Prominent scientists and policymakers assert with confidence that there is no scientific controversy over the health effects of genetically modified organisms (GMOs)—that genetically modified crops currently in commercial use and those yet to be commercialized are inherently safe for human consumption and do not have to be tested. Those who disagree are cast as “GMO deniers.” This article examines scientific reviews and papers on GMOs, compares the findings of professional societies, and discusses the treatment of scientists who have reported adverse effects in animal feeding experiments. This article concludes by exploring the role that politics and corporate interests have had in distorting an honest inquiry into the health effects of GMO crops.

References

AAEM (American Academy of Environmental Medicine) . 2009 . “ Position Statement on GMOs .” May 8. Accessed July 19, 2014. http://www.aaemonline.org/gmopost.html.

Google Scholar

Achenbach, J . 2015 . “ Why Do Many Reasonable People Doubt Science? ” National Geographic 14 (5). Accessed March 2, 2015. http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/2015/03/science-doubters/achenbach-text.

Google Scholar

American Medical Association, Action of the House of Delegates . 2012 . “ Annual Meeting: Council on Science and Public Health Report 2 .” CSAPH Report 2-A-12. Accessed July 21, 2015. http://www.ama-assn.org/ama/pub/about-ama/our-people/ama-councils/council-science-public-health/reports/2012-reports.page. https://download.ama-assn.org/resources/doc/csaph/x-pub/a12-csaph2-bioengineeredfoods.pdf.

Google Scholar

Antoniou, M., Robinson, C., Fagan, J.. 2012 . GMO Myths and Truths: An Evidence-based Examination of the Claims Made for the Safety and Efficacy of Genetically Modified Crops. London, UK : Earth Open Source . Accessed February 20, 2015. http://earthopensource.org/wordpress/downloads/GMO-Myths-and-Truths-edition2.pdf.

Google Scholar

Bawa, A. S., Anilakumar, K. R.. 2013 . “ Genetically Modified Foods: Safety, Risks and Public Concerns—A Review .” Journal of Food Science & Technology 50 (6): 1035 – 46 .

Google Scholar Crossref | Medline

Bekelman, J. E., Li, Y., Gross, C. P.. 2003 . “ Scope and Impact of Financial Conflicts of Interest in Biomedical Research: A Systematic Review .” Journal of the American Medical Association 289 (4): 454 – 65 . (January 22-29, 2003).

Google Scholar Crossref | ISI

BMA (British Medical Association) . 1999 . “ Press Releases Archive .” May 18, 1999. Accessed July 17, 2014. http://web2.bma.org.uk/pressrel.nsf/wall/1E731484333E2965802568F5005430C6?OpenDocument.

Google Scholar

BMA (British Medical Association) . 2003 . “ Press Release Archive .” January 14, 2003. Accessed July 17, 2014. http://web2.bma.org.uk/pressrel.nsf/wall/F1DCEF13942969B980256CAE00599823?OpenDocument.

Google Scholar

BMA (British Medical Association, Board of Science and Education) . 2004 . Genetically Modified Foods and Health: A Second Interim Statement. London, UK : British Medical Association . Accessed July 5, 2015. http://www.argenbio.org/adc/uploads/pdf/bma.pdf.

Google Scholar

Borel, B . 2014 . “ Core Truths: 10 Common GMO Claims Debunked .” Popular Science 285 (1): 57 . Accessed July 15, 2014. http://www.popsci.com/article/science/core-truths-10-common-gmo-claims-debunked.

Google Scholar

Borlaug, N. 2014 . Accessed February 17, 2015. http://articles.economictimes.indiatimes.com/2014-08-06/news/52514586_1_gm-crops-gm-foods-bt-cotton.

Google Scholar

Bourgeois, F. 2010 . “ Drug Trials Funded by Industry Are More Likely to Publish Favorable Results .” Annals of Internal Medicine 153 (3): 158 – 66 .

Google Scholar Crossref | Medline | ISI

Brundtland, G. H . 2002 . Accessed February 17, 2015. http://www.afro.who.int/en/media-centre/pressreleases/item/457-who-director-general-speaks-on-gm-foods.html.

Google Scholar

Campbell, P. M., Reiner, D., Moore, A. E., Lee, R.-Y., Epstein, M. M., Higgins, T. J. V.. 2011 . “ Comparison of the Alpha-amylase Inhibitor-1 from Common Bean (Phaseolus vulgaris) Varieties and Transgenic Expression in Other Legumes-post-translational Modifications and Immunogenicity .” Journal of Agriculture Food Chemistry 59 (11): 6047 – 54 .

Google Scholar Crossref | Medline | ISI

COPE (Committee on Publication Ethics) . Accessed January 16, 2015. http://publicationethics.org/files/retraction%20guidelines.pdf.

Google Scholar

CRIIGEN (Committee of Research and Independent Information on Genetic Engineering) . Legal status . Revised July 7, 2008. Accessed July 30, 2015. http://www.criigen.org/user/pdf/CRIIGEN_statuts.pdf.

Google Scholar

de Vendômois, J. Spiroux, Cellier, D., Vélot, C., Clair, Emilie, Mesnage, Robin, Séralini, Gilles-Eric. 2010 . “ Debate on GMOs Health Risks after Statistical Findings in Regulatory Tests .” International Journal of Biological Sciences 6 (6): 590 – 98 .

Google Scholar Crossref | Medline | ISI

Diels, J., Cunha, M., Manaia, C., Sabugosa-Madeira, B., Silva, M.. 2011 . “ Association of Financial or Professional Conflict of Interest to Research Outcomes on Health Risks or Nutritional Assessment Studies of Genetically Modified Crops .” Food Policy 36 (2): 197 – 203 .

Google Scholar Crossref | ISI

Diouf, J. 2002 . Accessed February 17, 2015. http://www.eufic.org/article/en/food-technology/gmos/artid/gmos-debate/.

Google Scholar

Domingo, J. L., Bordonaba, J. G.. 2011 . “ A Literature Review on the Safety Assessment of Genetically Modified Plants .” Environment International 37 (4): 734 – 42 .

Google Scholar Crossref | Medline | ISI

Dona, A., Arvanitouannis, I. S.. 2009 . “ Health Risks of Genetically Modified Foods .” Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition 49 (2): 164 – 75 .

Google Scholar Crossref | Medline | ISI

Druker, Steven . 2015 . Altered Genes, Twisted Truth. Fairfield, IA : Clear River Press .

Google Scholar

EFSA (European Food and Safety Authority) . 2012 . “ Final Review of the Séralini et al. (2012) Publication on a 2-year Rodent Feeding Study with Glyphosate Formulations and GM Maize NK603 First Published Online on September 19, 2012 in Food and Chemical Toxicology .” EFSA Journal 10 (11): 2986 – 96 .

Google Scholar Crossref

EFSA (European Food Safety Authority) . 2014 . “ Scientific Opinion on Application (EFSA-GMO-UK-2009-76) for the Placing on the Market of Soybean MON 87769 .” EFSA Journal 12 (5): 3644 – 85 .

Google Scholar

Ewen, S. W. B., Pusztai, A.. 1999a . “ Effects of Diets Containing Genetically Modified Potatoes Expressing Galanthus nivalis Lectin on Rat Small Intestine .” The Lancet 354 (9187): 1353 – 54 .

Google Scholar Crossref | Medline | ISI

Ewen, S. W. B., Pusztai, A.. 1999b . “ GM Food Debate: Reply .” The Lancet 354 (9191): 1726 – 27 .

Google Scholar Crossref | Medline | ISI

FCT (Food & Chemical Toxicology, Editor-in-chief) . 2014 . “ Retraction Notice to: Long Term Toxicity of a Roundup Herbicide and a Roundup-tolerant Genetically Modified Maize .” Food & Chemical Toxicology 63: 244 .

Google Scholar Medline | ISI

Flynn, L., Gillard, M. S.. 1999 . “ Pro-GM Scientist ‘Threatened Editor.’ ” The Guardian, October 31. Accessed July 22, 2015. http://www.theguardian.com/science/1999/nov/01/gm.food.

Google Scholar

Hammond, B., Dudek, R., Lemen, J., Nemeth, M.. 2004 . “ Results of a 13 Week Safety Assurance Study with Rats Fed Grain from Glyphosate Tolerant Corn .” Food & Chemical Toxicology 42 (6): 1003 – 14 .

Google Scholar Crossref | Medline | ISI

Hilbeck, A., Binmelis, R., Defarge, N., Steinbrecher, Ricarda, Székács, András, Wickson, Fern, Antoniou, Michael, Bereano, Philip L., Clark, Ethel Ann, Hansen, Michael, Novotny, Eva, Heinemann, Jack, Meyer, Hartmut, Shiva, Vandana, Wynne, Brian. 2015 . “ No Scientific Consensus on GMO Safety .” Environmental Sciences Europe 27 (4): 1 – 6 .

Google Scholar

Hilgartner, Stephen . 2000 . Science on Stage: Expert Advice as Public Drama. Stanford, CA : Stanford University Press .

Google Scholar

ICMJE (International Committee of Medical Journal Editors) . 2013 . Recommendations for the Conduct, Reporting, Editing, and Publication of Scholarly Work in Medical Journals. 1-17, 7 . Accessed January 17, 2015. http://www.icmje.org/recommendations/browse/publishing-and-editorial-issues/scientific-misconduct-expressions-of-concern-and-retraction.html.

Google Scholar

Krimsky, S. 2005 . “ The Funding Effect in Science and Its Implications for the Judiciary .” Journal of Law & Public Policy 13 (3): 43 – 68 .

Google Scholar

Lachman, P. 1999 . “ Letter. Health Risks of Genetically Modified Foods .” The Lancet 354 (9172): 69 .

Google Scholar Crossref | ISI

Lee, R., Reiner, D., Dekan, G., Moore, A. E., Higgins, T. J., Epstein, M. M.. 2013 . “ Genetically Modified α-amylase Inhibitor Peas Are Not Specifically Allergenic in Mice .” Plos One 8 (1): 1 – 9 .

Google Scholar Crossref | ISI

Magana-Gomez, J. A., Calderon de la Barca, A. M.. 2008 . “ Risk Assessment of Genetically Modified Crops for Nutrition and Health .” Nutrition Reviews 67 (1): 1 – 16 .

Google Scholar Crossref | ISI

Maghari, B. M., Ardekani, A. M.. 2011 . “ Genetically Modified Foods and Social Concerns .” Avicenna Journal of Medical Biotechnology 3 (3): 109 – 17 .

Google Scholar Medline

National Academy of Sciences . 2004 . The Safety of Genetically Engineered Foods: Approaches to Assessing Unintended Health Effects. Washington, DC : National Academies Press .

Google Scholar

Newman, Stuart . 2009 . “ Genetically Modified Foods and the Attack on Nature .” Capitalism Nature Socialism 20 (2): 22 – 31 .

Google Scholar Crossref

Newman, Stuart . 2013 . “ The State of the Science .” GeneWatch 26 (1): 24 – 25 .

Google Scholar

Nicolia, A., Manzo, A., Veronesi, F., Roselini, D.. 2014 . “ An Overview of the Last 10 Years of Genetically Engineered Crop Safety Research .” Critical Reviews in Biotechnology 34 (1): 77 – 88 .

Google Scholar Crossref | Medline | ISI

Nordlee, J. A., Taylor, S. L., Townsend, J. A., Thomas, L. A., Bush, R. K.. 1996 . “ Identification of a Brazil-nut Allergen in Transgenic Soybeans .” The New England Journal of Medicine 334 (11): 688 – 92 .

Google Scholar Crossref | Medline | ISI

Pryme, I. F., Lembcke, R.. 2003 . “ In Vivo Studies on Possible Health Consequences of Genetically Modified Food and Feed—with Particular Regard to Ingredients Consisting of Genetically Modified Plant Materials .” Nutritional and Health 17 (1): 1 – 8 .

Google Scholar SAGE Journals

Pusztai, A . 1999 . “ A Talk to the British Hungarian Fellowship, South Kensington, UK .” May 7. Accessed February 20, 2015. www.i-sis.org.uk/arpad.php.

Google Scholar

Pusztai, A., Bardocz, G. G., Alonso, R., Chrispeels, M. J., Schroeder, H. E., Tabe, L. M., Higgins, T. J.. 1999 . “ Expression of the Insecticidal Bean a-amylase Inhibitor Transgene Has Minimal Detrimental Effect on the Nutritional Value of Peas Fed to Rats at 30% of the Diet .” Journal of Nutrition 129 (8): 1597 – 603 .

Google Scholar Medline | ISI

Pusztai, A. 2002a . “ GM Food Safety: Scientific and Institutional Issues .” Science as Culture 11 (1): 69 – 92 .

Google Scholar Crossref

Pusztai, A. 2002b . “ Can Science Give Us the Tools for Recognizing Possible Health Risks of GM Food? ” Nutrition and Health 16 (2): 73 – 84 .

Google Scholar SAGE Journals

Pusztai, A., Bardocz, S. eds. 1995 . Lectins: Biomedical Perspectives. London, UK : Taylor & Francis .

Google Scholar

Randerson, J. 2008 . “ Arpad Pusztai: Biological Divide .” The Guardian. January 15. Accessed March 2, 2015. http://www.theguardian.com/education/2008/jan/15/academicexperts.highereducationprofile.

Google Scholar

Roberfroid, M. 2014 . “ Letter to the Editor .” Food & Chemical Toxicology 65 (3): 390 .

Google Scholar Crossref | ISI

Roberts, R. 2004 . “ GMOs Are a Key to Addressing Global Hunger .” Boston Globe, May 23, 2004. Accessed July 22, 2015. https://www.bostonglobe.com/opinion/2014/05/23/gmos-are-key-tool-addressing-global-hunger/SPlNunvLl5WjovCpXvsihJ/story.html.

Google Scholar

Robinson, C., Holland, N., Leioup, D., Muilerman, H.. 2013 . “ Conflicts of Interest at the European Food Safety Authority Erode Public Confidence .” Journal of Epidemiology & Community Health 67 (9): 717 – 20 .

Google Scholar Crossref | Medline | ISI

RSC (Royal Society of Canada) . 2001 . Elements of Precaution: Recommendations for the Regulation of Food Biotechnology in Canada. January 2001. Accessed June 6, 2015. https://rsc-src.ca/sites/default/files/pdf/GMreportEN.pdf.

Google Scholar

Schubert, D. 2002 . “ A Different Perspective on GM Food .” Nature Biotechnology 20 (10): 969 .

Google Scholar Crossref | Medline | ISI

Séralini, G.-E., Clair, E., Mesnage, R., Gress, Steeve, Defarge, Nicolas, Malatesta, Manuela, Hennequin, Didier, de Vendômois, Joël Spiroux. 2012 . “ Long Term Toxicity of a Roundup Herbicide and a Roundup-tolerant Genetically Modified Maize .” Food and Chemical Toxicology 50 (11): 4221 – 31 (retracted 2014). Republished in Environmental Sciences Europe 26 (14): 1-17 (2014).

Google Scholar Crossref | Medline | ISI

Séralini, G.-E., Mesnage, R., Defarge, N., Gress, Steeve, Hennequin, Didier, Clair, Emilie, Malatesta, Manuela, de Vendômois, Joël Spiroux. 2013 . “ Answers to Critics: Why There Is a Long Term Toxicity Due to a Roundup-tolerant Genetically Modified Maize and to a Roundup Herbicide .” Food & Chemical Toxicology 53 (3): 476 – 83 .

Google Scholar Crossref | ISI

Séralini, G.-E., Mesnage, R., Defarge, N., de Vendômois, J. Spiroux. 2014 . “ Conflicts of Interests, Confidentiality and Censorship in Health Risk Assessment: The Example of an Herbicide and GMO .” Environmental Sciences Europe 26 (13): 1 – 6 .

Google Scholar

Séralini, G.-E., Mesnage, R., Defarge, N.. 2014 . “ Conclusiveness of Toxicity Data and Double Standards .” Food & Chemical Toxicology 69 (7): 357 – 59 .

Google Scholar Crossref | ISI

Séralini, G.-E., de Vendômois, J. Spiroux, Cellier, D., Sultan, Charles, Buiatti, Marcello, Gallagher, Lou, Antoniou, Michael, Dronamraju, Krishna R.. 2009 . “ How Subchronic and Chronic Health Effects Can Be Neglected for GMOs, Pesticides or Chemicals .” International Journal of Biological Sciences 5 (5): 438 – 43 .

Google Scholar Crossref | Medline | ISI

Snell, C., Bernheim, A., Berge, J. B., Kuntz, M., Pascal, G., Paris, A., Ricroch, A. E.. 2012 . “ Assessment of the Health Impact of GM Plant Diets in Long-term and Multigenerational Animal Feeding Trials: A Literature Review .” Food & Chemical Toxicology 50 (3-4): 1134 – 48 .

Google Scholar Crossref | Medline | ISI

Society of Toxicology, Ad Hoc Working Group . 2003 . “ Society of Toxicology Position Paper: The Safety of Genetically Modified Foods Produced through Biotechnology .” Toxicological Sciences 71 (1): 2 – 8 .

Google Scholar Crossref | Medline | ISI

Stogar, E., Williams, S., Christou, P., Down, R. E., Gatehouse, J. A.. 1999 . “ Expression of the Insecticidal Lectin from Snowdrop (Galanthus nivalis Agglutinin; (GNA) in Transgenic Wheat Plants: Effects on Predation by the Grain Aphid Sitobion avenae .” Molecular Breeding 5 (1): 65 – 73 .

Google Scholar Crossref | ISI

van Damme, E. J. M., Permans, W. J., Pusztai, A., Bardocz, S.. 1998 . Handbook of Plant Lectins: Properties and Biomedical Applications. New York : John Wiley .

Google Scholar

Ward, J. J., Sodhi, J. S., McGriffin, L. J., Buxton, B. F., Jones, D. T.. 2004 . “ Prediction and Functional Analysis of Native Disorder in Proteins from Three Kingdoms of Life .” Journal of Molecular Biology 337 (3): 635 – 45 .

Google Scholar Crossref | Medline | ISI

Wilson, Margaret, Highfield, Roger. 2002 . “ Starving Zambia rejects America's GM maize .” The Daily Telegraph (London), October 30. Accessed July 30, 2015. http://www.panapress.com/WHO-Director-General-clears-air-on-genetically-modified-food--13-461942-18-lang2-index.html.

Google Scholar