Media coverage can influence how citizens think about their political leaders. This study explores how three types of media bias (visibility bias, tonality bias, and agenda bias) affect voter assessments of politicians’ traits. Bias effects should be stronger for political traits (such as competence) than for nonpolitical traits (such as likability). Biases may also interact in their effects: Specifically, visibility bias should moderate the impact of tonality bias. Combining media, party, and survey data through manual content analysis of newspaper coverage ( N = 2,680) and party press releases ( N = 1,794), as well as a three-wave voter survey ( n = 927) during the 2013 Austrian election campaign, we find substantial effects of tonality bias and agenda bias on political trait perceptions. The effects are less clear for nonpolitical trait perceptions. Although visibility bias has no direct impact, there is evidence that it moderates effects of tonality bias on candidate perceptions.

References

Aarts, Kees, Blais, André, Schmitt, Hermann. 2011 . Political Leaders and Democratic Elections. Oxford : Oxford University Press .

Google Scholar

Ansolabehere, Stephen, Iyengar, Shanto. 1994 . “ Riding the Wave and Claiming Ownership over Issues: The Joint Effects of Advertising and News Coverage in Campaigns .” Public Opinion Quarterly 58 (3): 335 – 57 .

Google Scholar Crossref | ISI

Balmas, Meital, Sheafer, Tamir. 2010 . “ Candidate Image in Election Campaigns: Attribute Agenda Setting, Affective Priming, and Voting Intentions .” International Journal of Public Opinion Research 22 (2): 204 – 29 .

Google Scholar Crossref | ISI

Becker, Lee B., McCombs, Maxwell E. 1978 . “ The Role of the Press in Determining Voter Reactions to Presidential Primaries .” Human Communication Research 4 (4): 301 – 07 .

Google Scholar Crossref

Bennett, W. Lance, Iyengar, Shanto. 2008 . “ A New Era of Minimal Effects? The Changing Foundations of Political Communication .” Journal of Communication 58 (4): 707 – 31 .

Google Scholar Crossref | ISI

Boomgaarden, Hajo G., Boukes, Mark, Iorgoveanu, Aurora. 2016 . “ Image versus Text: How Newspaper Reports Affect Evaluations of Political Candidates .” International Journal of Communication 10: 2529 – 55 .

Google Scholar ISI

Boomgaarden, Hajo G., Semetko, Holli A. 2012 . “ Nachrichten-Bias. Medieninhalte, Bevölkerungswahrnehmungen und Wahlentscheidungen bei der Bundestagswahl 2009 ” [ News Bias. Media Content and Public Opinion during the Bundestag Elections 2009 ]. In Politische Vierteljahresschrift. Sonderheft 45, ed. Schmitt-Beck, Rüdiger , 449 – 471 . Baden-Baden : Nomos .

Google Scholar

Bos, Linda, van der Brug, Wouter, de Vreese, Claes H. 2011 . “ How the Media Shape Perceptions of Right-Wing Populist Leaders .” Political Communication 28 (2): 182 – 206 .

Google Scholar Crossref | ISI

Brandenburg, Heinz . 2005 . “ Political Bias in the Irish Media: A Quantitative Study of Campaign Coverage during the 2002 General Election .” Irish Political Studies 20 (3): 297 – 322 .

Google Scholar Crossref

Brettschneider, Frank . 2002 . Spitzenkandidaten und Wahlerfolg: Personalisierung—Kompetenz—Parteien. Ein internationaler Vergleich [ Front-Runners and Electoral Success: Personalization—Competence—Parties. An International Comparison ]. Wiesbaden : Springer-Verlag .

Google Scholar Crossref

Brüggemann, Michael, Engesser, Sven, Büchel, Florin, Humprecht, Edda, Castro, Laia. 2014 . “ Hallin and Mancini Revisited: Four Empirical Types of Western Media Systems” Journal of Communication 64 (6): 1037 – 65 .

Google Scholar Crossref | ISI

Bulkow, Kristin, Urban, Juliane, Schweiger, Wolfgang. 2013 . “ The Duality of Agenda-Setting: The Role of Information Processing .” International Journal of Public Opinion Research 25 (1): 43 – 63 .

Google Scholar Crossref | ISI

Chaiken, Shelly . 1980 . “ Heuristic versus Systematic Information Processing and the Use of Source versus Message Cues in Persuasion .” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 39 (5): 752 – 66 .

Google Scholar Crossref | ISI

Coleman, Renita, Wu, Denis. 2015 . Image and Emotion in Voter Decisions: The Affect Agenda. Lanham : Lexington Books .

Google Scholar

D’Alessio, Dave, Allen, Mike. 2000 . “ Media Bias in Presidential Elections: A Meta-Analysis .” Journal of Communication 50 (4): 133 – 56 .

Google Scholar Crossref | ISI

Dalton, Russel J., Wattenberg, Martin P. 2000 . Parties without Partisans: Political Change in Advanced Industrial Democracies. Oxford, UK : Oxford University Press .

Google Scholar

Druckman, James N., Jacobs, Lawrence R., Ostermeier, Eric. 2004 . “ Candidate Strategies to Prime Issues and Image .” The Journal of Politics 66 (4): 1180 – 1202 .

Google Scholar Crossref | ISI

Druckman, James N., Parkin, Michael. 2005 . “ The Impact of Media Bias: How Editorial Slant Affects Voters .” The Journal of Politics 67 (4): 1030 – 49 .

Google Scholar Crossref | ISI

Eberl, Jakob-Moritz, Boomgaarden, Hajo G., Wagner, Markus. ( 2015 ). “ One Bias Fits All? Three Types of Media Bias and Their Effects on Party Preferences .” Communication Research. Published electronically November 19 2015 . doi:10.1177/0093650215614364.

Google Scholar Crossref | ISI

Eberl, Jakob-Moritz, Vonbun, Ramona, Haselmayer, Martin, Jacobi, Carina, Königslöw, Katharina Kleinen-von, Klaus, Schönbach, Boomgaarden, Hajo G. 2016 . “ AUTNES Manual Content Analysis of the Media Coverage 2013 .” GESIS Data Archive, Cologne. [ZA5864 Data File Version 1.0.0]. doi:10.4232/1.12565.

Google Scholar Crossref

Fournier, Patrick, Nadeau, Richard, Blais, André, Gidengil, Elisabeth, Nevitte, Neil. 2004 . “ Time-of-Voting Decision and Susceptibility to Campaign Effects .” Electoral Studies 23 (4): 661 – 81 .

Google Scholar Crossref | ISI

Funk, Carolyn L. 1996 . “ Understanding Trait Inferences in Candidate Images .” In Rethinking Rationality: Research in Micropolitics, ed. Carpini, Michael Delli, Huddy, Leonie, Shapiro, Robert Y., 97 – 123 . Greenwich : JAI Press .

Google Scholar

Garzia, Diego . 2011 . “ The Personalization of Politics in Western Democracies: Causes and Consequences on Leader–Follower Relationships .” The Leadership Quarterly 22 (4): 697 – 709 .

Google Scholar Crossref | ISI

Hallin, Daniel C., Mancini, Paolo. 2004 . Comparing Media Systems: Three Models of Media and Politics. New York : Cambridge University Press .

Google Scholar Crossref

Hanitzsch, Thomas, Hanusch, Folker, Mellado, Claudia, Anikina, Maria, Berganza, Rosa, Cangoz, Incilay, Coman, Mihai, Hamada, Basyouni, Hernández, María Elena, Karadjov, Christopher D., Moreira, Sonia Virginia, Mwesige, Peter G., Plaisance, Patrick Lee, Reich, Zvi, Seethaler, Josef, Skewes, Elizabeth A., Noor, Dani Vardiansyah, Yuen, Edgar Kee Wang. 2011 . “ Mapping Journalism Cultures across Nations .” Journalism Studies 12 (3): 273 – 93 .

Google Scholar Crossref | ISI

Holbert, R. Lance, Garrett, R. Kelly, Gleason, Laurel S. 2010 . “ A New Era of Minimal Effects? A Response to Bennett and Iyengar .” Journal of Communication 60 (1): 15 – 34 .

Google Scholar Crossref | ISI

Hopmann, David N., Van Aelst, Peter, Legnante, Guido. 2011 . “ Political Balance in the News: A Review of Concepts, Operationalizations and Key Findings .” Journalism 13 (2): 240 – 57 .

Google Scholar SAGE Journals | ISI

Hopmann, David N., Vliegenthart, Rens, de Vreese, Claes, Albæk, Erik. 2010 . “ Effects of Election News Coverage: How Visibility and Tone Influence Party Choice .” Political Communication 27 (4): 389 – 405 .

Google Scholar Crossref | ISI

Karvonen, Lauri . 2010 . The Personalisation of Politics: A Study of Parliamentary Democracies. Colchester : ECPR Press .

Google Scholar

Kinder, Donald R. 1986 . “ Presidential Character Revisited .” In Political Cognition, ed. Lau, Richard R., Sears, David O. Hillsdale : Lawrence Erlbaum : 233 - 255 .

Google Scholar

Kinder, Donald R., Peters, Mark D., Abelson, Robert P., Fiske, Susan T. 1980 . “ Presidential Prototypes .” Political Behavior 2 (4): 315 – 37 .

Google Scholar Crossref

King, Anthony . 2002 . “ Do Leaders’ Personalities Really Matter?” In Leaders’ Personalities and the Outcomes of Democratic Elections, ed. King, Anthony , 1 – 43 . Oxford : Oxford University Press .

Google Scholar Crossref

Kiousis, Spiro . 2005 . “ Compelling Arguments and Attitude Strength Exploring the Impact of Second-Level Agenda Setting on Public Opinion of Presidential Candidate Images .” The Harvard International Journal of Press/Politics 10 (2): 3 – 27 .

Google Scholar SAGE Journals

Kiousis, Spiro, Bantimaroudis, Philemon, Ban, Hyun. 1999 . “ Candidate Image Attributes Experiments on the Substantive Dimension of Second Level Agenda Setting .” Communication Research 26 (4): 414 – 28 .

Google Scholar SAGE Journals | ISI

Kiousis, Spiro, McCombs, Maxwell E. 2004 . “ Agenda-Setting Effects and Attitude Strength Political Figures during the 1996 Presidential Election .” Communication Research 31 (1): 36 – 57 .

Google Scholar SAGE Journals | ISI

Koopmans, Ruud, Statham, Paul. 1999 . “ Political Claims Analysis: Integrating Protest Event and Political Discource Approaches .” Mobilization: An International Quarterly 4 (2): 203 - 221 .

Google Scholar

Kritzinger, Sylvia, Johann, David, Glantschnigg, Christian, Aichholzer, Julian, Glinitzer, Konstantin, Johann, David, Thomas, Kathrin, Wagner, Markus. 2016 . “ AUTNES Pre- and Post-Panel Study 2013 .” GESIS Data Archive, Cologne. [ZA5859 Data File Version 2.0.0]. doi:10.4232/1.12425.

Google Scholar Crossref

Kritzinger, Sylvia, Johann, David, Glantschnigg, Christian, Aichholzer, Julian, Glinitzer, Konstantin, Zeglovits, Eva. 2014 . “ AUTNES TV Debates Panel Study 2013 .” GESIS Data Archive, Cologne. [ZA5858 Data File version 1.0.0]. doi:10.4232/1.11951.

Google Scholar Crossref

Lau, Richard R. 1982 . “ Negativity in Political Perception .” Political Behavior 4 (4): 353 – 77 .

Google Scholar Crossref

Lawson, Chapell, Lenz, Gabriel S., Baker, Andy, Myers, Michael. 2010 . “ Looking Like a Winner: Candidate Appearance and Electoral Success in New Democracies .” World Politics 62 (4): 561 – 93 .

Google Scholar Crossref | ISI

Lelkes, Yphtach. ( 2016 ). “ Winners, Losers, and the Press: The Relationship between Political Parallelism and the Legitimacy Gap .” Political Communication. Published electronically January 19 2016 . doi:10.1080/10584609.2015.1117031. 523 – 543 .

Google Scholar Crossref | ISI

Lenz, Gabriel S., Lawson, Chappell. 2011 . “ Looking the Part: Television Leads Less Informed Citizens to Vote Based on Candidates’ Appearance .” American Journal of Political Science 55 (3): 574 – 89 .

Google Scholar Crossref | ISI

Levendusky, Matthew S. 2013 . “ Why Do Partisan Media Polarize Viewers?” American Journal of Political Science 57 (3): 611 – 23 .

Google Scholar Crossref | ISI

McAllister, Ian . 2007 . “ The Personalization of Politics .” In The Oxford Handbook of Political Behavior, ed. Dalton, Russell J., Klingemann, Hans-Dieter, 571 – 88 . Oxford : Oxford University Press .

Google Scholar Crossref

McQuail, Denis . 1992 . Media Performance: Mass Communication and the Public Interest. London : Sage .

Google Scholar

Midtbø, Tor . 2011 . “ Explaining Media Attention for Norwegian MPs: A New Modelling Approach .” Scandinavian Political Studies 34 (3): 226 – 49 .

Google Scholar Crossref | ISI

Miller, Arthur H., Wattenberg, Martin P., Malanchuk, Oksana. 1986 . “ Schematic Assessments of Presidential Candidates .” American Political Science Review 80 (2): 521 – 40 .

Google Scholar Crossref | ISI

Miller, Joanne M., Krosnick, Jon A. 2000 . “ News Media Impact on the Ingredients of Presidential Evaluations: Politically Knowledgeable Citizens Are Guided by a Trusted Source .” American Journal of Political Science 44 (2): 301 – 15 .

Google Scholar Crossref | ISI

Miller, Warren E., Shanks, J. Merrill. 1996 . The New American Voter. Cambridge, MA : Harvard University Press .

Google Scholar

Müller, Wolfgang C., Bodlos, Anita, Dolezal, Martin, Eder, Nikolaus, Ennser-Jedenastik, Laurenz, Kaltenegger, Matthias, Meyer, Thomas M., Praprotnik, Katrin, Winkler, Anna Katharina. 2016 . “ AUTNES Coding of Party Press Releases 2013 .” GESIS Data Archive, Cologne. [ZA5861 Data File Version 1.0.0].

Google Scholar

Norris, Pippa, Curtice, John, Sanders, David, Scammell, Margaret, Semetko, Holli A. 1999 . On Message: Communicating the Campaign. London : Sage .

Google Scholar

Oegema, Dirk, Kleinnijenhuis, Jan. 2000 . “ Personalization in Political Television News: A 13-Wave Survey Study to Assess Effects of Text and Footage .” Communications 25: 43 – 60 .

Google Scholar Crossref

Petty, Richard E., Cacioppo, John T. 1986 . The Elaboration Likelihood Model of Persuasion. New York : Springer .

Google Scholar Crossref

Reinemann, Carsten, Wilke, Jürgen. 2007 . “ It’s the Debates, Stupid! How the Introduction of Televised Debates Changed the Portrayal of Chancellor Candidates in the German Press, 1949–2005 .” The Harvard International Journal of Press/Politics. 12 (4): 92 – 111 .

Google Scholar SAGE Journals

Semetko, Holli A., Boomgaarden, Hajo G. 2007 . “ Reporting Germany’s 2005 Bundestag Election Campaign: Was Gender an Issue? ” The Harvard International Journal of Press/Politics 12 (4): 154 – 71 .

Google Scholar SAGE Journals

Strömbäck, Jesper . 2008 . “ Four Phases of Mediatization: An Analysis of the Mediatization of Politics .” The International Journal of Press/Politics 13 (3): 228 – 46 .

Google Scholar SAGE Journals | ISI

Takens, Janet, Kleinnijenhuis, Jan, Van Hoof, Anita, Van Atteveldt, Wouter. 2015 . “ Party Leaders in the Media and Voting Behavior: Priming Rather than Learning or Projection .” Political Communication 32 (2): 249 – 67 .

Google Scholar Crossref | ISI

Tenscher, Jens . 2013 . “ Politicians’ Ideas of Ideal Politicians: Findings from German and Austrian State Parliaments .” German Politics 22 (4): 379 – 95 .

Google Scholar Crossref | ISI

Todorov, Alexander, Chaiken, Shelly, Henderson, Marlone D. 2002 . “ The Heuristic-Systematic Model of Social Information Processing .” In The Persuasion Handbook: Developments in Theory and Practice, ed. Dillard, James P., Pfau, Michael, 195 – 211 . Thousand Oaks, CA : Sage .

Google Scholar Crossref

Van Aelst, Peter, Sheafer, Tamir, Stanyer, James. 2011 . “ The Personalization of Mediated Political Communication: A Review of Concepts, Operationalizations and Key Findings .” Journalism 13 (2): 203 – 20 .

Google Scholar SAGE Journals | ISI

van Dalen, Arjen . 2012 . “ Structural Bias in Cross-National Perspective: How Political Systems and Journalism Cultures Influence Government Dominance in the News .” The Harvard International Journal of Press/Politics 17 (1): 32 – 55 .

Google Scholar SAGE Journals

van der Eijk, Cees, van der Brug, Wouter, Kroh, Martin, Franklin, Mark. 2006 . “ Rethinking the Dependent Variable in Voting Behavior: On the Measurement and Analysis of Electoral Utilities .” Electoral Studies 25 (3): 424 – 47 .

Google Scholar Crossref | ISI

van der Wurff, Richard, van Cuilenburg, Jan. 2001 . “ Impact of Moderate and Ruinous Competition on Diversity: The Dutch Television Market .” The Journal of Media Economics 14 (4): 213 – 29 .

Google Scholar Crossref | ISI

van Kempen, Hetty . 2007 . “ Media-Party Parallelism and Its Effects: A Cross-National Comparative Study .” Political Communication 24 (3): 303 – 20 .

Google Scholar Crossref | ISI

van Santen, Rosa, van Zoonen, Libset. 2009 . “ Stand van de wetenschap: Popularisering en personalisering in politieke communicatie [ Popularization and Personalization in Political Communication ].” Tijdschrift voor Communicatiewetenschappen 37 (2): 155 – 76 .

Google Scholar Crossref | ISI

Vavreck, Lynn . 2009 . The Message Matters: The Economy and Presidential Campaigns. Princeton : Princeton University Press .

Google Scholar Crossref

Vliegenthart, Rens, Boomgaarden, Hajo G., van Spanje, Joost. 2012 . “ Anti-Immigrant Party Support and Media Visibility: A Cross-Party, Over-Time Perspective .” Journal of Elections, Public Opinion and Parties 22 (3): 315 – 58 .

Google Scholar Crossref

Wu, H. Denis, Coleman, Renita. 2014 . “ The Affective Effect on Political Judgment Comparing the Influences of Candidate Attributes and Issue Congruence .” Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly 91 (3): 530 – 43 .

Google Scholar SAGE Journals | ISI