- Thomas E. Donaldson

If, as noted by D C Bhattacharyya, Vaishnavism was predominant throughout India and particularly engaged with Buddhism in a struggle for religious supremacy, one would think that viShNu especially would be depicted in Buddhist art as an object of humiliation. There are only a few examples, however, where he is so depicted, as with harihariharivAhana where he along with garuDa and a lion serve as vAhanas or with vajrajvAlAnalArka where he and his wife are being trampled. He is also included as one of the four mArAs under the feet of dashabhujasita-mArIchI, 12-armed ubhayavarAhAnana, 16-armed hevajra, 16-armed prasannatArA, and 24-armed vidyujjvAlAkarAlI. He is also one of six Hindu deities serving as seats for the six chakravarti DAkas in the ShaTchakravarti maNDala of the niShpannayogAvalI and as one of the eight deities serving as seats under directional goddesses surrounding the pancha DAkas of the pancha DAka maNDala of the same text or under goddesses surrounding hevajra in the hevajra tantra, the other seven Hindu gods in these last two maNDalas being brahmA, indra, shiva, yama, kubera, nairR^iti and vemachitrin.

brahmA likewise serves as a seat in the Shatchakravarti maNDala in the pancha DAka maNDala and in the hevajra tantra while as one of four mAras he is similarly trampled by dashabhujasitamArIchI and ubhayavarAhAnana-mArIchI, 16-armed hevajra, 16-armed prasannatArA and 24-armed vidyujjihvAkarAlI. Both he and shiva are trampled by mahAchakra vajrapANi. Indra, in addition to serving as one of the four mArAs and one of eight gods in the above mentioned maNDalas, is one of the six Hindu gods serving as seats in the ShaTchakravarti maNDala and as one of eight beneath the feet of paramAshva (hayagrIva), the others being shrI, indrANI, rati, prIti, madhukara (kAma), jayakara and vasanta. Other Hindu deities being trampled upon include aparAjitA beneath bhUtaDAmara; Aditya under ratnaDAka in the ShaTchakravarti maNDala; kAma with rudra under the feet of kAlachakra, and with his consort beneath tArodbhava-kurukullA; and gaNesha who is trampled on by aparAjitA or whose presence is implied (as an obstacle or vighna) under the feet of parNashAvarI and vighnAntaka. In the case of gaNesha, it is more likely afflictions which must be overcome before enlightenment can be obtained that are being symbolized by his image rather than merely an attack on his person. As noted by J Leoshko, “from the Buddhist point the view, Hindu religious practices could be viewed as part of mAra’s bag of deluding tricks that keep one from enlightenment”.

The deity most often singled out for humiliation or desecration is shiva, either singly or accompanied by his consort or by one or more other Hindu gods. In the ShaTchakravarti maNDala of the niShpannayogAvalI, in fact, he is represented twice as a seat for Buddhist divinites - as maheshvara he is placed beneath padmaDAka while as bhairava accompanied by gaurI he placed under vajrasattva or jnAnaDAka. As bhairava, he is placed under the feet of vajrahUnkAra while as bhairava accompnaied by his consort, usually named kAlarAtrI, he is trampled by two-armed sambara, 12-armed sambara, 12-armed chakrasambara, 6-armed saptAkShara, 12-armed heruka, 6-armed trailokyavijaya, and two armed vajravArAhI. As maheshvara accompanied by his consort umA, he is trampled by 8-armed trailokyavijaya. As hara accompanied by shivA, he is trampled by chakrasamvara. As shiva accompanied by brahmA, he is trampled by 6-armed mahAchakra varapANi while as rudra accompanied by ananga (kAma), he is crushed by 24-armed kAlachakra. As one of the four mAras he is under the feet of 16-armed hevakra, 16-armed prasannatArA, 12-armed ubhayavarAhAnana mArIchI, dashabhujasita mArIchI and 24-armed vidyujjvAlAkarAlI. He also appears as one of the eight Hindu deities placed under eight directional goddesses in the pancha DAka maNDAla of the niShpannayogAvalI and in the hevajra tantra.

For the most part, then, bhairava or shiva is being trampled by Buddhist deities that are strongly influenced by him in respect to their iconography. This antagonism between Shaivism and Buddhism, as noted by G Tucci, has left traces in Tantric literature and iconography:

The god that rules and guides the world of demons and opposes the law and its progress is maheshvara, the lord of gods. In the fight between vajrapANi or yamAntaka on one side, and maheshvara on the other, is shadowed the rivalry between Buddhism and Hinduism. Buddhism wants to affirm its superiority in the fight by imagining maheshvara along with his consort umA put under the feet of the defenders of the faith.

The aetiological myth he discusses, obviously created to explain the iconographic features of the deity, is the battle between mahAdeva and the 34-armed vajrabhairava. The tradition, summed up by Bharo the Nepalese, is as follows:

Once upon a time there was a fight between skanda kumAra, the son of mahAdeva and umA, and the asura rudra. And this he lost. Then mahAdeva, the lord of the sphere of concupiscence (kAmaloka), assembled the thirty-three species of armies, the army of eight species of sickness, and of the eight species of calamities and won over rudra. He requested manjushrI for help. In order to face the thirty-six armies he emanated from his body thirty-four arms. Against the crowd of horsemen of the subterranean asuras he emanated the head of a buffalo, against the eight species of sickness and the eight species of calamities staying on earth, he emanated sixteen feet and against mahAdeva he erected the member and revealed the tantra of vajrabhairava in ten thousand verses.

Iconographically, this form of vajrabhairava (yamAntaka) is dark blue in color, has nine faces with the central one being that of a buffalo, has thirty-four arms, sixteen feet, is Urdhvalinga and naked, has a pot-belly, wears a garland of fifteen heads freshly cut,has a crown of five terrific skulls and stands in pratyAlIDha above the figure of shiva. Conversely, the figure of eight-headed, sixteen-armed and four-legged mahAkAla embracing his prajnA in the sAdhanamAlA is said to trample upon vajrabhairava in the form of a corpse.

In most instances bhairava or shiva when being trampled upon by a Buddhist deity is accompanied by his consort, an aspect never represented in Hindu art, and their pose implies that humiliation was intended. Except for the rare example in the ShaTchakravarti maNDala where the six chakravartI are seated in vajraparyanka on the chest of six Hindu deities, the triumphant Buddhist gods are posed either standing or dancing. Invariably one foot is placed on the head of bhairava while the other is placed on the breast of his consort, as in the case of trailokyavijaya, who stands in the pratyAlIDha attitude, tramples upon the head of maheshvara with his left leg, while the right presses upon the bosom of gaurI. In the trailokyavijaya maNDala of the sarvatathAgata tattvasamgraha sUtra, as indicated, shiva is considered to be dead but is eventually given new life by vajrapANi, his body being consecrated as fully alive. In the description of the 12-armed samvara, in contrast, it is stated:

With his right leg set forward he presses down the head of kAlabhairava, who has four arms; two of them are in the act of adoration; in the second of the right he holds the magic drum, and in the second of the left he holds the sword. His left leg is bent and presses the breast of kAlI - red and also with four arms, two of which are joined in adoration, and of the other two the one on the right holds a kapAla and the left holds the khaTvAnga.

The placement of shiva and gaurI is not only reversed but each has one set of hands clasped in anjalI, paying homage to the triumphant Buddhist deity, to suggest that their life has been “restored”. In the three surviving images from Orissa, two stone images of samvara and a bronze image of vajrahUnkAra, shiva is placed under the left foot of the Buddhist deity while gaurI is under the right foot. In the two images of samvara, the two armed kAlarAtrI is emaciated, suggesting she represents chAmuNDA, and holds a kartrI and a kapAla. The pot-bellied bhairava holds a rosary, damarU and a trident in three hands while the fourth possibly displays varada. In the image of vajrahUnkAra from Acutrajpur, in contrast, kAlarAtrI is not emaciated and has four arms. Two of her hands are in anjalI, clasping the foot of the triumphant Buddhist deity, while her four scattered Ayudhas are a sword, hatchet, trident and shield. The ten-armed bhairava wears a garland of skulls and likewise has a set of hands in anjalI which touch the left leg of vajrahUnkAra.

For most part then, at least with male deities, the Buddhist divinity triumphs over the Hindu deity most closely like himself, as in the case of yamAntaka putting an end to yama or ucchuShma jambhala pressing down the head of kubera to make him vomit jewels, to suggest that humiliation is the primary emphasis rather than actual death.