A second attempt by the Myanmar government to repatriate thousands of Rohingya refugees from Bangladesh has failed to attract a single volunteer, almost exactly two years after the start of a campaign of persecution that the UN has said may constitute a genocide.

Myanmar had drawn up a list of almost 3,500 people who it said had been “cleared” for return to Rakhine State, where new homes have been built in anticipation of the move.

But despite living in cramped conditions in the biggest refugee camp in the world at Cox’s Bazar, not a single person interviewed had said they wanted to go back, according to the UN’s refugee agency UNHCR and the Bangladesh government.

Preparations for the repatriation effort had sparked small scenes of protest and anxiety among some of the Rohingya refugees, who say they want to return home to Rakhine – but only as long as they are guaranteed citizenship, safety and the right to move and work freely.

“Not a single Rohingya wants to go back without their demands being met,” said Bangladesh’s refugee commissioner Abul Kalam on Thursday, after rows of buses were left waiting empty.

A similar round of repatriation talks led to widespread fear and confusion last year, prompting the authorities to make greater efforts this time around to stress that any returns to Myanmar would be on a voluntary basis. Questions remained, however, over how the lists of those eligible to return were being drawn up.

And in the chaos of the camps, where people are as likely to get information from Facebook as they are from official sources, not everyone appeared to have got the message.

One refugee, Ramzan Begum, told the Associated Press her mother-in-law fled the camp home for an unknown destination on Wednesday night, ahead of the planned repatriation, and had not returned by Thursday.

“She told us she will not go back and left the home last night,” Begum said.

More than 1.1 million Rohingya refugees live in the camps outside Cox’s Bazar city in southeast Bangladesh, just across the border from Myanmar.

Of these, about 750,000 have arrived since 25 August 2017 in an exodus sparked by a bloody military and pro-government Buddhist militia crackdown which, Myanmar’s government says, was a reaction to Rohingya rebel insurgent attacks.

A UN-established investigation last year recommended the prosecution of Myanmar’s top military commanders on charges of genocide, war crimes and crimes against humanity. Myanmar’s government dismissed the report.

The UNHCR has now praised Myanmar’s attempts to start repatriations as “a positive step in the affirmation of the right to return of Rohingya refugees”.

Life for Rohingya women: the real and hidden crisis Show all 18 1 /18 Life for Rohingya women: the real and hidden crisis Life for Rohingya women: the real and hidden crisis Sultana Begum Sultana Begum*, 30, saw her husband die in front of her. She was also shot AJ Ghani/British Red Cross Life for Rohingya women: the real and hidden crisis Zaheda* with her daughter Arofa* It took and her family 18 days to walk from her village to the border with Myanmar. ‘We went across the mountains and it was a rough journey because I was three months pregnant. In the refugee camp when it was time for the baby to be born I went into labour. I tried to give birth in my shelter but I could not. My son died soon after he was born. The doctors said it was the stress of the journey.’ Zaheda worries about the safety of her daughters Gulsar*, 20, and Abeda*, 18, as there are reports of trafficking in the camps, so she accompanies them everywhere, even to the toilet Abbie Trayler-Smith/Oxfam Life for Rohingya women: the real and hidden crisis Arofa* and her best friend Rashida* Arofa*, six years old, one of Zaheda’s younger daughters, and her best friend Rashida* share a moment in the refugee camp. Arofa lives with her eight siblings, mother, father and grandmother Nur Begum, in a three-roomed shelter made of tarpaulin and bamboo Abbie Trayler-Smith/Oxfam Life for Rohingya women: the real and hidden crisis Ummee* is a 16-year old girl who arrived in Bangladesh with her brother, orphaned Ummee Salma*, 16: ‘Me and my older brother came here four months ago. My parents are either killed or lost. When violence broke out we were separated. I heard them screaming our names but we couldn’t find each other. That was the last time I saw them. If my parents were alive they would have come and found us in Bangladesh’ Josh Estey/Care International Life for Rohingya women: the real and hidden crisis Almost 1 million people, mainly women and children, are now living in the sprawling refugee camps in Cox’s Bazar, making it now the largest refugee camp in the world Abbie Trayler-Smith/Oxfam Life for Rohingya women: the real and hidden crisis Rohana Begum ‘If the people of Save the Children hadn’t helped me when I was unconscious I would have died,’ says Rohana*. Rohana Begum* was alone in her shelter made of wood and plastic sheeting when she went into labour with Khotija*, now two and a half months. After delivering the baby on her own Rohana* began to lose a lot of blood. She lay unconscious and haemorrhaging until her mother-in law returned a few hours later. Save the Children estimates that 48,000 babies were born in the camps around Cox’s Bazar in 2018 Allison Joyce/Save the Children Life for Rohingya women: the real and hidden crisis Women in the camps face many issues; in addition to the extreme sexual and physical violence they experienced as they fled, they are still vulnerable in the camps. Many are alone, or just with their children, and overcrowding and limited privacy means that they are at further risk of violence, sexual abuse, child abuse, human trafficking and exploitation Saikat Mojumder /Plan International Life for Rohingya women: the real and hidden crisis Marjina*, 25, with her 2 month old daughter Asma, in their tent in Balukhali refugee camp “I was eight months pregnant when they came. It was just before dawn and we were sleeping. We heard gunshots and looked outside to work out what was happening. When we saw the house was on fire we had to pick up the children and run. As we ran through the forest they shot at us. “Conditions in the camp are not good. I don’t have nutritious food to give the children. My son keeps crying that he is hungry and asking me for food. I feel bad because I can’t provide for them. I worry that I’m not able to care for my baby properly.” Farzana Hossen/Surya Photos/Oxfam Life for Rohingya women: the real and hidden crisis Sajeda Begum*, 35 (on the left), is married with five children She has become firm friends with Sobika* (right) since meeting her at the ActionAid women-friendly space where they have been encouraged to talk. “I have suffered so much torture and so many struggles over the last one year. When I sleep I can still see everything. “They gathered all the male heads of the family together and tortured them. They uncovered our bodies and ripped our scarves, which is a big violation. They tortured the women and the small children too. They even beat pregnant women. The memory is still too clear for me. Too clear. “The first time I came here and saw the other women talking I was surprised. But I was encouraged to tell my stories of where I have come from. I feel that life is more enjoyable now I am here.” Stephanie Ross/ActionAid Life for Rohingya women: the real and hidden crisis A girl sells vegetables in Kutupalong refugee camp. There are currently 6,000 unaccompanied children living in Cox’s Bazar, where they face crippling food shortages and are at risk of exploitation and abuse. Whilst looking for work women and girls are falling victim to exploitation and are being trafficked into the sex trade Christian Aid Life for Rohingya women: the real and hidden crisis Isamatara, 15 Isamatara takes part in a session run by Plan International in Balukhali camp, Cox’s Bazar, for teenage girls to talk about what it’s like to have their periods in a place like this. Girls are usually married within two to three years after they start menstruating, between the ages of 12 to 16 Plan International Life for Rohingya women: the real and hidden crisis Rojia*, 25, with her youngest son Sultan*, 2 Rojia’s husband went missing in Myanmar. She thinks he was picked up by the military. He went out for a walk after lunch and never returned. Single mothers whose husbands are missing or dead head up 1 in 6 families in the Rohingya camps. They face particular problems, having to take on public roles that challenge cultural and religious assumptions about women’s place in society. Oxfam has collaborated with women refugees to design improved toilets and washrooms that afford more privacy, and is calling for more to be done to support these vulnerable women such as help collecting aid packages and more community dialogue about men and women’s traditional roles Abbie-Trayler Smith/Oxfam Life for Rohingya women: the real and hidden crisis Fatima Fatima’s* husband was killed in the attacks and shortly after their house was burnt. Since Fatima is head of the household, she has to do most of the work. From one of the nearby water pumps in the camp she usually fetches water in the evenings. Care provides her with safe drinking water and washing facilities, critical for the 22,000 people in her camp. ‘No aid in the world can give me back my husband’ Josh Estey/Care International Life for Rohingya women: the real and hidden crisis Fatima ‘Look at my feet. I had lost my toe nails as we were climbing. It was so hard to climb over the mountains and we had to carry our old mother because she can’t walk,’ says Fatima* Josh Estey/Care International Life for Rohingya women: the real and hidden crisis Dr Fatema Akter Dr Fatema Akter, 42, one of ActionAid’s team in Cox’s Bazar, says that when the crisis started she saw 80 people a day. ‘At the beginning, most of the women came with reproductive problems because they had to walk a long time when they were crossing the border. Sometimes they were a few weeks pregnant, but when walking on this journey they were bleeding and it turned out they miscarried. There are also many rape cases. I try to understand my patients when I see them. A common problem is women being beaten by their husbands in the camp. And another problem is women being left by their husbands. To focus myself and try to hold back my tears, sometimes I try to remember my favourite films, or think about fun moments with my friends’ 'When they tell us what they’re going through, we try to provide them with support.' Noor Alam/ActionAid Life for Rohingya women: the real and hidden crisis Dildar Begum Dildar Begum, 25, lost her husband as she fled to save herself and her children’s lives. After reaching Jamtoli camp she was reunited with her husband and they started living happily together. But soon he started abusing her physically and emotionally. She then discovered he had a new wife, occasionally he returned to torture her further, but now he doesn’t come at all. She is pregnant again, a single mother of six children, and delivered her last baby all alone in the camp. ‘It’s very difficult to explain the struggle I’ve faced in Myanmar and throughout my journey towards Bangladesh. I was five months pregnant and alone with my five children.’ Dildar now attends a Women and Child Friendly Space run by Gana Unnayan Kendra, a partner organisation of Christian Aid. Here women come together, share their stories, sew clothes to sell and wear, and get psychosocial support Faysal Ahamed/Christian Aid Life for Rohingya women: the real and hidden crisis Rahima ‘When I lost my two children, I wanted to climb into the hole with them and lay there. Though I’m sad, it’s very important to tell our terrible story to the whole world. One of my children was killed crossing the border, she was 11. My other child was only seven. When we crossed it was very cold and raining, we didn’t have enough food so my child got sick and was taken by disease.’ Rahima lost her husband and two other children before she fled Myanmar. Despite her unimaginable loss, she remains determined to help others now she is here. Rahima is just one of thousands of people that the Red Cross has trained in hygiene promotion. 'I want to protect other people’s children so they don’t fall to disease. I have one child now and I will try my best to protect her and the community’s children.' AJ Ghani/British Red Cross Life for Rohingya women: the real and hidden crisis Minara, 20, with baby Shomima Shomima was seven days old when the photo was taken. ‘One day, if it’s safe, of course we want to go home. I miss my home, my family. I miss my cows and my normal life. But at least this is safer,’ she says. In October 2018, a proposed repatriation deal was made between the Bangladesh and Myanmar governments. The deal was made against the wishes of many Rohingya, some of whom spoke of being ‘terrified’ at being sent back. As a result of mounting concern amongst NGOs, human rights groups and the UNHCR, repatriation did not take place at this time. For now the Rohingya remain in limbo just across the border from Myanmar, and for women and girls in the camps of Cox’s Bazar life remains precarious (*Names have been changed throughout gallery to protect identity) AJ Ghani/British Red Cross

In a statement, the UN refugee agency also praised Myanmar officials for travelling to Cox’s Bazar in July to meet Rohingya leaders in the camps, and said that “dialogue should continue”.

Yet at the same time, the NGOs which have been working to improve the lives of the refugees in the camps criticised the government of Myanmar for failing to make any “concrete efforts” to deal with the conflict that led to the crisis starting in the first place.

Myanmar officially refers to the refugees as “Bengalis” and refuses to recognise the Rohingya as citizens or even as an ethnic group, rendering them stateless, and those who remain in Rakhine face other forms of state-sanctioned discrimination including extreme restrictions on movement.

Manish Agrawal, country director for the International Rescue Committee in Bangladesh, told The Independent that in the past two years, a global effort had led to great improvements in immediate circumstances for refugees in the camps – from improved shelters to monsoon preparedness.

Beyond matters of “basic survival”, though, he painted a bleak picture of future prospects for the refugees, with about 97 per cent of youths aged 15 and over not receiving any kind of structured education or training – while being simultaneously banned from working.

“These youths are sitting idle, they have no education, no livelihoods, no stakebuilding. We have been witnessing growing safety and security concerns, increasing violence towards women, and also growing conflict between the local [Bangladeshi] host communities and the Rohingyas,” he said.