Motivation

There are three things Scala implicits mechanism is good for:

Conversion from one type to another

Method injection

Dependency injection

Conversion from one type to another may be needed when a variable of one type is used where another type is expected. For example, a java.lang.Integer is used where scala.Int is expected. The conversion is straightforward, but it may be a nuisance to do that by hand. Implicit conversion from Integer to Int (and vice versa) enables you to use one when the other is expected and have the compiler to do the conversion automatically.

Method injection allows you to inject and subsequently call a method on a class that does not have this method defined or inherited. The "injection" is meant in a metaphorical sense - the class definitions are not modified. For example, in Scala you can call the collections methods ( map , flatMap etc) on a java.lang.String , which does not define them.

Dependency injection is needed in the majority of large applications to glue their modules together. In Java, people use Spring Framework for this, and in Scala the Pie pattern or injection via constructor parameters are popular. One way to think about the implicits is a language-level support for dependency injection. Whenever we define something that relies on something else, we can declare this dependency via implicits.

This may not look like much at a glance. But the implicits mechanism powers a whole programming style oriented on purely functional and type level programming based on category theory.

This article explains the Scala implicits and these three ways to make use of them.

Example

The best way to understand a concept is to see its concrete application.

Consider a web application in Scala. Its job is to maintain a database of users and expose them as a JSON API. A user has an Int ID and a String name. Let us see how implicits can come handy in this scenario.

Architecture

A natural way to model users is to define a User case class. Next, we need a way to perform read/write operations on a database of users. Finally, within our web framework we want to register an HTTP request handler to expose the JSON API to the users.

type Json = Map[String, String] type ApiHandler = PartialFunction[String, Json] val apiPath = "/api/user" def serve (h: ApiHandler): Unit = println ( h (s "$apiPath/42" )) case class User (id: Int, username: String) trait UserDB { def write (u: User): Unit def read (id: Int): User } abstract class DummyUserDB (dbName: String) extends UserDB { private var persistence: Map[Int, User] = Map() def write (u: User): Unit = { persistence = persistence. updated (u. id , u) println (s "Wrote to $dbName: $u" ) } def read (id: Int): User = persistence (id) } object UserDBSql extends DummyUserDB ( "SQL" )

For simplicity, we do not use any real database or web framework here, we merely mock their functionality:

JSON and HTTP handlers here are represented in terms of core Scala functionality.

serve method represents a way to register an HTTP handler within your web framework. Since we do not have a framework, we use it for testing the handler by calling it with a test path.

method represents a way to register an HTTP handler within your web framework. Since we do not have a framework, we use it for testing the handler by calling it with a test path. UserDB represents an interface to the database. DummyUserDB is a simple implementation of it that uses a Map as a persistence backend. By the end of the tutorial we will have two such dummy access objects, so it is useful to abstract this functionality in a separate class.

represents an interface to the database. is a simple implementation of it that uses a as a persistence backend. By the end of the tutorial we will have two such dummy access objects, so it is useful to abstract this functionality in a separate class. UserDBSql pretends to use a SQL database as a backend.

Execution

With that architecture, in order to expose the API, we need to register a handler for the HTTP path of that API within the web framework using the serve method.

def userToJson (u: User): Json = Map( "id" -> u. id . toString , "username" -> u. username ) val u = User ( 42 , "Bob" ) UserDBSql. write (u) val usersApiPath = s "$apiPath/( \\ d+)" . r val handler: ApiHandler = { case usersApiPath (id) => val user = UserDBSql. read (id. toInt ) userToJson (user) } serve (handler)

The above code first writes a sample user to the database. Then it defines a HTTP request handler for the JSON API to the users. We use regex to define a RESTful path of the form "/api/user/${userId}" . Inside the handler, we read the user with the requested id from the SQL database, serialize it to JSON and return.

Implicit Conversions

Introduction

Notice how we convert the user object to Json after reading it. This is a technical step that diverts our focus from the task at hand - responding to HTTP request. It is rather obvious too - we need to return Json , we have User and the conversion process from User to Json is well defined - a call to userToJson .

It turns out Scala compiler can also see that and can wrap the user into the conversion method userToJson automatically for us. We can instruct it to do so by prefixing the def userToJson with the implicit keyword:

implicit def userToJson (u: User): Json = Map( "id" -> u. id . toString , "username" -> u. username )

Now we can write the handler as:

val handler: ApiHandler = { // PartialFunction[String, Json] case usersApiPath (id) => val user = UserDBSql. read (id. toInt ) user // User; User => Json }

This implicit def is an implicit conversion. It behaves almost exactly the same way the original def does. For instance, you can call it explicitly as an ordinary def . The only difference is that whenever the compiler encounters User where Json is expected, it now has our permission to automatically use that method to convert one to another.

Mechanics

In the example above, the ApiHandler is an alias for PartialFunction[String, Json] . This means the compiler knows that if we define a partial function of that type (the handler ), we must return a value of type Json from it. It also sees that we return User instead. So the expression of type User is used where an expression of type Json is expected. At this point, the compiler will start to look for an implicit conversion from User to Json . If it finds such a conversion, it will use it, otherwise it will fail with an error as we would expect.

In order to find a conversion, the compiler looks through the implicit scope of the site where the conversion needs to be applied (in our case, the place where we returned user ). There are complicated rules to which implicit methods end up in the scope. But as a rule of thumb, if you can call an implicit def without using its fully qualified path, you have it in scope. The most common scenario is when you import the conversion or define it locally.

To find the appropriate conversion, the compiler looks at the signatures of the implicit methods in scope. It knows that PartialFunction[String, Json] expects a Json to be returned, but User was returned. So, the required conversion must be a function that takes User as an argument and has Json as its return type. userToJson is an implicit def, is in scope and has the correct signature - so the compiler uses it.

Method Injection with Rich Wrappers

Theory

Implicit conversions can be used to augment existing types with new methods. For example, instead of explicitly calling the database each time you want to perform a read or write operation, you can augment the model objects with corresponding methods.

Whenever we call a method on an object that does not have this method defined, the compiler tries to implicitly convert it to a class on which you can call this method. If there is no such conversion in scope, it fails as expected.

Hence the Rich Wrapper pattern. A rich wrapper to augment some type T with a method f includes:

A wrapper class that has:

A reference to the object to be augmented

The f method we want to augment T with

method we want to augment with An implicit conversion from T to the wrapper class.

This way, whenever we call the method f on an object of type T that does not have it defined, the compiler will implicitly convert T to the wrapper and call f on the wrapper. Due to the fact that the wrapper has a reference to the wrapped object (the one being converted), we can access this object from f .

Example

Let us try to augment the User class with a write() method and the String with readUser() method. This way, we can call u.write() instead of UserDBSql.write(u) and id.toInt.readUser() instead of UserDBSql.read(id.toInt) . Notice how the read operation on an Int can be ambiguous: we can have more models than just User that we might want to read this way. So we should use non-ambiguous name for the method.

class RichUser (u: User) { def write () = UserDBSql. write (u) } implicit def augmentUser (u: User): RichUser = new RichUser (u) class RichId (x: Int) { def readUser (): User = UserDBSql. read (x) } implicit def augmentInt (x: Int): RichId = new RichId (x)

After we have these conversions in scope, we can rewrite our example as follows:

val u = User ( 42 , "Bob" ) u. write () val usersApiPath = s "$apiPath/( \\ d+)" . r val handler: ApiHandler = { case usersApiPath (id) => id. toInt . readUser () } serve (handler)

The compiler will encounter the u.write() and id.toInt.readUser() , but will not find the write() and readUser() methods in User and Int correspondingly. It will then look at the types of the objects the methods are called on and will try to find the conversions from these types to the ones that have the required methods. In our case, these objects will be converted to the rich wrappers we have defined.

Dependency Injection with Implicit arguments

Theory

A def may have its last argument group defined as implicit . This means that we we can ignore this entire group. When the method is called, the compiler will look for the missing arguments in the implicit scope for us.

It works similarly to how the compiler looks for implicit conversions: just that in case of the conversions it looks for methods with a particular signature ( TargetType => RequiredType ) and in case of implicit arguments it looks for val s or def s (yes, it is possible to put val s to the implicit scope too) with the required return type.

This can be used to declare dependencies for method calls or object constructions (a class constructor can also have an implicit argument group). Then, to inject the dependency, we just need to make sure it is on the implicit scope when we call the method or the constructor.

Example

In our example, the rich wrappers depend on the database access object. Let us see what happens if we want to support multiple database backends - for instance, a MongoDB backend:

object UserDBMongo extends DummyUserDB ( "MongoDB" )

Then, whenever we want to change the backend we use, we will need to change every occurrence of it in the code. That's not very DRY, so normally you would assign the backend you want to use to a variable and reference it every time you need the backend:

val db = UserDBMongo class RichUser (u: User) { def write () = db. write (u) } implicit def augmentUser (u: User): RichUser = new RichUser (u) class RichId (x: Int) { def readUser (): User = db. read (x) } implicit def augmentInt (x: Int): RichId = new RichId (x)

This introduces a dependency on a global variable, however. RichUser , RichId and any other code that needs a backend must know exactly where this variable is located. This can greatly reduce flexibility in case of large code bases: every time you work with the backend, you are forced to think globally, and this reduces focus on the current task. Modular, purely local solutions where you need to think only about the local piece of code you are currently writing, are preferred. Hence the need for a dependency injection mechanism.

With the implicit arguments, we can perform the dependency injection as follows:

class RichUser (u: User, db: UserDB) { def write () = db. write (u) } implicit def augmentUser (u: User)( implicit db: UserDB): RichUser = new RichUser (u, db) class RichId (x: Int, db: UserDB) { def readUser (): User = db. read (x) } implicit def augmentInt (x: Int)( implicit db: UserDB): RichId = new RichId (x, db)

Notice how the write() and readUser() methods no longer depend on anything outside the scope of their parent classes. Next, notice how the db backend is passed as an implicit argument to the implicit conversion methods. When the compiler needs to call these conversions, it will look up these implicit arguments and inject them into the original implicit def s:

implicit val db = UserDBMongo val u = User ( 42 , "Bob" ) u. write () val usersApiPath = s "$apiPath/( \\ d+)" . r val handler: ApiHandler = { case usersApiPath (id) => id. toInt . readUser () } serve (handler)

We still have the backend stored in one variable, but this time no code that requires it references it directly. Instead, the implicits mechanism acts as a dependency injection framework. All we need to do before calling a method with implicit dependencies is to place these dependencies at the implicit scope before the call is performed.

implicit class pattern

The rich wrapper pattern discussed above is so commonly used that there is a language level support for it in Scala. It is possible to declare an implicit class that has exactly one constructor parameter (not counting a possible implicit parameter group). This will declare a class as usual, but also an implicit conversion from its constructor's argument type to that class:

implicit class RichUser (u: User)( implicit db: UserDB) { def write () = db. write (u) } // (User ^ UserDB) => RichUser implicit class RichId (x: Int)( implicit db: UserDB) { def readUser (): User = db. read (x) } // (Int ^ UserDB) => RichId

Notice how class constructors can also have an implicit argument group.

A word of caution

There is another rather technical conversion in our code that potentially can be simplified away with implicit conversions - it is id.toInt in UserDBSql.read(id.toInt) .

case usersApiPath(id) matches the String fed into the handler against the regex we defined and captures the text group with the id of the requested user. The problem is, our ids are Int s, but the regex captures everything as a String . So in order to call the read method, we first need to convert a String to an Int - hence id.toInt .

At a glance, we may think it is a good idea to do this via an implicit conversion:

implicit def strToInt (s: String): Int = Integer. parseInt (s)

But what happens if someone glances at UserDBSql.read() and thinks it queries the database by username, not an id. Not an unlikely scenario: in a reasonable implementation of the database schema will, every user can be uniquely identified by both its id and the username. So without looking at the read() 's signature, one may assume it accepts a username of type String and proceed to call UserDBSql.read("Bob") .

First consider the scenario without an implicit conversion. The compiler will see that we have made a mistake by looking at the types ( Int expected but String found), and will emit an error.

But what if we have an implicit conversion from String to Int in scope? In this case, the compiler will not fail with an error and try to use the implicit conversion instead. On runtime, this conversion is bound to fail with an exception, since "Bob" is not a valid number. But on compile time, the compiler has no way of knowing this and will successfully compile the program.

So the error that normally would have been discovered on compile time remains undetected until the runtime. And it is much harder to detect and debug runtime errors.

Scala's strong type system aims to safeguard against errors and bugs, catching as much of them as possible on compile time. The implicits mechanism is a powerful feature of the compiler. However with great power comes great responsibility. If you overuse it, you may introduce bugs at runtime, harm the robustness of your program and make it hard to understand (situation known as "implicits hell").

So when do you use them and when - not? When you bring implicit conversions in scope you instruct the compiler to make certain assumptions about your program. It assumes you want it to perform the conversion whenever applicable without asking you. In each individual case, you should consider the consequences of this additional freedom you give to the compiler.