Thus, some changes in wild game proportions at KHH follow expectations for an economy that includes nascent animal management and support a trajectory toward less intensive hunting from the Natufian and PPNA through the end of the PPNB, while others do not. Reduced hunting intensity corresponds to the increase in domestic progenitor taxa in the ungulate fraction of the assemblages and thus fits expectations of emergent management of some ungulate taxa according to regional faunal trends [ 62 , 98 ]. Although the relative abundance of domestic progenitor species in the PPNB is significantly greater than assemblages that came before, the steady emphasis on gazelles throughout the PPNB at KHH reveals a leveling off of this trajectory at least in the ungulate component. Continued reliance on gazelles during the PPNB at KHH differs from the steady increase in domestic progenitor species seen across the southern Levant more generally from the MPPNB through the PN, which has been associated with greater control of these taxa over time [ 43 , 55 ].

In comparison to Epipaleolithic and PPNA sites in the Mediterranean Hills, the fauna from KHH reveal a narrowing of dietary breadth and an increase in foraging efficiency over time [ 60 , 61 , 97 ]. This fits a region-wide trend reflecting a trade-off between small game and domestic progenitor species from the Natufian to the PPNB [ 43 , 56 ]. In addition, there is a clear increase in the abundance of adult gazelle compared to the juvenile-dominated assemblages of the PPNA and Natufian [ 40 , 42 ]. At KHH, both the decline in taxonomic diversity and the decrease in small game abundance indicate the continuation of this trend toward increased foraging efficiency through the PPNB. Nevertheless, high abundances of gazelle across the PPNB occupation at KHH signify the opposite trend. The increase in the lowest-ranked gazelles at the expense of the highest-ranked cattle indicates a decline in ungulate foraging efficiency at KHH over time.

Animal Management at KHH

Increasing frequencies of Capra are commonly cited as markers for the beginning of caprine management at PPNB sites in the Levant [5,24,42,99]. KHH fits the established regional pattern of increased Capra abundance compared to the Epipaleolithic and PPNA. Interestingly, however, the rise occurs earlier than expected in the EPPNB. The proportions for Capra in all phases at KHH are most similar to MPPNB sites in the region (16–19%) [23,24,86], with the exception of Abu Gosh, which is higher [85]. This suggests that human control over goats may have begun earlier than previously established for the Mediterranean Hills (see also [30,94]). Nevertheless, despite the initial increase, goat abundance remains stable over time at KHH and thus, diverges from the trajectory of increase that typifies later LPPNB sites in adjacent regions such as Beisamoun (53%) [100].

Other features of the KHH Capra populations also resonate with those detected at other Mediterranean Hills sites by the MPPNB. The KHH Capra LSI body-size data are similar to those from neighboring PPNB sites suggesting that a region-wide shift in goat body size occurred over time. These goat populations were slightly smaller than the Natufian wild assemblage from Eynan, but not as small as later PN assemblages. Additionally, by the LPPNB goat mortality profiles at KHH approach 30% survivorship by 36 months of age (37% survive to 30 months at KHH based on bone fusion categories), as expected for modeled caprine populations managed for meat [67]. Although Capra survivorship varies across the region, KHH is most similar to sites with the lowest juvenile survivorship that have been interpreted as early managed populations (MPPNB Abu Gosh and Final LPPNB/PPNC Yiftah'el) [24,85].

Evidence for small-scale size diminution and a younger average age of culling in the EPPNB and MPPNB at KHH compared to earlier periods illuminates very early signs of a shifting relationship between humans and goats during the period leading up to animal domestication in the region. These changes are not sufficient to argue for full-fledged animal management, but they do suggest a shift in the relationship between goats and humans that is similar to other Mediterranean Hills sites. Positively-skewed LSI distributions at MPPNB Yiftah'el and KHH suggest that humans might have first gained control over smaller females that were likely easier to control than males. This very early stage of human control likely precluded directed reproduction and selective culling, but aimed to cut costs by improving access to high-ranked animals and reducing search time. Ultimately, this was followed by targeted culling of younger, likely male animals once they neared full body-size, just prior to sexual maturity. Constraining the movement of wild goats would have decreased search and capture costs and made it increasingly worthwhile to harvest goats rather than gazelles at Mediterranean Hills sites. What makes KHH so interesting is its continued focus on gazelle hunting despite increasing availability of lightly managed goats in the Mediterranean Hills. In this sense, the trajectory of change from the MPPNB onward at KHH diverges from the rest of the region.

The relative abundance of Bos in all PPNB phases at KHH, especially in the EPPNB phase, is notably higher than in preceding periods elsewhere in the southern Levant. Interestingly, Bos abundance peaks in the EPPNB and then declines over time counter to expectations for cattle management. In contrast, the abundance of Sus at KHH is not significantly different from earlier periods in the region and increases only slightly over time. Like Capra, the abundance of large domestic progenitor taxa at KHH from the MPPNB onward do not significantly increase as they do at other sites such as Yiftah'el [30]. Archaeological contexts suggest that species abundance is likely an unreliable marker for Bos management at KHH, as cattle were mainly recovered from concentrated EPPNB deposits probably related to feasting or other special activities [36]. Thus, Bos abundance, at least in the EPPNB, best reflects specific, short-term activities.

Comparison of Bos data from KHH to that from other sites in the region highlights a decline in average body size across the PPNB, indicating that KHH follows a similar pattern to sites in the Mediterranean Hills and in the Jordan Valley. The sample of Bos measurements from PPNB sites is very limited, but Bos LSI values are smaller on average than those from E–MPPNB Motza, suggesting that the decline in average cattle size may have begun earlier than the PPNC [49,52] or PN [101] as previously believed. This new data for Bos parallels and is coeval with the trend toward goat diminution and could similarly reflect the impact of increased human control over these domestic progenitor taxa in the region. Nevertheless, sex biases in cattle populations suggested by skewness of the LSI values vary widely on a regional scale and unlike goats, do not exhibit the female-biased adult populations characteristic of managed herds. This may be at least partially attributable to the small sample of Bos bones [52]. The increased survivorship of juvenile cattle also does not fit expectations for increased human control of Bos populations at KHH. This differs from the more juvenile, female-biased, or smaller cattle populations at LPPNB sites in Jordan (Basta, Beidha, 'Ain Ghazal) that have been interpreted as likely managed herds [12,52,55,102].

Accordingly, demographic evidence does not support Bos management at KHH. Instead, changes in the Bos age structure likely reflect a reduction in hunting pressure on wild cattle, similar to that shown by gazelles at the site. The alleviation of hunting pressure on Bos populations suggested by increased juvenile survivorship at KHH may reflect a trade-off resulting from intensified use of other domestic progenitor taxa, as is suggested by the age profiles of gazelles. In the Jordan Valley, a similar drop in the kill-off of juvenile cattle occurs later between the PPNC and the PN at Sha'ar HaGolan [91]. Marom and Bar-Oz [91] interpret this as evidence for the beginning of conservation of cattle herds in the PN in response to overhunting in the PPNC. Thus, even though the Bos data from KHH fit the regional body size pattern, the relative abundance and demographics of cattle populations at the site better fit a wild population rebounding from hunting pressure that was selected for specialized use in specific ritual practices (see below).

Finally, although small sample sizes prevent tracking of demographic change in Sus populations over time, the survivorship of juvenile pigs from LPPNB KHH is similar to survivorship at PN Sha'ar HaGolan [91], where it has been treated as evidence for domestic animals at the site. The survivorship of juvenile Sus at KHH is also lower than at earlier PPNB sites [24,75,85]. Still, diverse potential pig management strategies [103] are known to cause significant demographic variability in domestic populations, leading to equifinality in Sus demographic profiles. Hunting is also expected to produce higher proportions of juveniles than in other progenitor taxa since more young Sus are naturally available due to high rates of fecundity [104]. Thus, the Sus data is suggestive and hints at a small degree of human control, but this pattern is equivocal compared to the Capra data. Evidence of Sus management demands further investigation in the Mediterranean Hills region. Despite the high rate of juvenile culling, Sus abundances at KHH remain steadily lower than at other PPNB sites, and differ from regional trends reflecting increased use of Sus across the course of the PPNB.