One priority for Rust after 1.0 is going to be incorporating some kind of support for “efficient inheritance” or “virtual structs”. In order to motivate and explain this design, I am writing a series of blog posts examining how Rust’s current abstractions compare with those found in other languages.

The way I see it, the topic of “virtual structs” has always had two somewhat orthogonal components to it. The first component is a question of how we can generalize and extend Rust enums to cover more scenarios. The second component is integrating virtual dispatch into this picture.

I am going to start the series by focusing on the question of extending enums. This first post will cover some of the strengths of the current Rust enum design; the next post, which I’ll publish later this week, will describe some of the advantages of a more “class-based” approach. Then I’ll discuss how we can bring those two worlds together. After that, I will turn to virtual dispatch, impls, and matching, and show how they interact.

The Rust enum

I don’t know about you, but when I work with C++, I find that the first thing that I miss is the Rust enum . Usually what happens is that I start out with some innocent-looking C++ enum, like ErrorCode :

enum ErrorCode { FileNotFound , UnexpectedChar }; ErrorCode parse_file ( String file_name );

As I evolve the code, I find that, in some error cases, I want to return some additional information. For example, when I return UnexpectedChar , maybe I want to indicate what character I saw, and what characters I expected. Because this data isn’t the same for all errors, now I’m kind of stuck. I can make a struct, but it has these extra fields that are only sometimes relevant, which is awkward:

struct Error { ErrorCode code ; // only relevant if UnexpectedChar: Vector < char > expected ; // possible expected characters char found ; };

This solution is annoying since I have to come up with values for all these fields, even when they’re not relevant. In this case, for example, I have to create an empty vector and so forth. And of course I have to make sure not to read those fields without checking what kind of error I have first. And it’s wasteful of memory to boot. (I could use a union , but that is kind of a mess of its own.) All in all, not very good.

One more structured solution is to go to a full-blown class hierarchy:

enum ErrorCode { FileNotFound , UnexpectedChar }; class Error { public: Error ( ErrorCode ec ) : errorCode ( ec ) { } const ErrorCode errorCode ; }; class FileNotFoundError : public Error { public: FileNotFound () : Error ( FileNotFound ); }; class UnexpectedChar : public ErrorCode { public: UnexpectedChar ( char expected , char found ) : Error ( UnexpectedChar ), expected ( expected ), found ( found ) { } const char expected ; const char found ; };

In many ways, this is pretty nice, but there is a problem (besides the verbosity, I mean). I can’t just pass around Error instances by value, because the size of the Error will vary depending on what kind of error it is. So I need dynamic allocation. So I can change my parse_file routine to something like:

unique_ptr < Error > parse_file (...);

Of course, now I’ve wound up with a lot more code, and mandatory memory allocation, for something that doesn’t really seem all that complicated.

Rust to the rescue

Of course, Rust enums make this sort of thing easy. I can start out with a simple enum as before:

enum ErrorCode { FileNotFound , UnexpectedChar } fn parse_file ( file_name : String ) -> ErrorCode ;

Then I can simply modify it so that the variants carry data:

enum ErrorCode { FileNotFound , UnexpectedChar { expected : Vec < String > , found : char } } fn parse_file ( file_name : String ) -> ErrorCode ;

And nothing really has to change. I only have to supply values for those fields when I construct an instance of UnexpectedChar , and I only read the values when I match a given error. But most importantly, I don’t have to do dummy allocations: the size of ErrorCode is automatically the size of the largest variant, so I get the benefits of the a union in C but without the mess and risk.

What makes Rust and C++ behave differently?

So why does this example work so much more smoothly with a Rust enum than a C++ class hierarchy? The most obvious difference is that Rust’s enum syntax allows us to compactly declare all the variants in one place, and of course we enjoy the benefits of match syntax. Such “creature comforts” are very nice, but that is not what I’m really talking about in this post. (For example, Scala is an example of a language that offers great syntactic support for using “classes as variants”; but that doesn’t change the fundamental tradeoffs involved.)

To me, the key difference between Rust and C++ is the size of the ErrorCode types. In Rust, the size of an ErrorCode instance is equal to the maximum of its variants, which means that we can pass errors around by value and know that we have enough space to store any kind of error. In contrast, when using classes in C++, the size of an ErrorCode instance will vary, depending on what specific variance it is. This is why I must pass around errors using a pointer, since I don’t know how much space I need up front. (Well, actually, C++ doesn’t require you to pass around values by pointer: but if you don’t, you wind up with object slicing, which can be a particularly surprising sort of error. In Rust, we have the notion of DST to address this problem.)

Rust really relies deeply on the flat, uniform layout for enums. For example, every time you make a nullable pointer like Option<&T> , you are taking advantage of the fact that options are laid out flat in memory, whether they are None or Some . (In Scala, for example, creating a Some variant requires allocating an object.)

Preview of the next few posts

OK, now that I spent a lot of time telling you why enums are great and subclassing is terrible, my next post is going to tell you why I think suclassing is sometimes fantastic and enums kind of annoying.

Caveat