There were celebrations and optimism among Catalan separatists in April after a party committed to independence came out on top in the region in national elections for the first time since the end of Franco and the return of democracy to Spain.

Not only was Esquerra Republicana de Catalunya (ERC) victorious in Catalonia, but the Socialist Party, less hostile to their cause than the previous centre-right government of Mariano Rajoy, had benefited from a strong swing across the country.

Things appeared to be moving forward from the bitter acrimony which had followed the referendum in the autumn of 2017, when Madrid sent the Guardia Civil to put down protests with punitive violence and the arrest of separatist leaders. There was even talk of an alliance between the socialists. ERC assembly representative Gabriel Rufian called for a new start, urging the Socialist government of Pedro Sanchez to “bring politics back to this political conflict and remove judicial robes and police batons”.

But, five months on, there has been no significant political progress on the question of Catalan separatism. There has been no pact and the government has ruled out a fresh referendum. And on Monday morning, the Supreme Court in Madrid handed lengthy prison sentences to nine of the detained Catalonian leaders for up to 13 years each, with Oriel Junqueras of the ERC, the former Catalan vice-president and the highest ranking official in the trial, among those receiving the maximum term.

Although the public strife of two years ago has not been repeated, the Catalan “Committees for the Defence of the Republic” (CDR) has vowed direct action, including the blocking of roads and railway lines. Just over a week ago, nine members of the CDR were arrested, and seven of them charged with belonging to a terrorist organisation, allegedly possessing explosives – and with the ultimate aim of targeting the infrastructure system.

Thousands take to streets after Catalan separatist leaders jailed Show all 20 1 /20 Thousands take to streets after Catalan separatist leaders jailed Thousands take to streets after Catalan separatist leaders jailed Mossos d'Esquadra Catalan police officers clash with demonstrators during the rally called by the group called 'Tsunami Democratic' (Democratic Tsunami) in Barcelona, 14 October EPA Thousands take to streets after Catalan separatist leaders jailed Catalunya Square Several thousand people gather at Catalunya Square to protest against the sentence ruled by Supreme Court on 'proces' trial', in Barcelona, Catalonia, 14 October 2019. Demonstrators are blocking some roads in Catalan capital against the court's decision. Spanish Supreme Court condemned Oriol Junqueras to 13 years in jail for sedition, Carme Forcadell to 11 years and half for sedition; Jordi Cuixart and Jordi Sanchez were sentenced to 9 years and half for sedition; former regional Minister Jordi Turull, Raul Romeva and Dolors Bassa were sentenced to 12 years in jail for sedition and missapropriation, and Joaquin Forn and Josep Rull were condenmend 10 years an half for sedition. The three other defendants were absolved. EPA Thousands take to streets after Catalan separatist leaders jailed People block the railway track of the high speed train AVE to protest against the sentence EPA Thousands take to streets after Catalan separatist leaders jailed Protesters clash with policemen on the highway leading to El Prat airport AFP/Getty Thousands take to streets after Catalan separatist leaders jailed TOPSHOT - Protesters clash with Spanish policemen outside El Prat airport in Barcelona on October 14, 2019 as thousands of angry protesters took to the streets after Spain's Supreme Court sentenced nine Catalan separatist leaders to between nine and 13 years in jail for sedition over the failed 2017 independence bid. - As the news broke, demonstrators turned out en masse, blocking streets in Barcelona and elsewhere as police braced for what activists said would be a mass response of civil disobedience. (Photo by LLUIS GENE / AFP) (Photo by LLUIS GENE/AFP via Getty Images) LLUIS GENE AFP/Getty Thousands take to streets after Catalan separatist leaders jailed People wearing yellow ribbons in support of jailed pro-independence politicians in Barcelona AP Thousands take to streets after Catalan separatist leaders jailed People block the railway track EPA Thousands take to streets after Catalan separatist leaders jailed An Estelada pro-independence flag is waved among protestors at El Prat airport AP Thousands take to streets after Catalan separatist leaders jailed Thousands block the Barcelona Airport access Getty Thousands take to streets after Catalan separatist leaders jailed A protester demonstrates outside the venue where Former Catalan President Carles Puigdemont held a news conference in Brussels Reuters Thousands take to streets after Catalan separatist leaders jailed People demand the release of Catalan pro-independence leaders during a protest outside the Sants railway station in Barcelona EPA Thousands take to streets after Catalan separatist leaders jailed Thousands of people protest in front of Generalitat local office in Gerona, Catalonia EPA Thousands take to streets after Catalan separatist leaders jailed Protesters hold a banner reading "Free political prisoners" AFP/Getty Thousands take to streets after Catalan separatist leaders jailed El Prat airport A protester holds a Catalan pro-independence "Estelada" flag surrounded by other protesters at El Prat airport in Barcelona on October 14, 2019 as thousands took to the streets after Spain's Supreme Court sentenced nine Catalan separatist leaders to between nine and 13 years in jail for sedition over the failed 2017 independence bid. - As the news broke, demonstrators turned out en masse, blocking streets in Barcelona and elsewhere as police braced for what activists said would be a mass response of civil disobedience. (Photo by LLUIS GENE / AFP) (Photo by LLUIS GENE/AFP via Getty Images) LLUIS GENE AFP/Getty Thousands take to streets after Catalan separatist leaders jailed El Prat airport Catalan regional police officers grab a protester AFP/Getty Thousands take to streets after Catalan separatist leaders jailed Barcelona A woman shouts holding a banner reading "Free political prisoners" AFP/Getty Thousands take to streets after Catalan separatist leaders jailed El Prat airport Police officers stand by a doorway as protestors sit down blocking access to the airport AP Thousands take to streets after Catalan separatist leaders jailed Protestors crowd a street in Barcelona AP Thousands take to streets after Catalan separatist leaders jailed Catalunya Square epa07919903 Some thousand people gather at Catalunya Square to protest against the sentence ruled by Supreme Court on 'proces' trial', in Barcelona, Catalonia, 14 October 2019. Demonstrators are blocking some roads in Catalan capital against the court's decision. Spanish Supreme Court condemned Oriol Junqueras to 13 years in jail for sedition, Carme Forcadell to 11 years and half for sedition; Jordi Cuixart and Jordi Sanchez were sentenced to 9 years and half for sedition; former regional Minister Jordi Turull, Raul Romeva and Dolors Bassa were sentenced to 12 years in jail for sedition and missapropriation, and Joaquin Forn and Josep Rull were condenmend 10 years an half for sedition. The three other defendants were absolved. EPA/Marta Perez Marta Perez EPA Thousands take to streets after Catalan separatist leaders jailed A woman holds placards depecting pictured of jailed Catalan separatist leaders Jordi Turull and Carme Forcadell AFP/Getty

Following the sentencing on Monday, CDR tweeted: “It is time to rise up against the authoritarian fascism of the Spanish state and its accomplices. It is time for the #PopularRevolt.”

There was disquiet across Catalan society. Barcelona Football Club tweeted: “Prison is not the solution. The resolution of the conflict in Catalonia must come exclusively from political dialogue.”

The trial in Madrid – which had lasted four months with 422 witnesses appearing – cleared the defendants of acts of violent rebellion, carrying sentences of up to 25 years, and found them guilty of the lesser charges of sedition and misuse of public funds.

But that did not assuage anger. Demonstrations began in Barcelona soon after the news broke from the court. Police were deployed to the city’s key junctions, the airport and Sants railway station, as well as some outlying towns.

Sanchez, the acting prime minister, took a robust line, stressing his government backed the court’s decision and declaring that “nobody is above the law. In a democracy like Spain nobody is subject to trial for his or her ideas or politics but rather for criminal conduct as provided by the law.” The independence movement, he charged, had ignored the constitution and fractured Catalan society.

The Catalan national assembly has called for action not just in Catalonia and Spain but “mobilisations around the globe” with appeals for popular support from other European states, including the UK, France and Germany.

Carles Puigdemont, the former Catalan president who had avoided the same fate as his colleagues by leaving Spain just before being arrested, described the jailing of the leaders for “100 years in total” as “an atrocity”.

He said on Twitter that “now more than ever ... it is time to react like never before ... For the future of our sons and daughters. For democracy. For Europe. For Catalonia.”

Yet Puigdemont’s own conduct illustrated the weaknesses and divisions in the separatist movement. Having instigated the referendum and the inevitable standoff with Madrid that followed, he flew to Brussels rather than take up his post.

Those of us covering events on the ground at the time recall firstly the disappointment in Barcelona after he disappeared, which gradually turned to resentment as other leaders who had stayed behind were being arrested.

Every time that Catalonia has revolted - in pictures Show all 14 1 /14 Every time that Catalonia has revolted - in pictures Every time that Catalonia has revolted - in pictures Reapers' War In 1640, amidst the Thirty Years War, Philip IV of Spain sent his Castilian soldiers into the Catalan region to defend the border with France. The soldiers were not on their best behaviour and drew the ire of the Catalan peasants and politicians alike, at a time when the region was already agitated by economic decline. On June 7, reapers arriving to Barcelona for seasonal harvest work were dismayed to find little of the sort and blamed the stationed soldiers. After a reaper was killed, the revolt began in full force with a fierce uprising known as Corpus de Sang (depicted here in a 1910 painting by Ermenegild Miralles) Ermenegild Miralles i Anglès Every time that Catalonia has revolted - in pictures Reapers' War More Castilian forces arrived, strengthening the Catalan resolve and leading Pau Claris, President of the Generalitat (Catalonia's political assembly) to declare Catalonia an independent republic on January 17 1641. A week later the republic swore its allegiance to Louis XIII of France and the war came to a head at the Battle of Montjuïc (depicted above by Pandolfo Reschi) where the Franco-Catalan forces were victorious. Following negotiations, Catalonia became an independent republic under the protection of France Pandolfo Reschi Every time that Catalonia has revolted - in pictures War of the Spanish Succession As Charles II of Spain died in 1700 without an heir, a variety of nations and other powers across Europe had their own ideas of who ought to succeed him. Catalonia sided with the Austrians, English and the Dutch in endorsing Archduke Charles of Austria, a Habsburg. Unsuccessful in their aims, they were violently brought back under the Spanish crown by the victorious Phillip V. (Depicted above is the Battle of Almansa, a decisive battle in the War of the Spanish Succession) Ricardo Balaca Every time that Catalonia has revolted - in pictures Tragic Week The conflict of the Tragic Week of July 1909 resulted from Spanish Prime Minister Antonio Maura's desire for power gains in Morocco. He relied on, mostly poor, Catalonian conscripts for the cause, who questioned the motives of the conflict and doubted their chances of survival Every time that Catalonia has revolted - in pictures Tragic Week A general strike commenced on Monday 26 July. By midday the crowds had set fire to the San José Workers’ Foundation, the first of around 80, mostly religious, buildings that they would burn that week. Soldiers and police barricaded streets and fought openly with the strikers Alamy Every time that Catalonia has revolted - in pictures Tragic Week By the end of the week, the police and army had taken control. Over 1000 strikers were arrested and 5 leading figures executed. This caused disgust across Spain and wider Europe and the episode contributed to the downfall of Maura's government Getty Every time that Catalonia has revolted - in pictures The Spanish Civil War In the Spanish Coup of July 1936, Republican forces opposed the Nationalist presence in Catalonia. The National Confederation of Labour (CNT), an anarchist organisation, began to take hold of power in Catalonia AFP/Getty Every time that Catalonia has revolted - in pictures The Spanish Civil War As the CNT took control of the Generalitat, companies and organisations were ordered to collective control Getty Every time that Catalonia has revolted - in pictures The Spanish Civil War Nationalist forces eventually regained control of the territory. Pictured are their tanks entering Barcelona in 1939 Getty Every time that Catalonia has revolted - in pictures The Spanish Civil War Barcelona nationalists rejoice at the arrival of General Franco's forces. Catalonia, along with the rest of Spain, was to remain under dictatorship until 1975 Getty Every time that Catalonia has revolted - in pictures Independence Referendum 2017 In 2017 the Generalitat passed a motion that a referendum would be held on Catalan independence. The Constitutional Court of Spain ruled that the referendum was a breach of the Spanish constitution, therefore illegal Reuters Every time that Catalonia has revolted - in pictures Independence Referendum 2017 Catalan government buildings were raided in the lead up and polling stations were blockaded by police on the day but the vote went ahead illegally. Turnout was 43% and of those 92% voted for independence Reuters Every time that Catalonia has revolted - in pictures Independence Referendum 2017 Catalan President Carles Puigdemont declared victory and is pictured here signing a declaration of independence on October 27. Warrants were issued for the arrest of Puigdemont and five other Catalan politicians and the Spanish government did not recognise the result and imposed direct rule over Catalonia, as opposed to its then status as an autonomous community of Spain Reuters Every time that Catalonia has revolted - in pictures 2018 A year on from the vote Spain has ended direct rule in the region and dropped the arrest warrants. But on the anniversary of the vote, more than 180,000 protesters took to the streets of Barcelona with the cry "1 October, no forgiving, no forgetting" AFP/Getty

The head of the Catalan regional police, Josep Lluis Trapero, was sacked for refusing orders from Madrid to stop the voting in the referendum, and eight offices of the force raided by the Guardia Civil.

The Catalan president, meanwhile, was organising a summit in Belgium on how he would return to Catalonia and take up his position as the head of Europe’s newest state. Those attending went to the Ghent opera house for a performance of the Duke of Alba before the meeting got under way. But any inspiration Puigdemont and his advisers may have drawn from the tale of the 16th century Spanish general’s brutal reign in Flanders ending ultimately in defeat did not result in him returning.

One waits to see what happens now. Sanchez stated that he will “work in the coming days to guarantee public order and protect our democratic laws as it has always done, responding proportionally to any violations of the law. The government will continue to work to repair the fracture created by the separatist movement.” The acting prime minister also called for dialogue with the separatists. The ERC responded that this would not be possible without an “amnesty” for “political prisoners and those in exile”.

Elections are scheduled for 10 November. More immediately, demonstrators will march from five towns to Barcelona where they will meet on Friday, when a general strike has been called. Further protests, say organisers, will continue until the imprisoned leaders get “justice.”

Catalonia President Quim Torra: Catalan separatists trial 'terrible mistake'

There is apprehension that the violence of two years ago may be revisited. The chaotic scenes, especially of state violence, taking place in Europe, in a city like Barcelona, were shocking for many. On the day the Catalan officials were jailed, the Spanish government launched a PR campaign. The acting prime minister tweeted: “Spain is a consolidated democracy. It’s one of the most advanced rules of law in the world and one of the most free and safe countries. This is the real Spain. We´ve done it together, citizens and institutions. Based on coexistence, respect and the law.”

But Catalans, as well as other Spaniards, pointed out during the strife of 2017 that bitter reminders from history continue to cast a dark shadow on the country.

The Day of the Dead was being commemorated at that time. Friends and relations had gathered together to lay flowers and light candles on the graves of their departed, as is the custom. The thought of many at the time however, was not of just the past, but what lay ahead in an uncertain future.

The Garrigo family had come to the cemetery on the slope of the Montjuic hills to pay their respect to their grandfather who was killed in a battle at Terrasa in Spain’s civil war – one among the thousands who sacrificed their lives trying to save Barcelona from the advancing forces of General Franco.

Vincenc Garrigo, a 24-year-old engineer, trade unionist and volunteer soldier was killed in a mortar barrage. His grandson Jaume reflected: “I have read his letters to my grandmother, what they all went through at the time, and I feel very proud. That was a time of war when people had to stand up to the dictators; to Franco, Hitler and Mussolini. People at home also suffered very much as well – often they had no heating, little food, little water, but they didn’t give up.