Cicero was born to a wealthy family in Arpinum, Italy in the year 106 BC. Cicero was extensively educated in philosophy, even studying abroad in Greece. After completing his studies, he became a lawyer. He quickly became the most eloquent man in Rome, and the variety of speeches he delivered shows an adaptable and quick‐​witted mind.

Cicero climbed what was called the “Cursus Honorum,” the order of political offices held by aspiring politicians. Despite his family’s wealth, he was handicapped by his lack of noble ancestry, making him a Novus Homo, a ‘New Man’. Despite this, Cicero held every office of the Cursus Honorum and even became a consul, the highest position in Rome’s political hierarchy and which was held by only two men every year. The zenith of his career came during his consulship when he thwarted a conspiracy to overthrow the Roman Republic by disgruntled politician Catiline. His speeches condemning Catiline are masterworks of oratory. For his efforts he was awarded the title Pater Patriae, or ‘Father of the Fatherland’, the greatest achievement of his life.

The latter half of Cicero’s career was marked by his undying efforts to fight against the encroaching tyranny of Julius Caesar. Civil war erupted in 49BC and the Republic was thrown into chaos. Caesar eventually prevailed and made himself dictator of Rome. After Caesar’s assassination by a group of senators, Cicero attempted to restore order and quell the competition for power between Augustus and Mark Antony. After delivering a set of damning speeches condemning Mark Antony, Cicero was assassinated. His hands were chopped off and nailed to the rostra (a platform for public speakers) for all to see.

Unlike many of his contemporaries, Cicero left behind an extensive number of his writings, including his legal and political speeches, letters to his best friend Atticus, and his philosophical writings. His work covers a huge breadth of topics, including arguments against redistributing lands, arguments for self‐​defense, instruction on how to give convincing speeches, the nature of the Gods, old age, friendship, and a whole host of other topics.

Today, Cicero is rarely read by anyone besides students of the classics. For a long time, classical scholars believed that there was little merit in reading Cicero as an original thinker. Throughout his philosophical writings, Cicero consistently peppers his work with quotations and anecdotes from an impressive number of Greek thinkers. This led many to believe that he had no original thoughts of his own and was, at best, a good vehicle by which to reconstruct the teachings of the lost philosophers from the Greek world. Thankfully, academics have begun to take Cicero seriously as an original thinker in his own right and to investigate his extensive influence on later thinkers.

One of Cicero’s most well‐​read philosophical treatises is De Officiis (On Duties). This book was written in the last year of Cicero’s life. Although it was dedicated to his son, Cicero intended for De Officiis to have a much larger audience. Cicero’s wish was posthumously granted. Philosopher Martha Nussbaum has argued that De Officiis is one of the most influential books in Western political philosophy and with good reason.

Many church fathers deeply admired Cicero and his avoidance of dogma. As Augustine wrote,“There are some people who use philosophy to lead people astray… the one thing that delighted me in Cicero’s exhortation was the advice to ‘not study one particular sect but to love and seek and pursue and hold fast and strongly embrace wisdom itself, wherever found.” Throughout Thomas Aquinas’ masterwork, the Summa Theologica, he quotes Cicero numerous times. Renaissance Humanists attempted to recreate Cicero’s writing style throughout their works to an almost comical degree. De Officiis was the third book and the first classical text to be issued from the printing press. In the 17th century, little had changed. Rodger L’Estrange, a prolific pamphleteer and contemporary of Locke, exclaimed that De Officiis was “one of the commonest School Books that we have.” Even in the 18th‐​century, Cicero’s ideas were so commonplace that when Adam Smith quotes Cicero (which he often does), he does not bother to cite him as doing so would insult the reader’s intelligence. Thomas Jefferson wrote that the Declaration of Independence was influenced by what he called “the elementary books of public right,” which included Cicero and Locke.

Cicero was a massively popular author for more than a millennium. In the domain of political philosophy, Cicero holds sway comparable to giants like Plato and Aristotle. However, Cicero differs significantly from his Greek predecessors and in many ways from most political philosophers. Many intellectuals have written impressive treatises on politics, but few have ever taken part in political life themselves. At times, this leads to overly idealistic, esoteric or scholarly conclusions. One reason that Cicero was such an authoritative thinker for so long was that he did not merely theorize about politics, but rather he practiced what he preached. It is a rarity for such a well‐​read and scholarly person to also hold the reins of political power. John Adams, for whom Cicero was a personal hero, complimented Cicero by saying that “all the ages of the world have not produced a greater statesman and philosopher united in the same character, his authority should have great weight.” Cicero was no mere observer of political life: he was an active participant until his death.