In a study led by professor Sarah Edwards and published in Violence and Gender, 86 straight male American college students filled in several different surveys and were asked to self-report their likelihood to engage in certain types of sexual behaviour – including forcing a female to do something sexual she does not want to, and rape – ''if nobody would ever know and there wouldn't be any consequences''.

One-third of participants (31.7%) said they would force a woman to have sexual intercourse in a "consequence-free situation" – and many wouldn't label or recognise their actions as "rape". Moreover, 13.6% of participants said they would rape a woman.