To begin learning Rust in earnest, I recently started writing a client library for Twilio . As a library writer, (quoting Alan Kay) you want to make simple things simple but complex things possible. For example, to make an outbound call with Twilio, there are three required parameters but a whole lot of optional parameters that aren’t used very often.

Need for the builder pattern

All outbound call parameters can be representing as a struct that looks like this (I’ve omitted most of the optional parameters for brevity):

struct OutboundCall < 'a > { from : & 'a str , to : & 'a str , url : & 'a str , fallback_url : Option <& 'a str > , status_callback : Option <& 'a str > , ... }

This struct has a large number of fields. As such, forcing the application programmer to populate the entire struct consisting of mostly None values is unergonomic. Rust does not (yet) have default values for struct fields or default function arguments, although they have been proposed . A nice way to solve this is to use the builder pattern:

let call = OutboundCallBuilder :: new ( "tom" , "jerry" , "http://www.example.com" ) .with_fallback_url ( "http://fallback.com" ) .with_status_callback ( "http://status.com" ) ... .build ();

Here, we only accept the mandatory fields in the constructor, and provide methods to optionally fill in the rest of the fields.

As a Rust newbie, there were a couple of subtleties involved in implementing the builder pattern. Let’s go over them.

A first pass

My first stab at a builder implementation looked like this:

struct OutboundCallBuilder < 'a > { from : & 'a str , to : & 'a str , url : & 'a str , fallback_url : Option <& 'a str > , } impl < 'a > OutboundCallBuilder < 'a > { fn new ( from : & 'a str , to : & 'a str , url : & 'a str ) -> OutboundCallBuilder < 'a > { OutboundCallBuilder { from , to , url , fallback_url : None , } } fn with_fallback_url ( mut self , fallback_url : & 'a str ) -> Self { self .fallback_url = Some ( fallback_url ); self } fn build ( self ) -> OutboundCall < 'a > { OutboundCall { from : self .from , to : self .to , url : self .url , fallback_url : self .fallback_url , } } }

Here, each builder method returns self to allow for chaining, so we can write:

let call = OutboundCallBuilder :: new ( "tom" , "jerry" , "http://www.example.com" ) .with_fallback_url ( "http://fallback.com" ) .build ();

This works! But what if we had more complex builder logic, like:

let builder = OutboundCallBuilder :: new ( "tom" , "jerry" , "http://www.example.com" ); if ( need_fallback ) { builder .with_fallback_url ( "http://www.fallback.com" ); } let call = builder .build ();

This fails with a compile error:

error[E0382]: use of moved value: `builder` --> src/main.rs:53:16 | 52 | builder.with_fallback_url("http://www.fallback.com"); | ------- value moved here 53 | let call = builder.build(); | ^^^^^^^ value used here after move

Aha, this is because each builder method is taking ownership of self and the return statement is relinquishing ownership back to the caller. There’s only one problem - the return value is not assigned to anything, and hence there is no owner! We can make the compiler happy by re-assigning to builder each time a builder method is called, so that the owner is not dropped prematurely:

let mut builder = OutboundCallBuilder::new("tom", "jerry", "http://www.example.com"); if (need_fallback) { builder = builder.with_fallback_url("http://www.fallback.com"); } let call = builder.build();

This is pretty inelegant IMO and again places an unnecessary burden on the library consumer.

Getting it right

To avoid having the builder methods take ownership of self , we can instead take and return a mutable reference to self :

fn with_fallback_url ( & mut self , fallback_url : & 'a str ) -> & mut Self { self .fallback_url = Some ( fallback_url ); self }

This solves the multi-statement builder problem, but compilation now fails on the one-liner instead:

| 72 | let call = OutboundCallBuilder::new("tom", "jerry", "http://www.example.com") | ________________^ 73 | | .with_fallback_url("http://fallback.com") | |_________________________________________________^ cannot move out of borrowed content

Duh, of course! My build() method is still consuming (taking ownership) of self , but we’re passing it a borrowed reference. Let’s fix that by consuming self by reference in build() :

fn build ( & self ) -> OutboundCall < 'a > { ... }