When I read Dan Grossman’s paper, Type-Safe Multithreading in Cyclone, I imagine Dan on a raft in the middle of a tropical cyclone, his threads soaked by the rain, frantically racing to build a shelter. Maybe a type system can’t protect you from the rain, but it sure can protect you from data races–even if the final product looks a little like a Rube Goldberg contraption.

Cyclone, as it turns out, is a safe dialect of C. Dan’s goal was to extended Cyclone’s type system to make it safe in a multithreaded environment. This is not an easy task in a language that uses pointers and manual memory management. The ideas are similar to those in the dialects of Java in my previous posts, but the type-theoretical concepts are pretty advanced.

-Locks

A Cyclone lock is a special type parameterized by name. Defining such entities requires a major type-system tour de force. Little known notions like “existential types,” “dependent types,” and “effect systems” come into play. The major point of all this magic is that you want to use lock names without knowing what they are.

You create a Cyclon lock using the following pseudo-syntax:

let lk<λ> = newlock();

I’ll use Greek letters for symbolic lock names (except for the special name, loc), since the author didn’t propose any concrete syntax and, admittedly, never finished the implementation.

What’s happening behind the scenes is that newlock returns an existential type, which is unpacked into variable lk of type lock_t<λ> . That variable may, for instance, be passed to a (generic) function taking lock_t<λ> .

The beauty of an existential type is that it won’t let the client “guess” the name of the lock. The name is totally opaque–there is not even a type for it. It can only be generated by the system in the call to newlock .

To synchronize a (possibly compound) statement, you precede it with sync(lk) , where lk is a lock variable (or an expression that evaluates to such). Continuing the previous example, we may write:

sync(lk) ++*p;

which increments the value pointed to by p under the lock lk .

-Ownership

In an OO language, ownership is the key to a race-free type system. The owner of a given object has to be locked before the object may be accessed.

In a non-OO language, like Cyclone, instead of specifying the owner of data, you specify the lock that protects it. Since you might not have access to the lock variable when you are declaring data, the symbolic lock name is used instead.

Also, since all references in Cyclon are expressed through pointers, lock annotations are associated with pointers. (This is again parallel to annotating object references with their owner objects.)

We can now complete the example above with the annotated definition of p :

int *λ p = new 0;

The pointer p can only be access when the lock whose name is λ is held.

-Local and Shared data

In Cyclon, thread-local data appear as a special case of shared data. A special lock name loc and a (global) variable nonlock are used to turn off the locking of individual instances. (Compare this to the dummy owner thisThread in the OO approach.)

Lock names are also used to parameterize functions and structs. In that case it might be necessary to be able to encode the “sharability” of the type. If the lock type has the kind LS, it actually protects Shared data. The kind LU, on the other hand, may be Unsharable, i.e., it could be instantiated with the thread-local loc. LS is a sub-kind of LU.

The main purpose of “kinding” is to ensure that thread-local data can never be shared between threads.

-Example

All this sounds very dry without an actual (however contrived) example. Let’s start with a simple function inc :

void inc<λ:LU>(int *λ p; {λ} ) { *p = *p + 1; }

The function is parameterized by a lock name parameter λ of the LU kind. It means that it can be instantiated both in the sharing and thread-local context. Lock-name variable λ first appears in the declaration of the pointer parameter p . Data pointed to by p is protected by the lock named λ. That’s not telling a lot–every pointer in Cyclon is protected by some lock (or nonlock ).

What makes the difference is that the same name λ appears in the effects part of the declaration. The runtime system keeps track of what locks are being held at any point in the program, and passes this information to every function. Here, {λ} is an effect that contains one lock name, λ. In other words, the lock that protects p must be taken before calling inc . (Of course, other locks might be held too.)

Here’s an example of how inc may be called from another function, inc2 .

void inc2<λ:LU>(lock_t<λ> plk, int *λ p ; {} ) { sync(plk) inc(p); }

The effects part of the declaration of inc2 is empty. No locks need be held before calling it. But when inc is called, the current effects include the name of the lock specified in the declaration of plk (the sync section adds λ to the effects). Since the same lock name appears in the declaration of p , the precondition for calling inc is fulfilled.

A struct containing a pointer must also be an existential type. The actual value of λ is assigned to LkInt when the type is “packed” (created from its constituents).

struct LkInt {<λ:LS> lock_t<λ> plk; int*λ p; };

Here, LkInt (locked integer) only makes sense in a sharing context, so λ is of the strictly sharing kind, LS. That allows LkInt s to be passed between threads.

Here’s an example of using a pointer to LkInt :

void g<λ:LU>(struct LkInt *λ s ;{λ}) { let LkInt{<λ'> .plk=lk, .p=ptr} = *s; inc2(lk, ptr); }

Function g is parameterized by some lock name of the LU kind (so it may be loc). This lock is used by the callee to lock the LkInt argument s (λ is present in the callee effects).

Now s itself contains a pointer and a lock (of the LS kind). We get at them by unpacking an existential type–splitting it into constituents and giving them new names, lk and ptr . The name of lk is λ’. A shallow copy of s is performed in the process. We can now call inc2 , which doesn’t require any effects, and uses lk to lock and increment ptr .

Finally, all these things come together in the example below:

void f(;{}) { let lk<λ> = newlock(); int *λ p1 = new 0; int *loc p2 = new 0; struct LkInt *loc s = new LkInt{.plk=lk, .p=p1}; spawn(g, s, sizeof(struct LkInt)); inc2(lk, p1); inc2(nonlock, p2); }

Here’s the play-by-play:

Function f requires no effects.

requires no effects. The programmer creates a lock lk with the name λ (unpacks an existential type returned by newlock ).

with the name λ (unpacks an existential type returned by ). She creates a pointer p1 to an integer protected by the lock named λ.

to an integer protected by the lock named λ. Then she creates an unprotected thread-local pointer p2 (using dummy lock name, loc )

(using dummy lock name, ) She combines the lock lk and the pointer p1 into a struct LkInt . This is an example of “packing” an existential type. Note that both components must share the same lock name. (The pointer to LkInt , s , is thread-local–lock name: loc .)

and the pointer into a struct . This is an example of “packing” an existential type. Note that both components must share the same lock name. (The pointer to , , is thread-local–lock name: .) The programmer spawns a thread that executes the function g with the argument s . The argument is passed by a shallow copy, but deep contents (the lock and the pointer) are shared. In fact they must be shared with the kinding LS; otherwise spawn would not compile. This mechanism protects any thread-local data from being shared with a new thread.

with the argument . The argument is passed by a shallow copy, but deep contents (the lock and the pointer) are shared. In fact they must be shared with the kinding LS; otherwise would not compile. This mechanism protects any thread-local data from being shared with a new thread. While the call to g(s) executes in parallel, the programmer increments p1 under the lock lk . Notice that these are the same variables that the other thread operates on. The shared lock enforces mutual exclusion.

executes in parallel, the programmer increments under the lock . Notice that these are the same variables that the other thread operates on. The shared lock enforces mutual exclusion. The increment of thread-local p2 requires no lock, that’s why dummy nonlock is used.

-Limitations

The biggest limitation of the Cyclon system is that it’s static. The association between data and locks is rigid. That makes several useful idioms impossible to implement. There is no way to “move” data between threads. You can either pass a pointer together with its lock (essentially creating a monitor), or pass data by value.

The other serious problem is the overall complexity of the system–especially the “effects” part. When effects have to be included and manipulated in generic code things get a little hairy.

Granted, a lot of annotations can be elided–the defaults “do the right thing” in most cases. Still, what remains is asking a lot from an average programmer.

-Conclusion

I would like to thank Dan Grossman for correcting some of my mistakes and explaining a few subtle points.

In my next installment I’ll describe a more recent race-free extension of C, SharC, which supports a mix of static and dynamic checking.