1 The Jones Act is Section 27 of the Merchant Marine Act of 1920. However, the terms “Jones Act” and “Merchant Marine Act of 1920” are commonly used interchangeably, including by the U.S. Maritime Administration (MARAD). See, for example, “The Maritime Administration’s First 100 Years: 1916–2016,” U.S. Maritime Administration, https://​www​.marad​.dot​.gov/​a​b​o​u​t​-​u​s​/​m​a​r​i​t​i​m​e​-​a​d​m​i​n​i​s​t​r​a​t​i​o​n​-​h​i​s​t​o​r​y​-​p​r​o​g​r​a​m​/​h​i​s​t​o​r​i​c​a​l​-​d​o​c​u​m​e​n​t​s​-​a​n​d​-​r​e​s​o​u​r​c​e​s​/​t​h​e​-​m​a​r​i​t​i​m​e​-​a​d​m​i​n​i​s​t​r​a​t​i​o​n​s​-​f​i​r​s​t​-​1​0​0​-​y​ears/.

2 Adam Smith and Bruce Yandle,Bootleggers and Baptists: How Economic Forces and Moral Persuasion Interact to Shape Regulatory Politics(Washington: Cato Institute, 2014).

3 Library of Congress, “The American Expeditionary Forces,” https://​www​.loc​.gov/​c​o​l​l​e​c​t​i​o​n​s​/​s​t​a​r​s​-​a​n​d​-​s​t​r​i​p​e​s​/​a​r​t​i​c​l​e​s​-​a​n​d​-​e​s​s​a​y​s​/​a​-​w​o​r​l​d​-​a​t​-​w​a​r​/​a​m​e​r​i​c​a​n​-​e​x​p​e​d​i​t​i​o​n​a​r​y​-​f​o​rces/.

4 Wesley L. Jones, “The Merchant Marine Act of 1920,” JSTOR, https://​archive​.org/​s​t​r​e​a​m​/​j​s​t​o​r​-​1​1​7​1​8​3​1​/​1​1​7​1​8​3​1​_​d​j​v​u.txt.

5 Per Coast Guard regulations, major components are deemed to be those that exceed 1.5 percent of the vessel’s steelweight. For an extensive discussion of the ownership aspect, see Constantine G. Papavizas, “Public Company Jones Act Citizenship,”Tulane Maritime Law Journal39, no. 2 (Summer 2015): 383–437, https://​www​.win​ston​.com/​i​m​a​g​e​s​/​c​o​n​t​e​n​t​/​9​/​9​/​v​2​/​9​9​3​8​7​/​D​C​-​7​7​5​3​0​5​-​v​1​-​P​u​b​l​i​c​-​C​o​m​p​a​n​y​-​J​o​n​e​s​-​A​c​t​-​C​i​t​i​z​e​n​s​h​i​p​-​P​u​b​l​i​s​h​e​d​-​A​r​t.pdf. The 75 percent ownership rule has been in place since the Jones Act’s beginning and has its origin in the Shipping Act of 1916, when foreign interests were buying up U.S. ships during WWI. The origin of the crew requirement remains unclear.

6 “Shipping Domination,”New York Times, August 13, 1920, https://​times​ma​chine​.nytimes​.com/​t​i​m​e​s​m​a​c​h​i​n​e​/​1​9​2​0​/​0​8​/​1​2​/​1​0​3​4​6​8​2​1​5.pdf.

7 Jones, “The Merchant Marine Act of 1920.”

8 “Urges US to Fight for American Ships,”New York Times, June 21, 1920, https://​times​ma​chine​.nytimes​.com/​t​i​m​e​s​m​a​c​h​i​n​e​/​1​9​2​0​/​0​6​/​2​1​/​9​6​3​5​7​8​1​2.pdf.

9 “Urges US to Fight for American Ships.”

10 Michael L. Grace, “History of the Alaska Steamship Company, Seattle, 1895–1971,” March 10, 2010, https://www.cruiselinehistory.com/alaska-steamship-company-seattle-1895–1971/.

11 Ivan L. Ascott, “The Alaska Statehood Act Does Not Guarantee Alaska Ninety Percent of the Revenue from Mineral Leases on Federal Lands in Alaska,”Seattle University Law Review27, no. 4 (2004): 999‑1034.

12 “Rethinking Maritime Cabotage for Improved Connectivity,” United Nations Conference on Trade and Development, Transport and Trade Facilitation Series no. 9 (2017), http://​unc​tad​.org/​e​n​/​P​u​b​l​i​c​a​t​i​o​n​s​L​i​b​r​a​r​y​/​d​t​l​t​l​b​2​0​1​7​d​1​_​e​n.pdf.

13 The other countries that fully exclude foreign‐​flagged ships from cabotage are Belgium, China, Colombia, Estonia, Greece, Indonesia, Italy, Lithuania, Sweden, and Turkey. See OECD STRI Regulatory Database, http://​www​.oecd​.org/​t​a​d​/​s​e​r​v​i​c​e​s​-​t​r​a​d​e​/​s​e​r​v​i​c​e​s​-​t​r​a​d​e​-​r​e​s​t​r​i​c​t​i​v​e​n​e​s​s​-​i​n​d​e​x.htm.

14 World Economic Forum, “Enabling Trade: Valuing Growth Opportunities,” 2013, http://www3.weforum.org/docs/WEF_\SCT_EnablingTrade_Report_2013.pdf.

15 “How Protectionism Sank America’s Entire Merchant Fleet,”The Economist, October 5, 2017, https://​www​.econ​o​mist​.com/​n​e​w​s​/​f​i​n​a​n​c​e​-​a​n​d​-​e​c​o​n​o​m​i​c​s​/​2​1​7​3​0​0​3​4​-​j​o​n​e​s​-​a​c​t​-​h​u​r​t​s​-​a​m​e​r​i​c​a​n​-​c​o​n​s​u​m​e​r​s​-​a​n​d​-​d​e​s​t​r​o​y​e​d​-​c​o​u​n​t​r​y​s​-​s​h​i​pping.

16 Darren Chester, “Call for Comment on Proposed Coastal Shipping Reforms,” March 21, 2017, http://​min​is​ter​.infra​struc​ture​.gov​.au/​c​h​e​s​t​e​r​/​r​e​l​e​a​s​e​s​/​2​0​1​7​/​m​a​r​c​h​/​d​c​0​6​3​_​2​0​1​7​.aspx.

17 Robert Y. Cavana, “A Qualitative Analysis of Reintroducing Cabotage onto New Zealand’s Coasts,”Maritime Policy Management 31, no. 3 (2004): 179–98.

18 “Services Trade Restrictiveness Index Regulatory Database,” Organisation for Economic Co‐​operation and Development, https://​qdd​.oecd​.org/​s​u​b​j​e​c​t​.​a​s​p​x​?​S​u​b​j​e​c​t​=​0​6​3​b​e​e​6​3​-​4​7​5​f​-​4​2​7​c​-​8​b​5​0​-​c​1​9​b​f​f​a​7392d.

19 United States Maritime Administration, “By the Capes around the World: A Summary of World Cabotage Practices,” https://​www​.hsdl​.org/​?​a​b​s​t​r​a​c​t​&​d​i​d​=​4​55295.

20 Thomas Grennes, “An Economic Analysis of the Jones Act,” 2017, https://​www​.mer​ca​tus​.org/​s​y​s​t​e​m​/​f​i​l​e​s​/​m​e​r​c​a​t​u​s​-​g​r​e​n​n​e​s​-​j​o​n​e​s​-​a​c​t​-​v​2.pdf.

21 Malia Blom Hill, “Repealing Antiquated Jones Act Would Be a Boon to All Americans,”The Hill, February 7, 2017, http://​the​hill​.com/​o​p​i​n​i​o​n​/​i​n​t​e​r​n​a​t​i​o​n​a​l​/​3​7​2​7​4​4​-​r​e​p​e​a​l​i​n​g​-​a​n​t​i​q​u​a​t​e​d​-​j​o​n​e​s​-​a​c​t​-​w​o​u​l​d​-​b​e​-​a​-​b​o​o​n​-​t​o​-​a​l​l​-​a​m​e​r​icans; and U.S. Department of Transportation Maritime Administration, “United States Flag Privately‐​Owned Merchant Fleet Report,” April 1, 2018, https://​www​.marad​.dot​.gov/​w​p​-​c​o​n​t​e​n​t​/​u​p​l​o​a​d​s​/​x​l​s​x​/​C​o​p​y​-​o​f​-​D​S​_​U​S​F​l​a​g​-​F​l​e​e​t​_​2​0​1​8​0​4​0​1​.xlsx.

22 United States Congress House Committee on Transportation and Infrastructure Subcommittee on Coast Guard and Maritime Transportation, “The State of the U.S. Flag Maritime Industry,” Statement of Mark H. Buzby, Administrator, Maritime Administration, January 17, 2018, https://transportation.house.gov/uploadedfiles/2018–01-17_-_buzby_testimony.pdf.

23 John Fritelli, “Revitalizing Coastal Shipping for Domestic Commerce,” Congressional Research Service, May 2, 2017, https://​fas​.org/​s​g​p​/​c​r​s​/​m​i​s​c​/​R​4​4​8​3​1.pdf.

24 Fritelli, “Revitalizing Coastal Shipping for Domestic Commerce.”

25 The Oil Pollution Act of 1990 mandated that all oil tankers, which average 11 years of age, had to be double‐​hulled by 2015, which in turn encouraged the purchase of vessels much newer than the rest of the Jones Act fleet. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, “A Final Farewell to Oil Tankers with Single Hulls,” December 11, 2014, https://​response​.restora​tion​.noaa​.gov/​a​b​o​u​t​/​m​e​d​i​a​/​f​i​n​a​l​-​f​a​r​e​w​e​l​l​-​o​i​l​-​t​a​n​k​e​r​s​-​s​i​n​g​l​e​-​h​u​l​l​s​.html; U.S. Department of Transportation Maritime Administration, “United States Flag Privately‐​Owned Merchant Fleet Report”; and United Nations Conference on Trade and Development, “Review of Maritime Transport 2017,” http://​unc​tad​.org/​e​n​/​P​u​b​l​i​c​a​t​i​o​n​s​L​i​b​r​a​r​y​/​r​m​t​2​0​1​7​_​e​n.pdf.

26 Nickie Butt et al., “15 Years of Shipping Accidents: A Review for WWF Southampton Solent University,” http://​awsas​sets​.pan​da​.org/​d​o​w​n​l​o​a​d​s​/​1​5​_​y​e​a​r​s​_​o​f​_​s​h​i​p​p​i​n​g​_​a​c​c​i​d​e​n​t​s​_​a​_​r​e​v​i​e​w​_​f​o​r​_​w​w​f​_.pdf.

27 Thomas Grennes, “Does the Jones Act Endanger American Seamen?”Regulation 40, no. 3 (2017): 2–4.

28 U.S. Department of Transportation Maritime Administration, “Report on Survey of U.S. Shipbuilding and Repair Facilities,” 2004, https://​www​.marad​.dot​.gov/​w​p​-​c​o​n​t​e​n​t​/​u​p​l​o​a​d​s​/​p​d​f​/​2​0​0​4​_​-​_​R​e​p​o​r​t​_​o​n​_​S​u​r​v​e​y​_​o​f​_​U​S​_​S​h​i​p​b​u​i​l​d​i​n​g​_​a​n​d​_​R​e​p​a​i​r​_​F​a​c​i​l​i​t​i​e​s.pdf.

29 U.S. Department of Transportation Maritime Administration, “The Economic Importance of the U.S. Shipbuilding and Repairing Industry,” November 2015, https://​www​.marad​.dot​.gov/​w​p​-​c​o​n​t​e​n​t​/​u​p​l​o​a​d​s​/​p​d​f​/​2​0​0​4​_​-​_​R​e​p​o​r​t​_​o​n​_​S​u​r​v​e​y​_​o​f​_​U​S​_​S​h​i​p​b​u​i​l​d​i​n​g​_​a​n​d​_​R​e​p​a​i​r​_​F​a​c​i​l​i​t​i​e​s.pdf.

30 Organisation for Economic Co‐​operation and Development, “Peer Review of the Japanese Shipbuilding Industry,” 2016, http://​www​.oecd​.org/​s​t​i​/​i​n​d​/​P​e​e​r​R​e​v​i​e​w​-​S​h​i​p​b​u​i​l​d​i​n​g​-​J​a​p​a​n.pdf; and Yin‐​Chung Tsai, “The Shipbuilding Industry in China,” OECDJournal: General Papers2010, no. 3 (2011), http://​ec​.europa​.eu/​D​o​c​s​R​o​o​m​/​d​o​c​u​m​e​n​t​s​/​1​0​5​0​4​/​a​t​t​a​c​h​m​e​n​t​s​/​1​/​t​r​a​n​s​l​a​tions.

31 European Commission, “LeaderSHIP 2020: The Sea, New Opportunities for the Future,” February 20, 2013, http://​ec​.europa​.eu/​D​o​c​s​R​o​o​m​/​d​o​c​u​m​e​n​t​s​/​1​0​5​0​4​/​a​t​t​a​c​h​m​e​n​t​s​/​1​/​t​r​a​n​s​l​a​tions.

32 These numbers include seagoing propelled merchant ships of 100 gross tons and above, excluding inland waterway vessels, fishing vessels, military vessels, yachts, and offshore fixed and mobile platforms and barges (with the exception of floating production storage and offloading [FPSO] vessels and drillships).

33 Costas Paris, “Philadelphia Shipyard Struggles to Survive on Order Drought,” Wall Street Journal, May 31, 2018, https://​www​.wsj​.com/​a​r​t​i​c​l​e​s​/​p​h​i​l​a​d​e​l​p​h​i​a​-​s​h​i​p​y​a​r​d​-​s​t​r​u​g​g​l​e​s​-​t​o​-​s​u​r​v​i​v​e​-​o​n​-​o​r​d​e​r​-​d​r​o​u​g​h​t​-​1​5​2​7​7​79834.

34 Grennes, “An Economic Analysis of the Jones Act,” p. 12.

35 U.S. Department of Transportation Maritime Administration, “The Economic Importance of the U.S. Shipbuilding and Repairing Industry.”

36 Transportation Institute, “The Jones Act,” https://​trans​porta​tion​in​sti​tute​.org/​j​o​n​e​s​-act/.

37 United States Congress House Subcommittee on Coast Guard and Maritime Administration, “The State of the U.S. Flag Maritime Industry,” Statement of Bill Van Loo, Secretary Treasurer, Marine Engineers’ Beneficial Association, January 17, 2018, https://transportation.house.gov/uploadedfiles/2018–01-17_-_van_loo_testimony.pdf.

38 United States Congress Senate Committee on Armed Services, “Posture of the United States Transportation Command,” Statement of General Darren W. McDew, United States Air Force Commander, United States Transportation Command, April 10, 2018, https://www.armed-services.senate.gov/imo/media/doc/McDew_04-10–18.pdf

39 “Ancient and Modern Mariners,”The Economist, December 17, 2014, https://​www​.econ​o​mist​.com/​c​h​r​i​s​t​m​a​s​-​s​p​e​c​i​a​l​s​/​2​0​1​4​/​1​2​/​1​7​/​a​n​c​i​e​n​t​-​a​n​d​-​m​o​d​e​r​n​-​m​a​r​iners.

40 “Ancient and Modern Mariners,”The Economist.

41 Ecorys Research and Consulting, “Study on Competitiveness of the European Shipbuilding Industry,” October 8, 2009, http://​ec​.europa​.eu/​D​o​c​s​R​o​o​m​/​d​o​c​u​m​e​n​t​s​/​1​0​5​0​6​/​a​t​t​a​c​h​m​e​n​t​s​/​1​/​t​r​a​n​s​l​a​t​i​o​n​s​/​e​n​/​r​e​n​d​i​t​i​o​n​s​/​n​ative.

42 U.S. Department of Transportation Maritime Administration, “The Economic Importance of the U.S. Shipbuilding and Repairing Industry.”

43 James K. Matthews and Cora J. Holt, “So Many, So Much, So Far, So Fast,” United States Transportation Command, http://​webap​p1​.dlib​.indi​ana​.edu/​v​i​r​t​u​a​l​_​d​i​s​k​_​l​i​b​r​a​r​y​/​i​n​d​e​x​.​c​g​i​/​5​5​2​5​2​7​4​/​F​I​D​2​6​6​0​/​p​u​b​s​/​s​o​m​a​n​y.pdf.

44 Rob Grady, “Panel: Advocates for Jones Act Reform See Best Chance in Decades,” February 23, 2018,U.S. Naval Institute News, https://​news​.usni​.org/​2​0​1​8​/​0​2​/​2​3​/​p​a​n​e​l​-​a​d​v​o​c​a​t​e​s​-​j​o​n​e​s​-​a​c​t​-​r​e​f​o​r​m​-​s​e​e​-​b​e​s​t​-​c​h​a​n​c​e​-​d​e​cades.

45 Matthews and Holt, “So Many, So Much, So Far, So Fast.”

46 Matthews and Holt, “So Many, So Much, So Far, So Fast.”

47 Transportation Institute, “The History of the Maritime Industry,” https://​trans​porta​tion​in​sti​tute​.org/​k​n​o​w​-​o​u​r​-​i​n​d​u​s​t​r​y​/​n​a​t​i​o​n​a​l​-​d​e​f​e​n​s​e​-​r​o​l​e​/​h​i​s​tory/.

48 Keith Dominic, “Foreign Flag Shipping: A Weakness in the Sealift Trident,” Naval War College, May 9, 2009, http://​www​.dtic​.mil/​d​t​i​c​/​t​r​/​f​u​l​l​t​e​x​t​/​u​2​/​a​5​0​3​0​7​9.pdf.

49 Seafarers International Union, “TOTE’s Northern Lights Transports Military Gear,” http://seafarers.org/ViewStory.asp?article=log/2003/032003/Totes%20Northern%20Lights; and Transportation Institute, “The Jones Act,” https://​trans​porta​tion​in​sti​tute​.org/​j​o​n​e​s​-act/.

50 U.S. Department of Transportation Maritime Administration, “2000–2016 U.S.-Flag Privately‐​Owned Fleet Summary,” https://www.marad.dot.gov/wp-content/uploads/pdf/US-Fleet-Summary-Table-2000–2016-1.pdf; and U.S. Department of Transportation Maritime Administration, “U.S.-Flag Privately‐​Owned Fleet,” https://​www​.marad​.dot​.gov/​w​p​-​c​o​n​t​e​n​t​/​u​p​l​o​a​d​s​/​p​d​f​/​D​S​_​U​S​F​l​a​g​-​F​l​e​e​t​_​2​0​1​8​0​6​0​1.pdf.

51 United States Congress Senate Committee on Armed Services, “Posture of the United States Transportation Command.”

52 Nicolas Loris, Brian Slattery, and Bryan Riley, “Sink the Jones Act: Restoring America’s Competitive Advantage in Maritime‐​Related Industries,” Heritage Foundation, May 22, 2014, https://​www​.her​itage​.org/​g​o​v​e​r​n​m​e​n​t​-​r​e​g​u​l​a​t​i​o​n​/​r​e​p​o​r​t​/​s​i​n​k​-​t​h​e​-​j​o​n​e​s​-​a​c​t​-​r​e​s​t​o​r​i​n​g​-​a​m​e​r​i​c​a​s​-​c​o​m​p​e​t​i​t​i​v​e​-​a​d​v​a​n​t​a​g​e​-​m​a​r​itime.

53 John Fritelli, “Cargo Preferences for U.S.-Flag Shipping,” Congressional Research Service, October 29, 2015, https://​fas​.org/​s​g​p​/​c​r​s​/​m​i​s​c​/​R​4​4​2​5​4.pdf.

54 For more discussion, see Fritelli, “Cargo Preferences for U.S.-Flag Shipping.”

55 TheNew York Timesreported that in 2003 almost 500,000 troops were airlifted to Iraq on civilian aircraft alone via the Pentagon’s Civil Reserve Air Fleet program. See Micheline Maynard, “Pentagon Gives Airlines a Lifeline with Payments for Moving Troops,” New York Times, December 26, 2003.

56 Keith Hennessey, “How to Waive the Jones Act,” June 18, 2010, https://​kei​th​hen​nessey​.com/​2​0​1​0​/​0​6​/​1​8​/​h​o​w​-​t​o​-​w​a​i​v​e​-​t​h​e​-​j​o​n​e​s​-act/.

57 Josh Siegel, “Trump: Shipping Industry Doesn’t Want Jones Act Lifted for Puerto Rico,”Washington Examiner, September 27, 2017, https://​www​.wash​ing​tonex​am​in​er​.com/​t​r​u​m​p​-​s​h​i​p​p​i​n​g​-​i​n​d​u​s​t​r​y​-​d​o​e​s​n​t​-​w​a​n​t​-​j​o​n​e​s​-​a​c​t​-​l​i​f​t​e​d​-​f​o​r​-​p​u​e​r​t​o​-​r​i​c​o​/​a​r​t​i​c​l​e​/​2​6​35827.

58 Lydia DePillis, “Relief Groups Hit Major Hurdles Getting Aid to Puerto Rico,” CNN Money, October 23, 2017, http://​mon​ey​.cnn​.com/​2​0​1​7​/​1​0​/​2​3​/​n​e​w​s​/​e​c​o​n​o​m​y​/​p​u​e​r​t​o​-​r​i​c​o​-​a​d​-​h​o​c​-​a​i​d​-​g​r​o​u​p​s​/​i​n​d​e​x​.html; and Ryan Schleeter, “Our Power, Our Future: Puerto Rico’s Road to a #JustRecovery,” Greenpeace, October 19, 2017, https://​www​.green​peace​.org/​u​s​a​/​o​u​r​-​p​o​w​e​r​-​o​u​r​-​f​u​t​u​r​e​-​p​u​e​r​t​o​-​r​i​c​o​s​-​r​o​a​d​-​t​o​-​a​-​j​u​s​t​r​e​c​o​very/.

59 U.S. International Trade Commission, “The Economic Effects of Significant U.S. Import Restraints, Phase III: Services,” Publication no. 2422, September 1991; U.S. International Trade Commission, “The Economic Effects of Significant U.S. Import Restraints,” Publication no. 3201, May 1999; and U.S. International Trade Commission, “The Economic Effects of Significant U.S. Import Restraints,” third update, June 2002.

60 Government Accountability Office, Letter to Sen. John McCain, March 6, 1998, https://​www​.gao​.gov/​a​s​s​e​t​s​/​9​0​/​8​7​4​2​6.pdf.

61 U.S. Department of Transportation Maritime Administration, “Comparison of U.S. and Foreign‐​Flag Operating Costs,” September 2011, https://​www​.marad​.dot​.gov/​w​p​-​c​o​n​t​e​n​t​/​u​p​l​o​a​d​s​/​p​d​f​/​C​o​m​p​a​r​i​s​o​n​_​o​f​_​U​S​_​a​n​d​_​F​o​r​e​i​g​n​_​F​l​a​g​_​O​p​e​r​a​t​i​n​g​_​C​o​s​t​s.pdf.

62 U.S. Department of Transportation Maritime Administration, “Comparison of U.S. and Foreign‐​Flag Operating Costs,” p.14.

63 “19 U.S. Code § 1466 — Equipment and Repairs of Vessels,” Legal Information Institute, Cornell Law School, https://​www​.law​.cor​nell​.edu/​u​s​c​o​d​e​/​t​e​x​t​/​1​9​/1466.

64 In 2012 the Federal Reserve Bank of New York released a report that found shipping a 20‐​foot container of household and commercial goods from the East Coast of the United States to Puerto Rico would cost an estimated $3,063. To send the same shipment to nearby Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic, or Kingston, Jamaica — destinations that are not subject to Jones Act restrictions — would cost $1,504 and $1,687, respectively. Federal Reserve Bank of New York, “Report on the Competitiveness of Puerto Rico’s Economy,” June 29, 2012, https://​www​.newyork​fed​.org/​m​e​d​i​a​l​i​b​r​a​r​y​/​m​e​d​i​a​/​r​e​g​i​o​n​a​l​/​P​u​e​r​t​o​R​i​c​o​/​r​e​p​o​r​t.pdf.

65 Fritelli, “Revitalizing Coastal Shipping for Domestic Commerce,” p. 2.

66 Fritelli, “Revitalizing Coastal Shipping for Domestic Commerce,” p. 2.

67 Fritelli, “Revitalizing Coastal Shipping for Domestic Commerce,” p. 2.

68 World Shipping Council, “Industry Issues, Carbon Emissions,” 2015, http://​www​.world​ship​ping​.org/​i​n​d​u​s​t​r​y​-​i​s​s​u​e​s​/​e​n​v​i​r​o​n​m​e​n​t​/​a​i​r​-​e​m​i​s​s​i​o​n​s​/​c​a​r​b​o​n​-​e​m​i​s​sions.

69 World Shipping Council, “Liner Shipping,” http://​www​.world​ship​ping​.org/​p​u​b​l​i​c​-​s​t​a​t​e​m​e​n​t​s​/​w​s​c​_​b​r​o​c​h​u​r​e​_​f​i​n​a​l​_​u​s​_​p​r​i​n​t.pdf; and Department of Transportation, “DOT Releases 30‐​Year Freight Projections,” press release, March 3, 2016, https://​www​.bts​.gov/​s​i​t​e​s​/​b​t​s​.​d​o​t​.​g​o​v​/​f​i​l​e​s​/​l​e​g​a​c​y​/​b​t​s​1​3​_​1​6.pdf.

70 INRIX, “Americans Will Waste $2.8 Trillion on Traffic by 2030 if Gridlock Persists,” press release, October 14, 2014, http://inrix.com/press-releases/americans-will-waste-2–8-trillion-on-traffic-by-2030-if-gridlock-persists/.

71 Bureau of Transportation Statistics, “Freight Facts & Figures 2017 — Chapter 3 The Freight Transportation System,” https://​www​.bts​.gov/​b​t​s​-​p​u​b​l​i​c​a​t​i​o​n​s​/​f​r​e​i​g​h​t​-​f​a​c​t​s​-​a​n​d​-​f​i​g​u​r​e​s​/​f​r​e​i​g​h​t​-​f​a​c​t​s​-​f​i​g​u​r​e​s​-​2​0​1​7​-​c​h​a​p​t​e​r​-​3​-​f​r​eight; and U.S. Department of Transportation Maritime Administration, “U.S.-Flag Waterborne Domestic Trade and Related Programs,” https://​www​.marad​.dot​.gov/​s​h​i​p​s​-​a​n​d​-​s​h​i​p​p​i​n​g​/​d​o​m​e​s​t​i​c​-​s​h​i​p​ping/.

72 World Economic Forum, “Enabling Trade, Valuing Growth Opportunities,” 2013, http://​www3​.wefo​rum​.org/​d​o​c​s​/​W​E​F​_​S​C​T​_​E​n​a​b​l​i​n​g​T​r​a​d​e​_​R​e​p​o​r​t​_​2​0​1​3.pdf.

73 American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials and American Association of Port Authorities, “The State of Freight II — Implementing the FAST Act and Beyond,” November 2016, http://​aapa​.files​.cms​-plus​.com/​P​D​F​s​/​S​O​F​-​2.pdf, p. 7; National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, “What Percentage of the American Population Lives Near the Coast?,” https://​oceanser​vice​.noaa​.gov/​f​a​c​t​s​/​p​o​p​u​l​a​t​i​o​n​.html; and John Curtis Perry et al., “America’s Deep Blue Highway: How Coastal Shipping Could Reduce Traffic Congestion, Lower Pollution, and Bolster National Security, September 2008, http://​www​.igms​.org/​s​i​t​e​s​/​d​e​f​a​u​l​t​/​f​i​l​e​s​/​p​u​b​l​i​s​h​e​d​w​o​r​k​s​/​a​m​e​r​i​c​a​s​_​d​e​e​p​_​b​l​u​e​_​h​i​g​h​w​a​y​_​I​G​M​S​_​r​e​p​o​r​t​_​s​e​p​t​_​2​0​0​8.pdf.

74 Fritelli, “Revitalizing Coastal Shipping for Domestic Commerce.”

75 Jennifer Runyon, “First US Offshore Wind Installation Vessel to be Built with Oil and Gas Expertise,” Renewable Energy World, June 30, 2017, https://​www​.renew​ableen​er​gy​world​.com/​a​r​t​i​c​l​e​s​/​2​0​1​7​/​0​6​/​f​i​r​s​t​-​j​o​n​e​s​-​a​c​t​-​c​o​m​p​l​i​a​n​t​-​u​s​-​o​f​f​s​h​o​r​e​-​w​i​n​d​-​j​a​c​k​-​u​p​-​i​n​s​t​a​l​l​a​t​i​o​n​-​v​e​s​s​e​l​-​t​o​-​b​e​-​b​u​i​l​t​-​w​i​t​h​-​o​i​l​-​a​n​d​-​g​a​s​-​e​x​p​e​r​t​i​s​e​.html.

76 “Assessment of Vessel Requirements for the U.S. Offshore Wind Sector,” Douglas‐​Westwood LLC, February 28, 2013, https://​www​.ener​gy​.gov/​s​i​t​e​s​/​p​r​o​d​/​f​i​l​e​s​/​2​0​1​3​/​1​2​/​f​5​/​a​s​s​e​s​s​m​e​n​t​_​v​e​s​s​e​l​_​r​e​q​u​i​r​e​m​e​n​t​s​_​U​S​_​o​f​f​s​h​o​r​e​_​w​i​n​d​_​r​e​p​o​r​t.pdf; and “U.S. Jones Act Compliant Offshore Wind Turbine Installation Vessel Study,” GustoMSC, October 2017, https://​www​.north​east​wind​cen​ter​.org/​w​p​-​c​o​n​t​e​n​t​/​u​p​l​o​a​d​s​/​U​S​_​J​o​n​e​s​_​A​c​t​_​C​o​m​p​l​i​a​n​t​_​O​f​f​s​h​o​r​e​_​W​i​n​d​_​S​t​u​d​y.pdf.

77 General Dynamics NASSCO, “A Shipbuilder’s Assessment of America’s Marine Highways,” July 30, 2009, https://​www​.nass​co​.com/​p​d​f​s​/​S​h​i​p​b​u​i​l​d​e​r​-​A​s​s​e​s​s​m​e​n​t​-​A​m​e​r​i​c​a​n​-​M​a​r​i​n​e​-​H​i​g​h​w​a​y​-​N​A​S​S​C​O.pdf.

78 “Americans Will Waste $2.8 Trillion on Traffic by 2030 if Gridlock Persists.”

79 “Americans Will Waste $2.8 Trillion on Traffic by 2030 if Gridlock Persists.”

80 Fritelli, “Revitalizing Coastal Shipping for Domestic Commerce,” p. 2.

81 Government Accountability Office, “Puerto Rico: Characteristics of the Island’s Maritime Trade and Potential Effects of Modifying the Jones Act,” March 2013, https://​www​.gao​.gov/​a​s​s​e​t​s​/​6​6​0​/​6​5​3​0​4​6.pdf.

82 Zoe Chace and David Kestenbaum, “Mr. Jones’ Act,” Planet Money, podcast transcript, September 27, 2017, https://​www​.npr​.org/​t​e​m​p​l​a​t​e​s​/​t​r​a​n​s​c​r​i​p​t​/​t​r​a​n​s​c​r​i​p​t​.​p​h​p​?​s​t​o​r​y​I​d​=​5​5​4​0​46425.

83 Government Accountability Office, “Puerto Rico: Characteristics of the Island’s Maritime Trade.”

84 John Frittelli, “Shipping U.S. Crude Oil by Water: Vessel Flag Requirements and Safety Issues,” Congressional Research Service, July 21, 2014, p. 9.

85 Government Accountability Office, “Alaskan North Slope Oil: Limited Effects of Lifting Export Ban on Oil and Shipping Industries and Consumers,”1999, https://​www​.gao​.gov/​a​r​c​h​i​v​e​/​1​9​9​9​/​r​c​9​9​1​9​1.pdf.

86 John Frittelli et al., “U.S. Rail Transportation of Crude Oil: Background and Issues for Congress,” Congressional Research Service, December 4, 2014, https://​fas​.org/​s​g​p​/​c​r​s​/​m​i​s​c​/​R​4​3​3​9​0.pdf.

87 Loris, Slattery, and Riley, “Sink the Jones Act: Restoring America’s Competitive Advantage in Maritime‐​Related Industries.”

88 Congressional Budget Office, “Approaches to Making Federal Highway Spending More Productive,” February 2016, http://www.cbo.gov/sites/default/files/114th-congress-2015–2016/reports/50150-Federal_Highway_Spending.pdf.

89 Congressional Budget Office, “Approaches to Making Federal Highway Spending More Productive.”

90 Congressional Budget Office, “Approaches to Making Federal Highway Spending More Productive.”

91 Daniel J. Ikenson, “A Ports Policy Barnacled with Bad Law,” Wall Street Journal, August 5, 2015, https://​www​.cato​.org/​p​u​b​l​i​c​a​t​i​o​n​s​/​c​o​m​m​e​n​t​a​r​y​/​p​o​r​t​s​-​p​o​l​i​c​y​-​b​a​r​n​a​c​l​e​d​-​b​a​d-law.

92 Ikenson, “A Ports Policy Barnacled with Bad Law.”

93 Guam is exempt from the Jones Act’s domestic‐​build requirement but in practice is still subject to this stricture as many of the ships that sail to the island from the continental United States first stop in Hawaii and thus must be fully compliant with the law. The U.S. Virgin Islands, meanwhile, have a full Jones Act exemption.

94 46 C.F.R. § 67.97.

95 Bryan Riley, “Are Jones Act Ships Really ‘Made in the USA’? Well, Sort Of,” The Hill, June 7, 2016, http://​the​hill​.com/​b​l​o​g​s​/​p​u​n​d​i​t​s​-​b​l​o​g​/​t​r​a​n​s​p​o​r​t​a​t​i​o​n​/​2​8​2​4​5​5​-​a​r​e​-​j​o​n​e​s​-​a​c​t​-​s​h​i​p​s​-​r​e​a​l​l​y​-​m​a​d​e​-​i​n​-​t​h​e​-​u​s​a​-​w​e​l​l​-​s​o​rt-of.

96 Grennes, “An Economic Analysis of the Jones Act,” p. 17.

97 Tim Colton, “Deliveries from U.S. Shipyards Since 1987,” Ship​build​inghis​to​ry​.com, http://​ship​build​inghis​to​ry​.com/​s​t​a​t​i​s​t​i​c​s​/​r​e​c​e​n​t.htm.