

Cannabis (also known as marijuana,[1] weed,[2] pot,[3], grass,[4] herb,[5] and many others) is a preparation of the cannabis plant that produces psychoactive effects when consumed (via smoking, vaporizing, or ingestion). The principal psychoactive constituent of cannabis is tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), which makes up one of 483 known compounds in the plant,[6] including at least 84 other cannabinoids such as cannabidiol (CBD), cannabinol (CBN), tetrahydrocannabivarin (THCV),[7][8] and cannabigerol (CBG). At least three species are recognized: Cannabis sativa, Cannabis indica, and Cannabis ruderalis.

The earliest recorded uses of cannabis date from the 3rd millennium BC.[9] In modern times, cannabis is used for recreational or medicinal and religious or spiritual purposes.[citation needed] According to a United Nations report, cannabis is the most used illicit drug in the world.[10][11]

Subjective effects include sedation, appetite enhancement, immersion enhancement, creativity enhancement, increased sense of humor, increased music appreciation, and euphoria. The effects of cannabis can vary widely depending on dose, strain, form, and set and setting. Notably, it can either strongly suppress or cause anxiety depending on the individual. Higher doses are reported to produce mild-to-moderate hallucinogenic effects such as visual hallucinations, conceptual thinking and time distortion (more prevalent with sativa strains). It should be noted that higher doses are also associated with a greater risk of anxiety, paranoia, and delusions.

Cannabis is considered to have low to moderate abuse potential.[citation needed] Chronic use is associated with escalating tolerance and psychological dependence in some users.[citation needed] It has very low physical toxicity and is essentially impossible to physically overdose on. However, it is capable of exacerbating certain psychiatric symptoms like delusions or psychosis in predisposed individuals.[citation needed] As a result, individuals with a personal or family history of mental disorders (especially psychotic disorders like schizophrenia) should avoid cannabis unless under medical supervision. It is highly advised to use harm reduction practices if using this substance.

History and culture

The genus cannabis is indigenous to central Asia and the Indian subcontinent.[12] Tombs in China reveal humans were smoking cannabis 2500 years ago.[13]

Since the early 20th century, cannabis has been subject to legal restrictions with the possession, use, and sale of cannabis preparations containing psychoactive cannabinoids currently illegal in most countries. However, there is a recent growing trend towards decriminalization and legalization, with the sale of cannabis made legal in some US states and Canada.

In 2004, the U.N. estimated that global consumption patterns of cannabis indicated that approximately 4% of the adult world population (162 million people) used cannabis annually and that approximately 0.6% (22.5 million) of people used cannabis daily.[14]

Potency trends

The potency of illicit cannabis plant material has consistently increased over time since 1995 from ~4% in 1995 to ~12% in 2014. The cannabidiol content has decreased on average from ~.28% in 2001 to <.15% in 2014, resulting in a change in the ratio of Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol to cannabidiol from 14 times in 1995 to ~80 times in 2014.[15][16]

Etymology

The word cannabis is from Greek κάνναβις (kánnabis) (see Latin cannabis),[17] which was originally Scythian or Thracian.[18] It is related to the Persian kanab, the English canvas and possibly the English hemp (Old English hænep).[18]

Common names

Cannabis has numerous common and street names. These include: marijuana,[19] weed,[20] pot,[21], grass,[22] herb,[23], ganja.

Chemistry

Cannabis plants contain a number of different specific compounds at various ratios. Cannabis contains more than 460 compounds;[24] at least 80 of these are cannabinoids,[25][26] chemical compounds that interact with cannabinoid receptors in the brain.[27] The most common cannabinoids are listed below:

Others

CBN (Cannabinol)

(Cannabinol) CBG (Cannabigerol)

(Cannabigerol) CBC (Cannabichromene)

(Cannabichromene) CBL (Cannabicyclol)

(Cannabicyclol) CBV (Cannabivarin)

(Cannabivarin) THCV (Tetrahydrocannabivarin)

(Tetrahydrocannabivarin) CBDV (Cannabidivarin)

(Cannabidivarin) CBCV (Cannabichromevarin)

(Cannabichromevarin) CBGV (Cannabigerovarin)

(Cannabigerovarin) CBGM (Cannabigerol Monomethyl Ether)

Pharmacology

The most psychoactive cannabinoid found in the cannabis plant is tetrahydrocannabinol (or delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol), commonly known as THC.[28] Other cannabinoids include delta-8-tetrahydrocannabinol, cannabidiol (CBD), cannabinol (CBN), cannabicyclol (CBL), cannabichromene (CBC) and cannabigerol (CBG); they have less psychotropic effects than THC, but may play a role in the overall effect of cannabis.[29] The most studied are THC, CBD and CBN.[30] The entourage effect is a proposed mechanism by which compounds present in cannabis which are largely non-psychoactive by themselves modulate the overall psychoactive effects of the plant (these resulting principally from the action of the main psychoactive component of cannabis, tetrahydrocannabinol (THC)).

THC appears to alter mood and cognition through its agonist actions on the CB1 receptors, which inhibit a secondary messenger system (adenylate cyclase) in a dose dependent manner. Via CB1 activation, THC indirectly increases dopamine release and produces psychotropic effects. Cannabidiol acts as an allosteric modulator of the mu and delta opioid receptors.[31] THC also potentiates the effects of the glycine receptors.[32] However, the role of these interactions and how they result in the cannabis high remains subject to on-going scientific investigation.

Drugs that activate the CB1 and CB2 receptors are known to upregulate and enhance 5-HT 2A receptor activity.[33] The ERK1/ERK2 signaling pathway has been shown to mediate this effect, but the exact biochemical mechanism is unknown. This upregulation and enhancement of the 5-HT 2A receptor is why cannabis potentiates the effects of psychedelic drugs.

Subjective effects

Disclaimer: The effects listed below cite the Subjective Effect Index (SEI), a literature which relies on collected anecdotal reports and the personal experiences of PsychonautWiki contributors. As a result, they should be taken with a healthy amount of skepticism. It is worth noting that these effects will not necessarily occur in a consistent or reliable manner, although higher doses (common+) are more likely to induce the full spectrum of reported effects. Likewise, adverse effects become much more likely with higher doses and may include serious injury or death.

Combination effects

Experience reports

Anecdotal reports which describe the effects of this compound within our experience index include:

Additional experience reports can be found here:

Strains and forms

Strains

Types of cannabis

Sativa and indica are the two major types of cannabis plants which can mix together to create hybrid strains. Each strain has its own range of effects on the body and mind, resulting in a wide range of medicinal benefits.

Indica plants typically grow short and wide compared to sativa plants which grow tall and thin. Indica plants are better suited for indoor growing because of their short growth and sativa plants are better suited for outdoor growing because some strains can reach over 25 ft. in height.

The high produced from smoking indica bud is a strong physical "body high" that will make one sleepy or sedated and provides a deep relaxation feeling compared to a sativa high, which is known to be more energetic and uplifting.

Marijuana strains range from pure sativas to pure indicas with hybrid strains consisting of both indica and sativa (for example, 30% indica – 70% sativa, 50% – 50% combinations, or 80% indica – 20% sativa). Because sativa and indica buds have very different medicinal benefits and effects, certain strains can be targeted to better treat specific illnesses.

Forms

Whole flower and leaf is the most widely consumed form, containing 3% to 22% THC. [57] [58]

Kief is a powder which can be sifted from the leaves and flowers of cannabis plants and either consumed in powder form or compressed to produce cakes of hashish. [59]

Hashish (also spelled hasheesh , hashisha , or simply hash ) is a concentrated resin cake or ball produced from pressed kief. Hashish was the primary form of cannabis used in Europe in 2008. Herbal cannabis is more widely used in Northern America. Purities of confiscated hashish in Europe (2011) range between 4-15%. Between 2000 and 2005 the percentage of hashish in cannabis end product seizures was at 18%. [60]

Tinctures are cannabinoids which have been extracted from cannabis plant matter using high-proof spirits (often grain alcohol).

Hash oil is obtained from the cannabis plant by solvent extraction, and contains the cannabinoids present in the highly concentrated natural oils of cannabis flowers and leaves. [61] Hash oils in use in the 2010s had THC concentrations as high as 90%. [62]

Cannabutter is one of many varieties of cannabis infusions owing to the variety of non-volatile solvents used. Examples of solvents used in this process are cocoa butter, dairy butter, cooking oil, glycerine, and skin moisturizers.

Common usage

Consumption methods

Cannabis is consumed in many different ways:[63]

Smoking typically involves inhaling vaporized cannabinoids ("smoke") from small pipes, bongs (portable versions of hookahs with water chamber), paper-wrapped joints, tobacco-leaf-wrapped blunts, and other items. [64]

typically involves inhaling vaporized cannabinoids ("smoke") from small pipes, bongs (portable versions of hookahs with water chamber), paper-wrapped joints, tobacco-leaf-wrapped blunts, and other items. Vaporizers heat herbal cannabis to 165–190 °C (329–374 °F), causing the active ingredients to evaporate into a vapor without burning the plant material (the boiling point of THC is 157 °C (315 °F) at 760 mmHg pressure). [65]

heat herbal cannabis to 165–190 °C (329–374 °F), causing the active ingredients to evaporate into a vapor without burning the plant material (the boiling point of THC is 157 °C (315 °F) at 760 mmHg pressure). Cannabis tea contains relatively small concentrations of THC because THC is an oil (lipophilic) and is only slightly water-soluble (with a solubility of 2.8 mg per liter). [66] Cannabis tea is made by first adding a saturated fat to hot water (e.g., cream or any milk except skim) with a small amount of cannabis. [67]

contains relatively small concentrations of THC because THC is an oil (lipophilic) and is only slightly water-soluble (with a solubility of 2.8 mg per liter). Cannabis tea is made by first adding a saturated fat to hot water (e.g., cream or any milk except skim) with a small amount of cannabis. Edibles are cannabis added as an ingredient to one of a variety of foods.

are cannabis added as an ingredient to one of a variety of foods. Sublingual/buccal consumption typically involves the absorption of cannabinoids through the membranes inside the mouth (usually through a candy or tincture).

consumption typically involves the absorption of cannabinoids through the membranes inside the mouth (usually through a candy or tincture). Tincture

Topical consumption typically involves the use of either a cream or lip balm containing cannabinoids absorbed through the skin.

A joint/spliff prior to rolling with a paper handmade filter on the left.

A forced-air vaporizer. The detachable balloon (top) fills with vapors that are then inhaled.

Edible weed brownies

Preparation methods

Preparation methods for this compound within our tutorial index include:

Medical use

Cannabis is an emerging treatment option for those suffering from many serious diseases, including cancer. Due to its pain relieving, nausea suppressing effects, cannabis can be useful for those undergoing radiation therapy and chemotherapy.[citation needed] Oral doses of cannabis are more effective in reducing nausea and vomiting[68].

In addition to the anti-nausea effects, the appetite enhancement effects of cannabis can combine with the antiemetic effects and make it more likely that the patient will gain or maintain weight through cancer treatment.[69]

Toxicity and harm potential

[70] Radar plot showing relative physical harm, social harm, and dependence of cannabis

Cannabis is not known to cause brain damage, and has an extremely low toxicity relative to dose. There are relatively few physical side effects associated with acute cannabis exposure. Various studies have shown that in reasonable doses in a responsible context, cannabis produces little to no negative cognitive, psychiatric or physical consequences.[citation needed]

It is advised that those with severe pre-existing mental conditions should not ingest cannabis due to the way it strongly amplifies the user's current state of mind and emotions. The prolonged usage of THC and other cannabinoids may also increase one's disposition to mental illness and psychosis,[71] particularly in vulnerable individuals with risk factors for psychotic illnesses (like a past or family history of schizophrenia).[72][73][74]

It is strongly recommended that one use harm reduction practices when using this substance.

Lethal dosage

No fatal overdoses associated with cannabis use have been reported as of 2010.[75] A review published in the British Journal of Psychiatry in February 2001 said that "no deaths directly due to acute cannabis use have ever been reported."[76]

THC, the principal psychoactive constituent of the cannabis plant, has an extremely low toxicity and the amount that can enter the body through the consumption of cannabis plants poses no threat of death. In lab animal tests, scientists have had much difficulty administering a dose of THC that is high enough to be lethal. The dose of THC needed to kill 50% of tested rodents is very high,[77] 2.594 mol/kg, about 815.7 grams of THC per kilogram of body weight,[78] and human deaths from overdose are unheard of.[79]

At present, it is estimated that the LD 50 of cannabis is around 1:20,000 or 1:40,000. This means that, in order to induce death, a cannabis smoker would have to consume 20,000 to 40,000 times as much cannabis as is contained in one cannabis cigarette. A user would theoretically have to smoke nearly 1,500 pounds of cannabis within about 15 minutes to induce a lethal response.

Dependence and abuse potential

Cannabis is moderately habit-forming. Research has shown the overall dependence potential for cannabis to be less than that for caffeine, tobacco, alcohol, cocaine or heroin, but higher than that for psilocybin, mescaline, or LSD.[80]

Dependence on cannabis is more common amongst heavy users. Cannabis use can lead to increased tolerance[81][82] and withdrawal symptoms upon stopping usage.[83][84][85] Prolonged cannabis usage requires the user to consume higher doses of the substance to achieve a common desirable effect, and reinforce the body's metabolic systems for synthesizing and eliminating it more efficiently.[86]

Tolerance to many of the effects of cannabis develops with prolonged and repeated use. This results in users having to administer increasingly large doses to achieve the same effects. After that, it takes about 1 - 2 weeks for the tolerance to be reduced to half and 2 - 3 weeks to be back at baseline (in the absence of further consumption). THC has been detected in heavy cannabis users after 77 days of drug abstinence (Ellis et al., 1985).[87]

Cannabis produces cross-tolerance with all cannabinoids, meaning that after the consumption of cannabis all cannabinoids will have a reduced effect. The mechanisms that create this tolerance to THC are thought to involve changes in cannabinoid receptor function.

Dangerous interactions

Although many psychoactive substances are reasonably safe to use on their own, they can quickly become dangerous or even life-threatening when combined with other substances. The list below includes some known dangerous combinations (although it cannot be guaranteed to include all of them). Independent research (e.g. Google, DuckDuckGo) should always be conducted to ensure that a combination of two or more substances is safe to consume. Some interactions listed have been sourced from TripSit.

2C-T-x

2C-x

5-MeO-xxT

Amphetamines - Stimulants increase anxiety levels and the risk of thought loops which can lead to negative experiences

- Stimulants increase anxiety levels and the risk of thought loops which can lead to negative experiences aMT

Cocaine - Stimulants increase anxiety levels and the risk of thought loops which can lead to negative experiences

- Stimulants increase anxiety levels and the risk of thought loops which can lead to negative experiences DMT

DOx

LSD

Mescaline

Mushrooms

25x-NBOMe

Legal status

Legal or essentially legal Illegal but decriminalized Illegal but often unenforced Illegal No information Map showing cannabis laws worldwide

United Nations

The legality of cannabis for medical and recreational use varies by country, in terms of its possession, distribution, and cultivation, and (in regards to medical) how it can be consumed and what medical conditions it can be used for. These policies in most countries are regulated by the United Nations Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs that was ratified in 1961, along with the 1971 Convention on Psychotropic Substances and the 1988 Convention against Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances.[88][89]

Rescheduling proposals

The World Health Organization (WHO) is calling for whole-plant marijuana, as well as cannabis resin, to be removed from Schedule IV—the most restrictive category of a 1961 drug convention signed by countries from around the world.[90]

See also

Further reading

References



