(The Magathane cave cluster in Kandivli houses a family with livestock)

(Built in the 6th century CE, Jogeshwari's Brahmanical caves were excavated by the Pashupata Shaivaite sect of ascetics)

(These ancient caves have been transformed into a shrine for Ashapuri Devi. They are painted neon blue and fitted with CCTV cameras)

(Stumbled Upon is an occasional series on little-known places in the city)

Jivdani Temple is just ten minutes from Virar station. Protruding from a hill, this multistorey religious complex draws huge crowds. They come to worship Jivdani Mata or for joyrides in the yellow cable cars installed by the temple trust to carry devotees -- and occasionally a sacrificial rooster or goat -- up the hill slope.Long before this temple morphed into a money spinner, it housed a site of great archaeological importance. About 2,200 years ago twelve viharas or residential cells for Buddhist monks were excavated in the hill's western rock face creating one of Maharashtra's oldest cave complexes. Today, the cable car apparatus blocks some caves, others have been sealed off by the temple trust and the one, housing the idol, has been painted, cemented, lined with bathroom tiles and seamlessly merged with a grand hall sporting tall pillars and chandeliers.“Mumbai has more rock-cut caves than any other urban area in the world,“ says archaeologist Kurush Dalal , pegging the figure at over 150. While Elephanta, Kanheri and Mahakali are famous, others like Mandapeshwar and Jogeshwari -- also under the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) -- have fewer visitors. But the worst off are the unknown cave complexes like Magathane, Edvan and Jivdani. Without ASI protection, they are susceptible to insensitive interventions from temple trusts and pressure from the builder lobby.Two thousand years ago, Kalyan, Borivli, and Thane were flourishing business hubs. Powerful rulers controlled these regions and nearby ports like Sopara and Chaul were gateways to western and central India. Thus, the high density of excavated caves was a result of political patronage, economic prosperity, and the presence of trade routes, writes archaeologist Suraj Pandit in his book 'Stories in Stone: Historic Caves of Mumbai'. That the entire region was also composed of good-quality igneous rock -- ideal for cave excavations -- didn't hurt.For archaeologists determined to preserve work of these ancient sculptors -- whether crude or ornate --the unkindest cut came when ASI abandoned Magathane, a Buddhist cave cluster dating back to 6th century CE in Kandivli. In response to a PIL filed in the Bombay High Court, the ASI submitted an affidavit in 2010 stating, "It is too late for central protection as the site has been badly dilapidated, eroded, and encroached upon.""This is one o f the most important sites," says Pandit, "because Ajanta's influence on sculptures, decorative motifs and pillars can be seen in this cluster." He adds that Magathane's ancient water tank is similar to the step well or 'pushkarini' found at Modhera Sun Temple. Today, the tank is drowning in debris, the main cave -- now fitted with a fan and flat-screen TV -- houses a family with live stock and two other caves have become garbage pits.At one point, Jogeshwari was also encroached on but in that instance, the ASI took action and rehabilitated the slum dwellers. Today, it's a serene spot that attracts students swotting for exams and harbours Ganesh, Hanuman and Jogeshwari Devi temples.Dating back to the 6th century CE, Jogeshwari's Brahmanical caves were excavated by the Pashupata Shaivaite sect of ascetics. The Pashupata movement later evolved to include esoteric practices like hathayoga and penance, says Pandit. Tiny cells were used for this purpose. They've now been re-purposed as shrines.Borivli's Mandapeshwar caves boast exquisite wall friezes of Shiva and Lakulisha, a prominent Shaivaite reformist.They were occupied by ascetics until the Portuguese arrived in the 1500s. According to archaeologist Siddarth Kale, the Portuguese tried in vain to destroy them. But after defacing a few sculptures and converting a Lakulisha into a crude cross, they switched strategies and built a church atop the cave complex.In the early 1950s, the ASI evacuated the church, restored the cave temple and took over the site. Today, the church is in ruins and the cave sculptures have been badly weathered. When we visited, tots were scaling the wall friezes like jungle gyms causing even further damage. "What the Portuguese weren't able to achieve, these kids have," says Kale.Even today, new caves are being discovered but they are offered no protection. For instance, an unfinished cave, on the Panvel-Uran road near Dungi village, was recently discovered by two scholars Sagar Munde and Ravindra Lad. This early 6th century CE cave with a courtyard and pillared verandah architecturally resembles caves at Lonad and Elephanta. But even before archaeologists can determine its importance, the hill might be steamrolled by the new airport project.Similarly, Edvan -- one of the few cave complexes set up for a secular purpose -- requires more study. Located on an island off the northern bank of Vaitarna Creek, these 2,000-year-old caves were once used to guard the creek. They are natural caves, which show evidence of man-made modifications like straight-cut walls, chisel marks and the remnants of a water tank, explains Kale.In 1987, local fisherfolk placed an idol of Ashapuri Devi in one of the caves and now, Edvan is following in Jivdani's footsteps. Already, a modern spiral structure clings to the rock face, more deities have been introduced, and the caves have been painted neon blue and fitted with CCTV cameras.