1 Introduction

Word of Caution for the Rigorous Optical Engineer

2 Maturity Levels of the AR/VR/MR/Smart-Glasses Markets

3 The Emergence of MR as the Next Computing Platform

3.1 Today's Mixed-Reality Check

4 Keys to the Ultimate MR Experience

4.1 Wearable, Vestibular, Visual, and Social Comfort

4.2 Display Immersion

4.3 Presence

5 Human Factors

5.1 The Human Visual System

5.1.1 Line of sight and optical axis

5.1.2 Lateral and longitudinal chromatic aberrations

5.1.3 Visual acuity

5.1.4 Stereo acuity and stereo disparity

5.1.5 Eye model

5.1.6 Specifics of the human-vision FOV

5.2 Adapting Display Hardware to the Human Visual System

5.3 Perceived Angular Resolution, FOV, and Color Uniformity

6 Optical Specifications Driving AR/VR Architecture and Technology Choices

6.1 Display System

6.2 Eyebox

6.3 Eye Relief and Vertex Distance

6.4 Reconciling the Eye Box and Eye Relief

6.5 Field of View

6.6 Pupil Swim

6.7 Display Immersion

6.8 Stereo Overlap

6.9 Brightness: Luminance and Illuminance

6.10 Eye Safety Regulations

6.11 Angular Resolution

6.12 Foveated Rendering and Optical Foveation

7 Functional Optical Building Blocks of an MR Headset

7.1 Display Engine

7.1.1 Panel display systems

7.1.2 Increasing the angular resolution in the time domain

7.1.3 Parasitic display effects: screen door, aliasing, motion blur, and Mura effects

7.1.4 Scanning display systems

7.1.5 Diffractive display systems

7.2 Display Illumination Architectures

7.3 Display Engine Optical Architectures

7.4 Combiner Optics and Exit Pupil Expansion

8 Invariants in HMD Optical Systems, and Strategies to Overcome Them

8.1 Mechanical IPD Adjustment

8.2 Pupil Expansion

8.3 Exit Pupil Replication

8.4 Gaze-Contingent Exit Pupil Steering

8.5 Exit Pupil Tiling

8.6 Gaze-Contingent Collimation Lens Movement

8.7 Exit Pupil Switching

9 Roadmap for VR Headset Optics

9.1 Hardware Architecture Migration

9.2 Display Technology Migration

9.3 Optical Technology Migration

10 Digital See-Through VR Headsets

11 Free-Space Combiners

11.1 Flat Half-Tone Combiners

11.2 Single Large Curved-Visor Combiners

11.3 Air Birdbath Combiners

11.4 Cemented Birdbath–Prism Combiners

11.5 See-Around Prim Combiners

11.6 Single Reflector Combiners for Smart Glasses

11.7 Off-Axis Multiple Reflectors Combiners

11.8 Hybrid Optical Element Combiners

11.9 Pupil Expansion Schemes in MEMS-Based Free-Space Combiners

11.10 Summary of Free-Space Combiner Architectures

11.11 Compact, Wide-FOV See-Through Shell Displays

12 Freeform TIR Prism Combiners

12.1 Single-TIR-Bounce Prism Combiners

12.2 Multiple-TIR-Bounce Prism Combiners

13 Manufacturing Techniques for Free-Space Combiner Optics

13.1 Ophthalmic Lens Manufacturing

13.2 Freeform Diamond Turning and Injection Molding

13.3 UV Casting Process

13.4 Additive Manufacturing of Optical Elements

13.5 Surface Figures for Lens Parts Used in AR Imaging

14 Waveguide Combiners

14.1 Curved Waveguide Combiners and Single Exit Pupil

14.2 Continuum from Flat to Curved Waveguides and Extractor Mirrors

14.3 One-Dimensional Eyebox Expansion

14.4 Two-Dimensional Eyebox Expansion

14.5 Display Engine Requirements for 1D or 2D EPE Waveguides

14.6 Choosing the Right Waveguide Coupler Technology

14.6.1 Refractive/reflective coupler elements

14.6.2 Diffractive/holographic coupler elements

14.6.3 Achromatic coupler technologies

14.6.4 Summary of waveguide coupler technologies

15 Design and Modeling of Optical Waveguide Combiners

15.1 Waveguide Coupler Design, Optimization, and Modeling

15.1.1 Coupler/light interaction model

15.1.2 Increasing FOV by using the illumination spectrum

15.1.3 Increasing FOV by optimizing grating coupler parameters

15.1.4 Using dynamic couplers to increase waveguide combiner functionality

15.2 High-Level Waveguide-Combiner Design

15.2.1 Choosing the waveguide coupler layout architecture

15.2.2 Building a uniform eyebox

15.2.3 Spectral spread compensation in diffractive waveguide combiners

15.2.4 Field spread in waveguide combiners

15.2.5 Focus spread in waveguide combiners

15.2.6 Polarization conversion in diffractive waveguide combiners

15.2.7 Propagating full-color images in the waveguide combiner over a maximum FOV

15.2.8 Waveguide-coupler lateral geometries

15.2.9 Reducing the number of plates for full-color display over the maximum allowed FOV

16 Manufacturing Techniques for Waveguide Combiners

16.1 Wafer-Scale Micro- and Nano-Optics Origination

16.1.1 Interference lithography

16.1.2 Multilevel, direct-write, and grayscale optical lithography

16.1.3 Proportional ion beam etching

16.2 Wafer-Scale Optics Mass Replication

17 Smart Contact Lenses and Beyond

17.1 From VR Headsets to Smart Eyewear and Intra-ocular Lenses

17.2 Contact Lens Sensor Architectures

17.3 Contact Lens Display Architectures

17.4 Smart Contact Lens Fabrication Techniques

17.5 Smart Contact Lens Challenges

18 Vergence-Accommodation Conflict Mitigation

18.1 VAC Mismatch in Fixed-Focus Immersive Displays

18.1.1 Focus rivalry and VAC

18.2 Management of VAC for Comfortable 3D Visual Experience

18.2.1 Stereo disparity and the horopter circle

18.3 Arm's-Length Display Interactions

18.4 Focus Tuning through Display or Lens Movement

18.5 Focus Tuning with Micro-Lens Arrays

18.6 Binary Focus Switch

18.7 Varifocal and Multifocal Display Architectures

18.8 Pin Light Arrays for NTE Display

18.9 Retinal Scan Displays for NTE Display

18.10 Light Field Displays

18.11 Digital Holographic Displays for NTE Display

19 Occlusions

19.1 Hologram Occlusion

19.2 Pixel Occlusion, or "Hard-Edge Occlusion"

19.3 Pixelated Dimming, or "Soft-Edge Occlusion"

20 Peripheral Display Architectures

21 Vision Prescription Integration

21.1 Refraction Correction for Audio-Only Smart Glasses

21.2 Refraction Correction in VR Headsets

21.3 Refraction Correction in Monocular Smart Eyewear

21.4 Refraction Correction in Binocular AR Headsets

21.5 Super Vision in See-Through Mode

22 Sensor Fusion in MR Headsets

22.1 Sensors for Spatial Mapping

22.2.1 Stereo cameras

22.2.2 Structured-light sensors

22.2.3 Time-of-flight sensors

22.3 Head Trackers and 6DOF

22.4 Motion-to-Photon Latency and Late-Stage Reprojection

22.5 SLAM and Spatial Anchors

22.6 Eye, Gaze, Pupil, and Vergence Trackers

22.7 Hand-Gesture Sensors

22.8 Other Critical Hardware Requirements

Conclusion

Preface

This book is a timely review and analysis of the various optical architectures, display technologies, and optical building blocks used today for consumer, enterprise, or defense head-mounted displays (HMDs) over a wide range of implementations, from smart glasses and smart eyewear to augmented-reality (AR), virtual-reality (VR), and mixed-reality (MR) headsets.

Such products have the potential to revolutionize how we work, communicate, travel, learn, teach, shop, and get entertained. An MR headset can come in either optical see-through mode (AR) or video-pass- through mode (VR). Extended reality (XR) is another acronym frequently used to refer to all declinations of MR.

Already, market analysts have very optimistic expectations on the return on investment in MR, for both enterprise and consumer markets. However, in order to meet such high expectations, several challenges must be addressed. One is the use case for each market segment, and the other one is the MR hardware development.

The intent of this book is not to review generic or specific AR/VR/MR use cases, or applications and implementation examples, as they have already been well defined for enterprise, defense, and R&D but only extrapolated for the burgeoning consumer market. Instead, it focuses on hardware issues, especially on the optics side. Hardware architectures and technologies for AR and VR have made tremendous progress over the past five years, at a much faster pace than ever before. This faster development pace was mainly fueled by recent investment hype in start-ups and accelerated mergers and acquisitions by larger corporations.

The two main pillars that define most MR hardware challenges are immersion and comfort. Immersion can be defined as a multisensory perception feature (starting with audio, then display, gestures, haptics, etc.). Comfort comes in various declinations:

wearable comfort (reducing weight and size, pushing back the center of gravity, addressing thermal issues, etc.),

visual comfort (providing accurate and natural 3D cues over a large FOV and a high angular resolution), and

social comfort (allowing for true eye contact, in a socially acceptable form factor, etc.).

In order to address in an effective way both comfort and immersion challenges through improved hardware architectures and software developments, a deep understanding of the specific features and limitations of the human visual perception system is required. The need for a human-centric optical design process is emphasized, which would allow for the most comfortable headset design (wearable, visual, and social comfort) without compromising the user's immersion experience (display, sensing, interaction). Matching the specifics of the display architecture to the human visual perception system is key to reducing the constraints on the hardware to acceptable levels, allowing for effective functional headset development and mass production at reasonable costs.

The book also reviews the major optical architectures, optical building blocks, and related technologies that have been used in existing smart glasses, AR, VR, and MR products or could be used in the near future in novel XR headsets to overcome such challenges. Providing the user with a visual and sensory experience that addresses all aspects of comfort and immersion will eventually help to enable the market analysts' wild expectations for the coming years in all headset declinations.

The other requirement, which may even be more important than hardware, is contingent on the worldwide app-developer community to take full advantage of such novel hardware features to develop specific use cases for MR, especially for the consumer market.

Bernard Kress

December 2019