As a result of North Korea’s budding

marketization, there have been some linguistic changes. These days, it is not

unusual to hear the capitalist-infused word ‘boss’ in the jangmadang

(marketplace). In order to draw in customer’s attention and start the process

of negotiating, the vendors refer to passersby as ‘bosses.’

In a telephone conversation with the Daily

NK on October 27th, an inside source from North Pyongan Province reported that it is quite commonplace for tradespeople to use the word ‘boss.’

Two additional sources in South Pyongan

Province corroborated this trend.

“If you travel to Sinuiju City’s Chae-ha

Market, the vendors will call out to the passing customers from behind their

stands. They say things like, ‘Boss, nice to see you!’ The vendors often look

at the people’s clothing and appearance as a way to gauge whether they have a

lot of money or not,” she added.

“Upon being called ‘boss,’ people are

usually a bit embarrassed but it generally puts them in a good mood and

inflates their ego. Calling them simply, ‘Hey Mister!’ or ‘Excuse me, Miss!’ is

not entirely bad, but it has no connotation of class, so there’s no opportunity

for the vendor to use flattery to their advantage.”

It is estimated that the word ‘boss’ first

appeared in North Korea sometime in the 1990s. It has a bit of a different

meaning from the Western or even South Korean meaning of the word. When South

Korean vendors call their customers ‘boss’ in department stores, it has a

slightly different nuance from the North Korean usage.

For many years, private

ownership was banned in North Korea (technically, it still is, but de facto

private operations of all manner are ubiquitous) so companies were also

non-existent. For that reason, the North Korean concept of ‘boss’ was largely

absent from the lexicon.

In the 1990s, the North Korean regime began

a multi-agency push for foreign currency earning enterprises in order to make

up for the food shortage. This effort involved Party agencies, the military,

and civic units engaged in competitive market activities to bring in foreign

cash to prop up the regime. To keep up socialist appearances, these state

enterprises were all called ‘ABC Factory’ or ‘123 Operation.’

These enterprises were different from the

China-facing trade companies, which were called ‘ABC Trading Company.’ This was

the first appearance of the word ‘company.’ At that point, employees of these

trading companies began to be call their leaders ‘boss.’

Ordinary folks were awestruck by the sudden

normalization of this vocabulary, once considered the antithesis of the tenets

of socialism. Production units in the North are overseen by Party members, referred to as ‘management secretary,’ or ‘under secretary,’ while the in-house leader is

simple called, ‘manager.’

‘Boss’ is entirely unambiguous in its

meaning. It does not have any connotations reminiscent of the Korean Workers’

Party, and it does not mean ‘manager.’ When people use it, they’re describing a

person who exists outside the world of cadres and factory managers; they’re

pointing to an idea that doesn’t exist in the socialist worldview.

A ‘boss’ usually means a tradesperson who

interfaces with foreigners such as the Chinese to earn money. In the 1990s,

many people starved due to lack of food and money to buy it. These ‘bosses’

were the ones who eventually found a way to bring food and money into North

Korea from China. Furthermore, the ‘bosses’ brought money making opportunities

to people in desperate need. That’s why the word is infused with a sense of

respect and loyalty.

The word reflects the new status, jobs, and

skills that people aspire to. Notably, unlike most aspects of life in North

Korea, one’s ability to shoot up through the ranks is less contingent on

background: even those with poor songbun (caste system designated by

family background and political loyalty) still have a chance to become a

‘boss.’

Moreover, those failing to gain entry into

the Workers’ Party–once the preferred method to secure relatively favorable living conditions, though such interest is known to be waning –have

been known to gain the title, ‘boss.’ Even former prisoners of re-education camps comprise a robust portion of the ‘boss’ contingent.

According to the source, qualifications to become a ‘boss’ boil down to connections, knowledge,

and ability to mobilize enough financial resources to conduct business with

China. ‘Boss’ standing sits in a space of its own, shirking conventional methods–i.e., military,

Party, and administration ties-to command wealth and power.

“It all started when the heads of Chinese

trading companies began referring to any given North Korean counterpart as

‘boss.’ I think becoming a ‘boss’ is the ultimate goal of many North Koreans,”

the source said.

So, then, it makes sense that an increasing number

of vendors in the marketplace are using the term to catch people’s’ attention.

“It used to be the case that vendors would

speak rather informally to people, using a grammatical form meant to be used

with friends. But now even 50-year-old merchants are speaking very respectfully

to 20-year-old customers. The language conventions have changed dramatically,”

she explained.

“As the market continues to grow and

competition heats up, we can predict that this kind of respectful attitude

towards customers to be an upwards trend. In the years ahead, I fully

anticipate that calling one’s customers ‘boss’ will be considered basic politeness.”