324 AD and Rome stands at one of the most defining moments in world history. Two powerful emperors, Licinius and Constantine, compete in a do or die fight for overall control of the Empire. Their characters could not be more different; one fighting for continuity and the other, radical change. Yet there could only be one winner.

The victor would not only decide the future of Rome, but also of one of the most world-changing concepts in history: Christianity.

Background: The Roman Empire 300-324 AD

The Roman World in the early 4th century AD was one in internal turmoil; this was an Empire very different to that of Augustus or Trajan centuries before. Now, multiple co-existing Emperors ruled over divided lands, each one commanding their own segment. The hope had been that this would provide stability to the Empire. What followed, however, was quite the opposite.

Rivalry, ambition, greed, power; just a few key reasons why, within twenty years of its formation at the end of the 3rd Century AD, civil wars started breaking out between the joint-rulers. The outcome of this internal strife would decide the future direction of the Empire.

Yet there was one civil war, I’d argue, that was more than just determining who would rule this mighty Empire. Instead, it would become a struggle that triggered a radically new epoch for Europe, quite different to any seen before. This was the war between two Emperors: Licinius I and Constantine I.

Contrasting characters

These men could not have been more different. While Licinius was conservative and traditional, Constantine was radical, being filled with an ambition to match the world-changing achievements of earlier famous conquerors; men such as Alexander and Caesar. Whereas Licinius is portrayed in art as bearded and seasoned, Constantine is shown as clean and youthful. Whereas Licinius was a devout Pagan, Constantine had declared himself a Christian. So, from the outset, we can see just how different these men were.

Yet although these two Emperors were as different as chalk and cheese, co-existence had occurred for a time. Harmony between the two, however, did not last long. Despite having close familial ties -Licinius had married Constantine’s sister – their alliance was doomed to fail. The reason? Simply the ambition of a radically thinking Constantine. For him, half an Empire was not enough.

An unstable alliance

And so, although family, relations had started decaying between Licinius and Constantine as far back as 314 AD. Inevitably, sporadic bloodshed and aggressive incidents broke out between these two former allies for the next couple of years. Although they sorted out their differences with a peace in 316 AD, these smaller wars fermented instability; how could you ever fully trust someone who had recently wanted you dead! Both Emperors were now preparing for another inevitable, but this time decisive, war.

Sure enough, that second civil war happened in 323 AD. The exact cause for this outbreak? Well that varies depending on which sources you use. Personally, I would recommend you read Zosimus’ account here (book 2, 46-51, it’s an old version but it is still relatively accurate) . It shows Constantine’s clear ambition to become the sole Roman Emperor. It was he that was the aggressor, invading Licinius’ lands with the pretext of chasing away some barbarian invaders.

A religious war?

This reason for renewed hostilities between the two Emperors is challenged, however, by another of our surviving sources. The Christian priest, Eusebius, insisted that Constantine had invaded primarily to defend Christians against apparent Pagan oppression under Licinius (Eus. Life of Constantine, Book 2, Chapter 3). This ‘religious crusade’ motive for the civil war seems highly unlikely however. Constantine would not have gained much support for this cause from an Empire that was still predominantly Pagan.

We cannot deny, however, that one of the greatest visible differences between Constantine and Licinius was their opposing faiths. You can understand, therefore, why their contrasting beliefs easily became viewed by outsiders as the fundamental reason for this conflict. When we look closer however, it becomes apparent this was not primarily a religious war. Most of Constantine’s own troops, for example, were pagan! Instead I’d agree that this was a political war born out of Constantine’s ambition and desire for more power. Licinius could not help but be a direct challenger to this ambition.

The Civil War of 324AD

And so, this war for the Empire began. Now, usually, the decisive engagements in Roman warfare took place on land; terra firma was after all, where Roman military power was so strong. In this campaign, however, the critical moment surprisingly happened at sea.

Following a land defeat at Adrianople in modern day Turkey, Licinius retreated to Byzantium (now Istanbul). Although thoroughly beaten in this engagement, his Empire in the East was vast. From there, Licinius knew he could raise another army relatively quickly. For this to happen, however, he needed time. He had to find some way to prevent Constantine from crossing into Asia Minor (modern day Anatolia). That barrier was his navy.

The Romans themselves were not renowned for their maritime expertise. Various provinces in the East, however, were (places such as Phoenicia, Cyprus and Egypt). It was Licinius who controlled all these famed sailing regions. Thus, this emperor commanded a powerful fleet, over twice the size of that of Constantine. This navy would be key to any possible comeback by Licinius in the war.

The critical moment

The sheer numerical advantage of this navy looked certain to hold Constantine’s forces before Byzantium. By controlling the sea, Licinius’ besieged forces in the city had access to a vital supply line. To prevail, Constantine knew he had to remove this force, yet his own navy appeared too small to contest it. How could Licinius possibly lose?

It is here that the arrogance of generals, fostered by numerical advantages struck yet again. Like with Boudicca in that revolt centuries before, numbers were turned from a strength to a critical weakness.

The engagement occurred in the Hellespont – the place we now call the Dardanelles. Here, the size of Licinius’ fleet became its main weakness; it was too large to fight effectively in such a small area. By employing superior tactics, Constantine’s smaller fleet – under the command of his son Crispus – managed to pick off and seriously cripple the Licinian forces at will.

To add insult to injury, following this disastrous encounter, the remaining Licinian fleet became victims to the biggest danger to naval warfare; the weather itself. Soon after the fighting, a storm wrecked almost the entire fleet.

Complete destruction

Through blindly arrogant tactics and with the help of mother nature, Licinius lost his barrier to the East. From a huge fleet of 200 ships, Zosimus states that in the storm alone,

five thousand men perished, together with a hundred and thirty ships filled with men, whom Licinius had sent out of Thrace to Asia accompanied by a part of his army………. Abantus (Licinius’ naval commander) effected his escape with only 4 ships into Asia. (Historia Nova, 2.48)

Licinius’ fleet was utterly destroyed.

This naval defeat has striking resemblances with the Spanish Armada against England in 1588. Just as with Licinius’ forces in the narrow Hellespont, the larger Spanish forces were unable to fight effectively against the smaller, swifter English ships. Any forces not destroyed then faced a long journey around the British Isles battered by storms and fatigue. Of the 124 ships that had left Spain, only 64 returned. Like with Licinius, ultimately it was the weather that caused the Spanish fleet to fail. These disasters would be crucial to the outcome of both these campaigns.

The result

Following this horrific naval defeat, Licinius would lose again on land at Chrysopolis. After this catastrophe, Licinius surrendered to Constantine. The devastating loss of his fleet against all odds before this, however, I’d argue had ultimately already decided his fate.

Unlike many other turning points in ancient history, this campaign thus ended very quickly. Nevertheless, its outcome triggered one of the most significant moments in world history. It was Constantine’s victory in this civil war that allowed Christianity to later become dominant in the Western World.

Regarding christianity

How so you ask? Well, having defeated Licinius, Constantine heavily rewarded the Christians for their loyalty and help. It was this campaign that directly led to Christian tolerance throughout the whole Roman Empire. Furthermore, Constantine then established a new Roman capital at the Greek city of Byzantium – Rome he now thought too far to the west to effectively manage the entire Empire. This new capital he called Constantinople. In time, this new city would become a critical centre from which Christianity could spread to the far reaches of Asia, Europe and even Africa.

Soon after this new city was established, state sacrifices – the bread and butter of public Roman life for over 1,000 years – were abolished. Paganism, in this act, was formally abandoned as the established religion.

Before the turn of the fourth century AD, Christianity would grow to become the official religion of the Roman Empire. Indeed, it had become so cemented in Roman rule by then, that Emperors now ordered every Roman to adopt this religion. No longer was it a free choice. All this dramatic religious change was only possible following the defeat of Licinius in 324 AD.

This religious conversion was a truly radical path. Arguably, it was also one of the most critical moments in shaping the world up to modern day. Rome now abandoned the status quo and centuries of tradition for a completely new way of life. Such a radical change would have lasting consequences for the entirety of Europe.

The fates of Licinius and Constantine

A quick note on Licinius. Although Constantine at first publicly forgave him, within six months, Constantine broke his sacred oath and had him killed. In his defence, Licinius would have always been a figurehead for anyone unhappy with Constantine’s leadership to stand behind. Licinius could not help but be a possible problem to Constantine, even after his submission.

Yet Licinius’ treatment further shows that Constantine, despite what Eusebius may have us believe, was no saint. He would take several tough and sometimes horrific actions throughout his rule after 324 AD. No more so does he show this than when he ordered the execution of his own son, Crispus (it’s a great story, trust me and you can access it here)! It would not be until much later in his life that he was finally baptised in 337 AD. It is after this that Constantine would start his pious Christian life.

What if?

But what if Licinius’ forces had won that crucial naval engagement? If so, it is very possible Licinius could have prevented Constantine from crossing into Asia for a much longer time. In the meantime, Licinius would have been able to gather and train a new large army. Perhaps with this strong new force he would have defeated his adversary? If we consider this, it is fascinating to think of how different world history would look.

Continuity?

Albeit short, this war decided a new radical path for the Roman world. With a Licinian victory, however, this Empire would have experienced continuity. Paganism, for example, would have been maintained as the official religion of the Empire. As a result, state sacrifices therefore would also have remained.

Furthermore, if we are to believe Licinius’ devout paganism – which seems agreed by all sources – large-scale Christian persecution could have recommenced throughout a now unified Empire. This seems especially likely after the Christians had eagerly sided with Constantine during the Civil War. How could Licinius possibly trust such ardent supporters of his former adversary?

The Hagia Sophia, St Peter’s Basilica and numerous other churches. All these would directly come about due to the Christianisation of the Roman World, instigated by Constantine. With a Licinian victory however, these remarkable buildings likely would never have been constructed! Instead we would be looking at a continuation of pagan architecture. Triumphal arches, temples and sanctuaries are just a few examples.

A medieval impact

What is equally important is that Roman Christianity directly led to the formation of the Medieval European World. In Medieval Europe, the Christian church was central to the life of every lawful person. It didn’t matter whether you were a peasant or a King, religion was a critical part of daily routine regardless. This Europe was a land of multiple Christian kingdoms, stretching from Ireland to Hungary and beyond. Each kingdom was devout to their faith and (usually) obedient to the leader of the Christian church on Earth: the Pope in Rome.

The Pontiff undoubtedly became the most powerful man in Christian Europe for centuries. Perhaps most famously, these men are remembered in Medieval times for calling crusades to the Holy Lands.

Their power however, did not stop there. Believing themselves God’s representative on Earth, this leader could also excommunicate a person or whole Kingdom who had displeased him (take Henry VIII for example). The Pope in this period, therefore, was quite simply, the most powerful figure in the known world. All due to a devout and predominantly Christian Europe.

Constantine’s defeat of Licinius was the starting gun for this future Europe united – if only in this way – by their Christian beliefs. With a Licinian victory and no Christianisation of Rome, however, Medieval European history would never have had this religious unity. Its history, being so dependent on Christian thinking in this period, would be different in almost every aspect.

Conclusion

Constantine’s victory over Licinius was a defining moment in world history and marks the end of an era in the Roman World. This success was the starting gun for a mainly Christian Europe that has remained to this day.

It is fascinating to think of a world where Christianity did not become so dominant. That would indeed have been very possible, however, if the alternate outcome to this particular civil war had occurred.

If Licinius’ fleet had not been defeated against all odds, consider what religion would be dominant in most western countries today? Would we still be sacrificing to the Gods? All interesting points to consider in such an alternate reality.

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Links and References

Views are my own unless referenced.

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The R.D Milns Antiquities Museum Collection in Brisbane can be accessed here.

Eusebius, Life of Constantine available here

Zosimus, New History available here

TV documentary available here: Rome: The Rise and Fall of an Empire – Episode 10: Constantine the Great

Pears, Edwin, ‘The Campaign against Paganism A.D. 324,’ The English Historical Review (24), 1909, pp. 1-17.

Potter, D.S. ‘The Defeat of Licinius,’ Constantine the Emperor, New York, 2013, pp 207-214.

Author: Tristan Hughes Twitter Facebook

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