use.

These two crates eliminate many of the problems I referred to in my previous post. The linker solves most of the “invalid PTX file” problems, while the ptx-builder crate does all of the magic that Accel was doing behind the scenes. In addition, the compiler bug which prevented us from using current Rust builds has been resolved (again, thanks to @denzp. All glory to @denzp).

I ported my GPU Path Tracer code to this new system to check it out. I’ll be clear - there are still enough pitfalls and limitations and compiler bugs that I would not yet recommend using Rust for production CUDA work. I think we now have a stable base to build on, though.

This post serves as a write-up of how I removed Accel from my path tracer and the problems I encountered along the way. It could also serve as a tutorial for the brave early-adopters out there who want to try something similar.

Build Script

I started by pasting the example build.rs script from the ptx-builder project. I missed the bit where it says the build script is for the host-side (CPU) crate, not the kernel crate, but after I got that sorted out it worked without modification.

I haven’t worked with build.rs files before, so I think it’s useful to break down what this script does. Much of the code at the top of the file is trivial, so I’ll start with this:

let status = Builder::new("kernel")?.build()?;

This builds the kernel crate and links it and its dependencies into a PTX module. kernel in this case is a relative directory name. Then, if the build was successful…

// Provide the PTX Assembly location via env variable println!( "cargo:rustc-env=KERNEL_PTX_PATH={}", output.get_assembly_path().to_str().unwrap() ); // Observe changes in kernel sources for path in output.source_files()? { println!("cargo:rerun-if-changed={}", path.to_str().unwrap()); }

The build script reports the path to the PTX file to Cargo as an environment variable (so that we can embed it into our executable later using include_str!(env!("KERNEL_PTX_PATH"))) , and informs Cargo that the host crate needs to be recompiled if any of the kernel source files change. This is really slick - props both to @denzp and the Cargo team for making this work so smoothly. If you had multiple kernel modules, you could call the builder multiple times and expose them as separate environment variables as well.

Converting the Kernel

With Accel, I had a wrapper function tagged with the Accel procedural-macro attribute which was responsible for calling the function in my kernel crate to do the rendering work. I moved that into the kernel crate itself:

This is the only part of my kernel that accesses the NVPTX builtins, so I added the cfg attribute to remove this function when not compiling for CUDA. That way I could still call the rest of the kernel on the CPU for testing and easier debugging when needed. After that, there’s the #[no_mangle] pub unsafe extern "ptx-kernel" fn dance necessary to expose this function as a kernel entry point, and the actual code. Using the “ptx-kernel” as the ABI tag means I needed to add #![feature(abi_ptx)] to the crate and run with a nightly build. If you’re following along on Windows, you’ll also need to use the windows-gnu nightly, as the PTX linker currently doesn’t work with the windows-msvc builds.

Accel has its own crate that provides wrappers for the block_idx /etc. functions, but I followed @denzp’s guide and used the nvptx_builtins crate. nvptx_builtins is super bare-bones, but that’s probably what you want here - the magic CUDA functions are very limited in scope so you don’t really need anything complex.

With that, converting the kernel was done. Remarkably easy, in fact.

Data Transfer

Next, I needed a way to transfer data to and from the GPU. Accel handles this with a special UVec type, which is essentially a fixed-size Vec in Unified Memory, meaning that it can be transparently read or written by both CPU and GPU code without an explicit transfer step. This is useful, but my memory access patterns were pretty simple so I just did the copying explicitly.

This brings me to another point I’d like to make - we need a better higher-level wrapper around CUDA. Accel’s is pretty decent but is tied up with that project. I’m using japaric/cuda here because that’s what @denzp used in his examples, but it’s not ready for production use. I shouldn’t have to write my own struct to safely handle allocating memory on the GPU, there are a bunch of simple structs that should implement Clone but don’t, several parameters to important functions should be taken by reference, and so on. It doesn’t appear to be maintained any longer, and was never published to Crates.io.

In any case, I wrote a simple DeviceBuffer struct to allocate device memory, free it on Drop, and copy data to or from the device. Then I updated all of my code to use that structure instead of UVec .

CUDA Context

At this point, I had the code compiling (although I had commented out the code to launch the kernel). It failed as soon as it tried to allocate device memory, though, because I needed to initialize the CUDA context.

Initializing the driver itself is easy:

::cuda::driver::initialize().expect("Unable to initialize CUDA");

Then I needed to create and manage a CUDA context. This was more difficult than it needed to be, but that’s really my fault for my poor design when building the path tracer. The problem is that the CUDA context structure needs to be used to load PTX modules and launch kernels, so it had to be accessible in the launch function, several calls down from main.

The natural way to handle this is to have a single PathTracer struct which contains all of the important shared state for the path tracer and have main instantiate and use that. I should have done that to start with, but I didn’t and I didn’t feel like refactoring. Instead, I just left everything as a local variable in main , and I didn’t want to thread the reference to the context down to where it would be needed, so I cheated and used lazy_static! to make it global. Forgive me, programming gods, for I have sinned.

I did the same for the CUDA module, which holds the compiled PTX code. Notice here that we’re using the env! macro to get the path to the compiled kernel from the environment variable set by the build script. We then use include_str! to embed the kernel code into our executable. It’s a bit unfortunate that we have to copy it to a heap-allocated CString before handing it off to CUDA - it would be nice to have an include_cstr! to include the kernel as a null-terminated string - but it’s not a big deal. Likewise how we have to explicitly convert the rust &str to a CStr on each call to the kernel function, even though the parameter is almost certainly a constant.

I would like to explore the idea of building some macros (perhaps procedural macros) to help with this. One approach would be to have an include_cstr! macro. Another option would be for the build script to assemble the (text-based) PTX file using ptxas , and then embed the resulting binary using include_bytes! . In either case, it would also be great to have a cstr! macro for creating CStr literals.

Launching the Kernel

With all that set up, now I could launch the actual kernel:

It’s worth noting here that the launch function blocks until the kernel is complete. Normally, CUDA kernel launches are asynchronous - the launch returns almost immediately to allow the CPU to queue up more work or perform memory transfers to and from the GPU while it’s working. This is another limitation of this particular wrapper library. I’ve been thinking about using Rust’s futures libraries to model this asynchronous behavior, but for now it would be nice if we could just have access to the same API that C programmers use.

Also note the manual construction of the argument array to pass to the kernel. I think a lot of this verbosity can be eliminated with some macros. I should probably write those macros. Anyway, with this done, the path tracer port was complete.

Conclusions

For me, the biggest take-away from this is that we need a well-designed, well-documented Rust wrapper around the CUDA driver and runtime APIs. The kernel side of things is basic but good enough for initial use (modulo compiler bugs) but the facilities for working with device memory and launching kernels are limited and awkward. Down the road, we’ll need to tackle things like shared memory somehow, and we’ll probably want to start building higher-level tools for kernels as well.

Still, now that we have the PTX linker and build script tools, it’s possible to reliably build CUDA kernels in Rust and execute them without relying on specific compiler versions. It’s just more work than it really ought to be. That’s a major step forward towards making GPGPU in Rust as good as it is in C.