This document is being updated and maintained in its own repository and this version will only remain for historical purposes.

This post is intended as a proposal to those who develop, extend or maintain languages other than Perl 6 as to how they could adapt Perl 6 Regexes (AKA Rules) to their language.

There is a full JSON parser at the end of this article, written in this specification’s syntax, so if you don’t know anything about what Perl 6 Regexes look like, that might be good to glance at before continuing.

I measure regular expressions in 5 epochs or generations, with a zeroth generation for the purely mathematical idea of a regular expression.

In the early days of Unix, there were a few programs that used an arcane syntax few had heard of to match text. These included ed and grep, soon to be followed by ex, vi and friends. Not very long after that, regular expressions were “standardized” by extending it and changing/mutilating the syntax. This is the POSIX regular expression standard. Then we entered the boom times of regular expression development when Perl introduced its improvements to the traditional Unix and POSIX regular expressions. Perl, TCL, PCRE, Python and Java all had a hand in the evolution of the basic third generation regular expression into what I’ll call the fourth generation: the regular expressions that you’re probably familiar with, today. These include features like named groups (first introduced in Python) and some implementations have extensions for full Unicode support including matching properties, code blocks, etc. And then along came Perl 6. Perl 6 calls its system “regexes” and technically they’re a full grammar engine, but this can frequently be ignored in favor of treating them as souped-up-regexes.

I’ll use the term “regex” in this document to mean that 5th (and perhaps a future 6th) generation. This is just convention. Note that outside of this document, many people use “regex” to refer to legacy regular expression syntaxes.

Toward a language-neutral 6th generation

The goal, here, is to come up with the core of Perl 6 Regexes in order to allow future innovators in other languages to move toward the 6th generation just as they did when Perl enhanced regular expressions back in the early 90s.

Nothing here is meant to be locked in to Perl-like syntax. For example, while braces are used to enclose rules by default, there is nothing stopping a language like Python from defining rules in terms of indentation levels. Dollar signs are used for back-referencing, but this can be thought of as part of the regex syntax, not a generic variable naming convention, just as backslashed back-references were treated in previous implementations.

Code, not strings

Many languages implement regular expressions as strings that are parsed at run-time to produce a matching structure. These regexes aren’t like that. They are designed to be first-class code in the native language. As such they can fail at the time the rest of the program is parsed if malformed and they can include nested code execution.

Thinking of regexes in this way can be misleading however. There is an ephemeral nature to this execution that is unlike most other forms of code execution because of the possibility of backtracking within a regex, potentially undoing bindings created within match objects and invalidating previous state.

This is where regexes are difficult for someone familiar with a simple regular expression library to understand, and it bears some thought, but one thing that this proposal does to try to limit the impact of that complexity is to hide everything away behind the grammar keyword. Indeed, though it is a keyword, one could imagine a language implementation even gating access to it behind a library/module inclusion.

Keywords and whitespace

Perl 6 is very, very free with introducing keywords. It can do this because the namespace is pretty well guarded and user-defined values rarely conflict with these keywords. As such, there are a profusion of ways to introduce a regex. I’m going to use three basic keywords, here:

grammar - Something like “class” in most modern OO languages, but the body isn’t a set of properties and methods, but rather regexes.

- Something like “class” in most modern OO languages, but the body isn’t a set of properties and methods, but rather regexes. rule - Introduces a regex that uses significant whitespace by default. Occurs within a grammar.

- Introduces a regex that uses significant whitespace by default. Occurs within a grammar. token - Introduces a regex that does not use significant whitespace by default. Occurs within a grammar.

Ratcheting

A substantial difference between both rule and token and what most users of older relgular expression engines might expect is that they do not backtrack by default. They merely seek the longest match. If you want backtracking, you can enable it with :!ratchet as described in the Adverbs section, below.

As an example, the rule or token:

a*ab

Will never match “aab” unless you enable backtracking mode because the a* consumes the “aa” and then the second a in the rule/token does not match. Ratcheting in this way is very useful for parsing, but is rarely what traditional regular expression users expect, so whatever mechanism a language uses to integrate regexes, where it appears to be more traditional and regular-expression-like, it should probably enable ratcheting. Perl 6 provides an additional keyword, regex which enables backtracking by default (in addition to turning off significant whitespace).

Significant whitespace

What is this significant whitespace thing? An example may help:

Here’s a typical regex in just about any modern language:

\d+ \d+

This is read, in most languages, as “one or more digits followed by a literal space followed by one or more digits”. But inside a rule, it is actually shorthand for:

\d+<.ws>\d+

We’ll cover the specifics of what that means later, but for now, just understand that it means “match whitespace smartly”.

In tokens, however, literal whitespace is completely ignored unless quote or escaped. This is the core difference between the two keywords.

Comments are also allowed. I’m not going to go into all of the funky Perl 6 style comment formats, and I will simply include:

\d+ # Digits

A comment is simply ignored, much like whitespace in a token.

Literals

Any “word” character which includes alphanumeric characters and underscores ( _ ) can simply be matched as-is:

token { apple }

But anything more complex must be escaped (prefixed with \\ ) character-by character or quoted:

token { \. '.' "." # all equivalent }

Simple non-literals

As with most other regular expression formats, . matches any chararcter (including newlines, use \N for non-newlines) and there are the various character class escapes:

\s matches whitespace

matches whitespace \w matches word characters (alphanumeric, underscore)

matches word characters (alphanumeric, underscore)

matches newlines (actually a “logical newline” which is platform-agnostic)

matches newlines (actually a “logical newline” which is platform-agnostic) \t matches a tab

matches a tab \h matches horizontal whitespace

matches horizontal whitespace \v matches vertical whitespace

matches vertical whitespace \d matches a digit

All of the above can also be negated by using their upper-case equivalent, e.g.:

\w\S*

Matches a word character followed by any non-whitespace.

There are also a more verbose form of these and many other builtin, named sub-rules:

<alpha> - Alphabetic characters

- Alphabetic characters <digit> - Same as \d , a digit

- Same as , a digit <xdigit> - Hexadecimal digit

- Hexadecimal digit <alnum> - Same as \w , a word character

- Same as , a word character <punct> - Punctuation characters

- Punctuation characters <graph> - <+<alnum>+<punct>>

- <space> - Same as \s , a whitespace character

- Same as , a whitespace character <cntrl> - Control characters

- Control characters <print> - <+<graph>+<space>-<cntrl>>

- <blank> - Same as \h , horizontal whitespace

- Same as , horizontal whitespace <lower> - Lowercase

- Lowercase <upper> - Uppercase

- Uppercase <same> - Between two of the same character

- Between two of the same character <wb> - A word boundary

- A word boundary <ws> - Smart whitespace (match whitespace and/or a word boundary)

- Smart whitespace (match whitespace and/or a word boundary) <ww> - Match within a word

When used outside of <+...> character classes, these are sub-rules (see below), and may be preceded (within the <...> ) by . in order to avoid capturing the matched value, like any other sub-rule. If used as a chracter class (e.g. within <+…>) then they can be combined with other character classes freely except for same , wb , ws and ww which are not character classes.

Unicode properties can also be matched as character classes. For example:

<:Script('Latin')>

Matches any character with the Unicode “Script” property, “Latin”, while:

<:Block('Basic Latin')>

Matches any character in the “Basic Latin” “Block”. These are terms from the Unicode standard, not from Perl 6.

The following properties are supported in both short and long versions as <:property> :

Letter or L

or Cased_Letter or LC

or Uppercase_Letter or Lu

or Lowercase_Letter or Ll

or Titlecase_Letter or Lt

or Modifier_Letter or Lm

or Other_Letter or Lo

or Mark or M

or Nonspacing_Mark or Mn

or Spacing_Mark or Mc

or Enclosing_Mark or Me

or Number or N

or Decimal_Number or digit or Nd

or Letter_Number or Nl

or Other_Number or No

or Punctuation or punct or P

or Connector_Punctuation or Pc

or Dash_Punctuation or Pd

or Open_Punctuation or Ps

or Close_Punctuation or Pe

or Initial_Punctuation or Pi

or Final_Punctuation or Pf

or Other_Punctuation or Po

or Symbol or S

or Math_Symbol or Sm

or Currency_Symbol or Sc

or Modifier_Symbol or Sk

or Other_Symbol or So

or Separator or Z

or Space_Separator or Zs

or Line_Separator or Zl

or Paragraph_Separator or Zp

or Other or C

or Control or cntrl or Cc

or Format or Cf

or Surrogate or Cs

or Private_Use or Co

or Unassigned or Cn

Again, these are directly from the Unicode specification.

So, you might match a title-case string as such:

token titlestring { <:Titlecase_Letter> <:Lowercase_Letter>* }

To negate a property, simply follow the colon with a ! .

Character classes

You can use most of the above character-selecting sub-rules in “character class” constructions that can only ever match a single character and can be built up in pieces.

Character classes can be explicit lists of characters:

<[a..z]> # lower ascii alpha

Or they can be constructed from other classes:

<+<alpha>-<:Uppercase_Letter>>

Which is to say, “the alpha class, but excluding the upper case letters”.

Unicode codepoints can also be referenced by hexadecimal number:

\x1234 # always four digits

or:

\x[12345]

Or by name:

\c[GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA]

Quantifiers

Everything described above is called an “atom”. Groups are also atoms. Any atom can be made optional or repeating in a regex.

The typical regular expression quantifiers are supported:

+ - Match the preceding “atom” (single matching literal, group, sub-rule or class) one or more times.

- Match the preceding “atom” (single matching literal, group, sub-rule or class) one or more times. * - Match the preceding atom zero or more times.

- Match the preceding atom zero or more times. ** min[..max] - Match the preceding atom min to max (* means forever) times.

These constructs modify preceding quantifiers:

? - Match non-greedily

- Match non-greedily ! - Match greedily (the default)

- Match greedily (the default) : - Do not perform backtracking for the previous quantifier

- Do not perform backtracking for the previous quantifier % - Match the preceding atom with quantifier separated by the following atom (e.g. <string>+ % ',' which matches comma-separated <string> sub-rule matches)

- Match the preceding atom with quantifier separated by the following atom (e.g. which matches comma-separated sub-rule matches) %% - Same as % , but allows a trailing separator.

Here are some examples:

a+

Match one or more “a” characters.

\w*?a

Match zero or more word characters, but match the shortest sequence that ends in “a”.

And finally, there is a special syntax for matching balanced expressions:

'(' ~ ')' <expression>

Which matches the sub-rule <expression> enclosed in parentheses.

This is not substantially different from:

'(' <expression> ')'

But it does allow the system to provide more useful diagnostics because it knows that the intent of the user was to match a balanced beginning and ending token.

Conjunctions

The | of most regular expression syntaxes is now || . This will match on the first matching alternative between the left and right hand sides.

'a' || 'aa' # will never match the right

While the | now matches the longest of the two, as most BNF-like parser specifications expect, so:

'a' | 'aa' # matches the right if the input is "aa"

The && conjunction requires that its left and right hand sides both match the same substring. There is a & which is mostly identical to && . It only differs in that & and | nominally allow evaluation of their left and right hand sides in any order (and this carries over to chains of these operators) enhancing potential for parallelization.

Anchors

^ Start of string

Start of string $ End of string

End of string ^^ Start of newline-separated line within the string

Start of newline-separated line within the string $$ End of newline-separated line within the string

End of newline-separated line within the string <?wb> Word boundary

Word boundary <!wb> Not a word boundary

Not a word boundary <?ww> Within a word (no boundary)

Within a word (no boundary) <!ww> Not within a word

Not within a word << Left word boundary (a non-word character or start of string on the left and a word character on the right.

Left word boundary (a non-word character or start of string on the left and a word character on the right. >> Right word boundary (a word character on the left and a non-word character or end of string on the right)

Note that all of these constructs match an anchor condition, not any of the text. They are all zero-width.

There are other zero-width assertions that are more complex:

We’ve already seen some examples of look-around assertions, which are of the form:

<?class> # positive look-around

or

<!class> # negated look-around

In this latter example, do not confuse a look-around, which does not consume any characters from the input with a negative character class:

<-class> # negative character class

which does consume the matched character. Look-around matches appear to match non-zero-width entities, but because they do not consume them, they are technically zero-width.

You can also turn a full regex into a zero-width assertion in two ways:

<?before 'apple'> # match before apple, but do not eat it

and

<?after 'apple'> # match after apple, but do not eat it

In the latter case, if the previous part of the regex had already consumed the characters matched by the body of the after , then this does not change. The before and after zero-width assertions are just that: assertions about the text being matched without any change in the current position of the match.

Both of these can be negated:

<!after '.'> <!before '-'>

Grouping and capturing

A group is specified with parentheses, just like old style regular expressions:

'fruit:' ('apple' || 'pear')

Which will match "fruit:apple" or "fruit:pear" .

Parentheses always capture their matches in the numbered match placeholders $n where n is associated with parenthetical groups in the following way:

Counting open-parens left-to-right

But alternation ( | , || , & and && ) resets the numbering

, , and ) resets the numbering If alternations have differing numbers of groups, then the longest “wins” in the sense that subsequent groups will be numbered from the highest number used thus far.

For example:

'a' ( ('b') | ('c') ('d') ) ('e')

Would match "abe" , capturing $0 and $1 as "b" , leaving $2 undefined and capturing $3 as “e”.

These captured values can be matched later on:

f (o+) $0

Would match an even number of “o”’s after the “f”.

Note that Perl 6 requires a code assertion between the group and back-reference in order to cause the back-reference to be available. This is not part of the generalized specification, and is considered an implementation detail of Perl 6.

There is also a non-capturing group:

a [ b || c ]

In this case, grouping is performed, but no capture is saved. This can improve performance and simplify access to captured groups.

Named captures

You can also save any match (whether capturing or not) to a specific name:

'fruit:' $<fruit> = [ 'apple' || 'pear' ]

In this case, the name, “fruit” is associated with the following group or other atom as if it were a sub-rule (see below).

Adverbs

Adverbs are colon-prefixed directives that change the behavior of the regex engine itself. Their effect lasts until the end of the inner-most group, rule or token within which they appear. These include:

:ignorecase or :i - Match upper and lower-case interchangeably

or - Match upper and lower-case interchangeably :ignoremark or :m - Match base Unicode characters, ignoring any combining elements (e.g. :m u would match “ü”)

or - Match base Unicode characters, ignoring any combining elements (e.g. would match “ü”) :ratchet or :r - Do not perform any backtracking (default)

or - Do not perform any backtracking (default) :sigspace or :s - Treat whitespace as in rules

or - Treat whitespace as in rules :exhaustive or :e - Perform all possible backtracking, even after a successful match

Any adverb may be negated by using :! e.g.:

'fruit:' [:ignorecase 'apple' | :!ignorecase 'FruitClass']

Would match “fruit:appLE”, “fruit:FruitClass” but not “fruit:fruitclass”.

Now that you’ve seen all of the adverbs, we can go over token vs. rule again. A token is identical to:

rule foo {:!sigspace :ratchet ...}

While a rule is identical to:

token foo {:sigspace :!ratchet ...}

Sub-rules

A sub-rule is like a subroutine call. All rule and token blocks introduce a sub-rule, which can be referenced by any other sub-rule using angle-brackets:

rule identifier { <word> | <number> } token word { \w+ } token number { \d+ }

sub-rules capture by default, saving the result under the name of the sub-rule. If the sub-rule is matched more than once or has a quantifier, then its capture will be a list of matches. For example, if the above code also included:

rule sequence { <identifier>+ % ',' }

Then any comma-separated list of identifiers would be matched with the named capture under “identifier” containing a list of the matches that occurred. These captured matches are nested. You can think of a match as being a data structure that contains a numbered set of indexes and a named set of indexes, independently. How this is implemented is language-specific, but a match can contain a whole tree of matches from sub-rules, and indeed this is how most grammars work, turning input text into a tree of match results that can be transformed into an AST or directly acted upon.

To turn off capturing, place a period before the sub-rule name:

token IPv4 { <.octet> ** 4 % '.' }

So that the resulting match object will not contain the “octet” entry that would otherwise be created.

If, on the other hand, you want to re-name that entry in the match, use an equal sign:

token IPv4 { <byte=octet> ** 4 % '.' }

Recursion is allowed, and is how recursive parsing is performed, e.g.:

rule expr { <term> | <term> <leftop> <expr> } rule term { <literal> | '(' ~ ')' <expr> }

Code interpolation

There are several ways to interpolate native language structures and code into a regex:

{...} - Execute the enclosed expression, but ignore its result.

- Execute the enclosed expression, but ignore its result. <?{...}> or <!{...}> - Execute the enclosed expression and match if it evaluates as true (or false if ! is used).

or - Execute the enclosed expression and match if it evaluates as true (or false if is used). <$variable> - The contents of variable are coerced into a regex in a language-specific way and then interpolated into the current regex.

- The contents of are coerced into a regex in a language-specific way and then interpolated into the current regex. <@variable> - The contents of variable are coerced into a list of regexes in a language-specific way and then interpolated into the current regex as | alternations.

The word “expression” is used, here, but what this means should be re-interpreted in a language-specific way.

All <...> interpolations of external code will save to a numbered group as if they were within parens, but can be named like so: <name=?{code}> or <name=$variable> , or their results can be discarded by prefixing with a period like a sub-rule.

Integration concerns

While the rest of this document considers what’s in a regex, this section will consider how to take that construct and integrate it into the larger language. The simplest way to do this is via some form of method invocation on the grammar as an object. For example, Perl 6 treats the top-level rule TOP as special, invoking it via the method parse like so:

if MyGrammar.parse($string) { ... }

Ideally such a method should return the match object which contains the tree of results from the final match.

Another way to do this would be to integrate regexes into an existing basic regular expression if your language supports them, e.g. (in Perl 5 syntax):

# start with the "expression" rule if (/<MyGrammar::expression>/) { ... }

But a more interesting approach might be to treat grammars as a special way of defining classes, and simply allow any sub-rule to be invoked directly as a method, and perhaps even allow non-regex methods to be defined on grammars.

How that works and what it means will be very language specific, but it’s there to consider…

Actions

In Perl 6, grammars are tightly coupled to the concept of “actions”. These are methods of a class associated with the grammar whose names are the same as the names of the sub-rules in the grammar. Thus, when a sub-rule match occurrs, its corresponding action can be invoked.

The most common reason to do this is to allow these actions to augment or replace the match object, for example, performing the first steps in a code generation pass for a language, creating a formal abstract syntax tree.

Actions make regexes into a full parser specification system and so their implementation should be considered carefully in the implementation of regexes.

Unicode

Regexes are tightly coupled to Unicode, and there are some hard choices to be made in integrating the two. Perl 6 obviates many concerns by transforming all strings into a form called “NFG”. How this is done and what it means is outside of the scope of this document, but at the very least, the implications of matching a “character” on a Unicode string that might contain many composing codepoints must be addressed by the implementation.

What was dropped

If you look at the full Perl 6 Regex grammar, which is, of course, written in Perl 6 Regex (using a subset of the language known as NQP), you can see that many specifics were skipped over. Some might be added back in later, some just don’t make any sense outside of Perl 6 and some are interesting question marks. I’ll try to outline the high points, here.

proto/sym - This is a bit like function overloading where multiple definitions of the same name ar declared with different parameters. Here’s an example from the core NQP definition of regexes themselves: proto token metachar { <...> } token metachar:sym<[ ]> { '[' ~ ']' <nibbler> <.SIGOK> } token metachar:sym<( )> { '(' ~ ')' <nibbler> <.SIGOK> } token metachar:sym<'> { <?['‘‚]> <quote_EXPR: ':q'> <.SIGOK> } token metachar:sym<"> { <?["“„]> <quote_EXPR: ':qq'> <.SIGOK> } token metachar:sym<.> { <sym> <.SIGOK> } ...

Inline comments - Perl 6 allows comments to appear inline by using bracketing: apple #`(This is a comment) pear

Pod

Angle-bracket quoting of lists of strings as alternation. e.g. < oh happy day > matches oh | happy | day .

matches . Programatic range for repetition count (e.g. [foo] ** {min_foo()..max_foo()} )

) Repetition quantifier variants (e.g. [foo] ** ^10 , [foo] ** 0^..^10 , etc)

, , etc) Several adverbs: :Perl5 , :P5 - (though perhaps in the larger context :PCRE might have some value?) :1st , :nth and friends :continue , :continue :pos , :p :exhaustive , :ex :global , :g :overlap , :o All of the substitution-specific adverbs: :samecase or :ii :samemark or :mm :samespace or :ss

The ability to associate adverbs with token/rule declarations (this is Perl 6 langauge syntax, really, not regex syntax).

Similarly, any additional syntatic elements of the declaration of a grammar (e.g. “is export”).

The many other keywords and syntaxes for defining regexes: regex m rx /.../ All of the bracketing types that can accompany some of these.

Unicode property union/difference <:Zp+:Zs-:Zl> , which is redundant with character class union/difference.

, which is redundant with character class union/difference. Unicode-equivalent operators such as » for >>

for <|w> alias for <wb>

A bit of marketing

There isn’t a whole lot of focus in this document on drumming up adoption. The presumption is that the target audience understands why a full grammar specification would radically improve the capabilities of any programming language and the only remaining questions relate to the difficulty of implementation and disruption to other langauge elements (which I have attempted to address). But let’s take a momemnt and consider the benefits just to make sure everyone is on the same page:

Cleanliness

Here is a regular expression that you might find in any modern language:

<[+-]>?\d*'.'\d+[e<[+-]>?\d+]?

Here is how Perl 6’s best practices document suggests you render that in Perl 6 Regex:

token sign { <[+-]> } token decimal { \d+ } token exponent { 'e' <sign>? <decimal> } token float { :!ratchet <sign>? <decimal>? '.' <decimal> <exponent>? }

I think we can all see which is the most readable and maintainable…

A full parser

It cannot be stressed enough that Perl 6 Regexes are not just a new syntax for basic regular expressions. They are full-fledged parsers (as shown in the JSON example at the end of this document). Even more so, because of the embedded code, they are fully context-sensitive parsers, which means that there is no formal language that they cannot specify.

This is a quantitative difference in the space of possible problems that they can solve.

Debugging

Because these regexes are first-class language components, they can be just as debuggable as ordinary code. There is no reason that a debugger could not step form ordinary code into a regex and down into enclosed regular code.

They also can produce compile-time errors. In many high level languages, today, the compile-time/run-time distinction can be fuzzy, but at the very least, compile-time implies that the syntax must be correct. For example, consider this Python code:

import re def foo(s): return re.match(r'fo**', s)

This is perfectly valid Python code and unless your test coverage manages to find the specific case where this bad value is passed to re.match (trivial, here, but obviously that’s because it’s a trivial example), you may not find out that there is an error for a very long time.

In a regex scenario:

def foo(s): grammar Foo: token t_foo: fo** return Foo.t_foo(s)

would result in a compile-time error before anyone tried to execute the code!

Your regex where?

The first step in porting this spec to your language is going to be to modify it to be language-specific. To that end, you will want to start with this document, the latest version of which is now in its own repository at:

https://github.com/ajs/Gen6-Regex/blob/master/YOUR-REGEX-HERE-POSTING.md

Example

The following is a complete parser for the ECMA-404 2nd Edition JSON specification:

grammar JSON { rule TOP {^ <value> $} rule value { <object> | <array> | <number> | <string> | <name> } rule name { <true> | <false> | <null> } token true { 'true' } token false { 'false' } token null { 'null' } rule object { '{' ( <string> ':' <value> )* % ',' '}' } rule array { '[' <value>* % ',' ']' } token number { '-'? [ '0' | <[1..9]> <digit>* ] [ '.' <digit>+ ]? [:i <[e]> <[\+\-]>? <digit>+ ]? } token digit { <[0..9]> } token string { '"' ~ '"' <stringbody>* } token stringbody { # anything non-special: <-[\"\\\x[0000]\x[001f]]> | # or a valid escape '\\' <escape> } token escape { # An escaped special of some sort <[\"\\\/bfnr]> | # or a Unicode codepoint 'u' [:i <+[0..9]+[a..f]>] ** 4 } }

This document is distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License and all code samples herein are alternately licensed under the Artistic License 2.0.