I first discovered the iOS game Letterpress while reading Marco Arment's The Magazine (Letterdepressed, Josh Centers, Issue 5). I installed it immediately after finishing the article and was instantly hooked. It's a compelling mix of strategy and vocabulary demonstration. Easier to learn and quicker to play than Scrabble, while still providing a means for Liberal Arts majors to demonstrate superiority over their gainfully employed peers, if only for a few minutes.

A few days ago, I needed a distraction from finishing my upcoming book. Writing a Python based Letterpress "assistant" cough seemed like a fun diversion. I started with code originally written for Scrabble, but it was painfully slow. In this post, I'll show how I optimized and refactored the original code to the point that it's actually useful for Letterpress.

I didn't want to start from scratch, so I Googled for a Scrabble solver (figuring it was a close approximation) and basically took the first result I saw. It turned out to be an answer on StackOverflow to a question about optimizing a Scrabble solver. The approach was similar to what I had in mind (use Linux's words file to build up data structure suitable for searching for words, etc.).

The code is in two parts. The first script (which only needs to be run once) takes words using the words file found on most Linux machines at /usr/share/dict/words (on Arch I had to install the words package). First we'll take a look at the original code:

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 f = open ( '/usr/share/dict/words' ) d = {} lets = set ( 'abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz

' ) for word in f : if len ( set ( word ) - lets ) == 0 and len ( word ) > 2 and len ( word ) < 9 : word = word . strip () key = '' . join ( sorted ( word )) if key in d : d [ key ] . append ( word ) else : d [ key ] = [ word ] f . close () anadict = [ ' ' . join ([ key ] + value ) for key , value in d . iteritems ()] anadict . sort () f = open ( 'anadict.txt' , 'w' ) f . write ( '

' . join ( anadict )) f . close ()

Straightforward enough. It creates an almost suffix array-like dictionary of words where the key is a sorted series of letters and the value is a list of all the words that can be made using exactly those letters. Here's the version I ended up with:

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 import collections with open ( '/usr/share/dict/words' ) as file_handle : words = collections . defaultdict ( list ) letters = set ( 'abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz

' ) for word in file_handle : if len ( set ( word ) - letters ) == 0 and len ( word ) > 2 and len ( word ) < 20 : word = word . strip () key = '' . join ( sorted ( word )) words [ key ] . append ( word ) anagram_dictionary = sorted ([ ' ' . join ([ key ] + value ) for key , value in words . items ()]) with open ( 'anadict.txt' , 'w' ) as file_handle : file_handle . write ( '

' . join ( anagram_dictionary ))

The differences? The new version uses context managers for handling file access. It also uses collections.defaultdict to avoid the need for the if statement in the inner loop. The last change uses the built in function sorted directly on the list comprehension.

You might be asking yourself "Why change it at all? None of the functionality changed?". Three reasons. First, I'm making the code available on GitHub and using it as a teaching aid, so I want it to be written in idiomatic Python. Second, it's easier to read and comprehend than the first version, so it better suits my goals. Lastly, it's a habit that I've forced myself into over the years. No matter how short or trivial the code, write it in a straightforward, idiomatic way. The goal is for it to become automatic, so you never want to kick your own ass for writing a module that leaked file descriptors like they were going out of style because you were too lazy to use a context manager.

Rant over. Back to the code.

The second block of code is the real meaty part: it uses the word list produced by the script above to find all possible words that can be made from whatever you give it. The original version is below (I've removed a few Scrabble specific portions and a bit related to calculating run time).

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 from bisect import bisect_left from itertools import combinations from time import time def loadvars (): f = open ( 'anadict.txt' , 'r' ) anadict = f . read () . split ( '

' ) f . close () return anadict def findwords ( rack , anadict ): rack = '' . join ( sorted ( rack )) foundwords = [] for i in xrange ( 2 , len ( rack ) + 1 ): for comb in combinations ( rack , i ): ana = '' . join ( comb ) j = bisect_left ( anadict , ana ) if j == len ( anadict ): continue words = anadict [ j ] . split () if words [ 0 ] == ana : foundwords . extend ( words [ 1 :]) return foundwords if __name__ == "__main__" : import sys rack = sys . argv [ 1 ] . strip () anadict = loadvars () foundwords = set ( findwords ( rack , anadict )) print ( len ( foundwords ))

(I added the last line as a crude correctness test: we should still find the same number of words after any changes we make.)

Now that we've gotten our stolen Internet code all set up, let's see how she runs:

~/c/presser >>> time python2.7 presser_old.py asdwti 43 python2.7 presser_old.py asdwti 0 .03s user 0 .01s system 96 % cpu 0 .038 total

Not bad! For a six letter string, it found all 43 possible words that can be made from our dictionary. But wait. A Letterpress board has 25 letters, all of which can be used at any time. We'll need to test it on a 25 letter string to see if it's suitable for our purposes.

~/c/presser >>> time python2.7 presser_old.py asdwtribnowplfglewhqagnbe **Jeff goes to get a cup of coffee...** **Jeff drinks the cup of coffee...** **Jeff stares impatiently at screen...** 8594 python2.7 presser_old.py asdwtribnowplfglewhqagnbe 52 .48s user 0 .01s system 99 % cpu 52 .578 total

OK, so it takes a bit longer for a Letterpress board. Can we make it faster than a minute?

No. End of blog post.

Alright, fine, we'll try. Let's see if we can understand what the code is doing. loadvars just loads the dictionary file we created as one big list. Each element in the list is a series of strings: a sequence of letters in sorted order, followed by all of the words you can make with those letters. So far, so good.

findwords takes the string we entered on the command line and does some weird loop over it. Well, not too weird. The two for loops effectively loop over successively longer sub-sequences of our sorted string (the rack ). It basically says, "Let's find all the two letter words we can make. Now all the three letter words. Now the four...". It does so by using the itertools.combinations function to get all possible combinations of each subset of our rack .

In the inner loop, it uses bisect.bisect_left to determine if the current subset of letters exists in the anagram dictionary. Since the anagram dictionary is a sorted list, bisect_left gives us the position in the anagram dictionary that we would insert our current sub-sequence. Everything before it is "less" than it (in alphabetical order). Everything after is greater than or equal to it. If our current sub-sequence has a match in the anagram dictionary, it has to be at the position bisect_left returns. Clever.

Now that we understand the algorithm, how do we make it faster? First, we profile to see where time is being taken. Let's use a somewhat shorter string so I can finish this post before March.

~/c/presser >>> python2.7 -m cProfile presser_old.py asdwtribnowplf 1115 66453 function calls in 0 .043 seconds Ordered by: standard name ncalls tottime percall cumtime percall filename:lineno ( function ) 1 0 .000 0 .000 0 .000 0 .000 bisect.py:1 ( <module> ) 1 0 .000 0 .000 0 .043 0 .043 presser_old.py:1 ( <module> ) 1 0 .017 0 .017 0 .036 0 .036 presser_old.py:13 ( findwords ) 1 0 .000 0 .000 0 .007 0 .007 presser_old.py:4 ( loadvars ) 16369 0 .010 0 .000 0 .010 0 .000 { _bisect.bisect_left } 16372 0 .001 0 .000 0 .001 0 .000 { len } 1 0 .000 0 .000 0 .000 0 .000 { method 'close' of 'file' objects } 1 0 .000 0 .000 0 .000 0 .000 { method 'disable' of '_lsprof.Profiler' objects } 962 0 .000 0 .000 0 .000 0 .000 { method 'extend' of 'list' objects } 16370 0 .003 0 .000 0 .003 0 .000 { method 'join' of 'str' objects } 1 0 .001 0 .001 0 .001 0 .001 { method 'read' of 'file' objects } 16370 0 .010 0 .000 0 .010 0 .000 { method 'split' of 'str' objects } 1 0 .000 0 .000 0 .000 0 .000 { method 'strip' of 'str' objects } 1 0 .000 0 .000 0 .000 0 .000 { open } 1 0 .000 0 .000 0 .000 0 .000 { sorted }

We see the two most costly functions are split and bisect_left . This is pretty intuitive. split has to create a bunch of new string objects, meaning memory allocation, meaning slow. bisect_left , if we think back to CS101, is at best O(log n) since it's doing a search on a sorted list (the implementation of bisect_left is a simple binary search). So what do we do to make this faster?

Stop calling split and bisect_left ! That's only a half-joke. If we could do the same work without those two calls, the battle would be won. Let's take them one at a time.

Why do we need split ? Because our anagram dictionary is a list of space separated strings, and we need to extract the key (first string) and values (all the rest of the strings). Similarly, we need bisect_left because we're operating on a sorted list. O(log n) is about the best we're gonna do.

So we need to change the data structure used to store our anagram dictionary. It needs to allow us to access our "key" string and "value" strings quickly. It also needs constant time look up.

Now is when you guess what data structure we use. Here's a hint: I've been referring to the list of anagrams as the "anagram dictionary"...

A dictionary! How novel! Using a dictionary obviates the need for both of the costly function calls. Here's the code after our changes (and a bit of cleanup):

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 from itertools import combinations import collections def load_anagrams (): anagrams = collections . defaultdict ( list ) with open ( 'anadict.txt' , 'r' ) as file_handle : for line in file_handle : words = line . split () anagrams [ words [ 0 ]] = words [ 1 :] return anagrams def find_words ( board , anagrams ): board = '' . join ( sorted ( board )) target_words = [] for word_length in range ( 2 , len ( board ) + 1 ): for combination in combinations ( board , word_length ): anagram = '' . join ( combination ) if anagram in anagrams : target_words += anagrams [ anagram ] return target_words if __name__ == "__main__" : import sys if len ( sys . argv ) == 2 : rack = sys . argv [ 1 ] . strip () else : exit () anagrams = load_anagrams () target_words = set ( find_words ( rack , anagrams )) print ( len ( target_words ))

Let's see if it made a difference...

~/c/presser >>> time python2.7 presser_new.py asdwtribnowplfglewhqagnbe 8594 python2.7 presser_new.py asdwtribnowplfglewhqagnbe 15 .22s user 0 .04s system 99 % cpu 15 .282 total

Down from 52 seconds to 15. Not bad. But I think we can do better... Let's profile again.

~/c/presser >>> python2.7 -m cProfile presser_new.py asdwtribnowplf 1115 87762 function calls in 0 .078 seconds Ordered by: standard name ncalls tottime percall cumtime percall filename:lineno ( function ) 1 0 .000 0 .000 0 .000 0 .000 bisect.py:1 ( <module> ) 1 0 .000 0 .000 0 .001 0 .001 collections.py:1 ( <module> ) 1 0 .000 0 .000 0 .000 0 .000 collections.py:25 ( OrderedDict ) 1 0 .000 0 .000 0 .000 0 .000 collections.py:356 ( Counter ) 1 0 .000 0 .000 0 .000 0 .000 heapq.py:31 ( <module> ) 1 0 .000 0 .000 0 .000 0 .000 keyword.py:11 ( <module> ) 1 0 .001 0 .001 0 .078 0 .078 presser_new.py:1 ( <module> ) 1 0 .006 0 .006 0 .008 0 .008 presser_new.py:17 ( find_words ) 1 0 .042 0 .042 0 .069 0 .069 presser_new.py:4 ( load_anagrams ) 3 0 .000 0 .000 0 .000 0 .000 { len } 1 0 .000 0 .000 0 .000 0 .000 { method 'disable' of '_lsprof.Profiler' objects } 16370 0 .003 0 .000 0 .003 0 .000 { method 'join' of 'str' objects } 71375 0 .027 0 .000 0 .027 0 .000 { method 'split' of 'str' objects } 1 0 .000 0 .000 0 .000 0 .000 { method 'strip' of 'str' objects } 1 0 .000 0 .000 0 .000 0 .000 { open } 1 0 .000 0 .000 0 .000 0 .000 { range } 1 0 .000 0 .000 0 .000 0 .000 { sorted }

join , split 's sneaky cousin dominates the execution time. Note that split is there due to its use in load_anagrams , not the find_words function. I'm fine with that since it's a flat cost (and note that the string I used for profiling was only 14 characters long, so split will use comparatively less time on the full 25 character board). How do we make this faster still?

Stop calling join !

We only need it because combinations returns a tuple and the keys for anagrams are strings. Let's change that. Here is the new version of the two relevant functions:

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 def load_anagrams (): anagrams = collections . defaultdict ( list ) with open ( 'anadict.txt' , 'r' ) as file_handle : for line in file_handle : words = line . split () anagrams [ tuple ( words [ 0 ])] = words [ 1 :] return anagrams def find_words ( board , anagrams , max_length = 25 ): board = '' . join ( sorted ( board )) target_words = [] for word_length in range ( 2 , len ( board ) + 1 ): for combination in combinations ( board , word_length ): if combination in anagrams : target_words += anagrams [ combination ] return target_words

Lean and mean. Let's see what the judges say...

~/c/presser >>> python2.7 -m cProfile presser_new.py asdwtribnowplf time python2.7 presser_new.py asdwtribnowplfglewhqagnbe 8594 python2.7 presser_new.py asdwtribnowplfglewhqagnbe 7 .13s user 0 .02s system 99 % cpu 7 .166 total

Down from 52 seconds to 15 to 7. I think the search portion of my Letterpress solver is usable now. You can find the code for presser, the name of this little gem, on GitHub. Note that while the word finding portion is done, the optimal move evaluation is still a work in progress.

If you found this post useful, you may be interested in my upcoming book Writing Idiomatic Python. It's nearly complete, and pre-order copies should be available by January 15th. Sign up for the email list to get an email when it's released.