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Vegetable oils — those shiny modern elixirs — have seeped their way into all the nooks and crannies of our food supply.

If you eat out, chances are your food is cooked in — or doused with — some type of vegetable oil. If you buy packaged goods like crackers, chips or cookies, there’s a very good chance that vegetable oils are in the ingredients list. If you buy spreads, dips, dressings, margarine, shortening or mayo, can you guess the likely star ingredient? Yup — vegetable oils.

Is this a good thing? To find out, let’s review what we know, and what we don’t know, about these plant-based fats.

Ready for a deep dive into this controversial issue? Click any of the links to jump to that section, or simply keep reading!

Disclaimer: Vegetable oils are routinely recommended as “heart healthy.” There is high-quality evidence demonstrating that replacing saturated fat with vegetable oils reduces LDL cholesterol levels. But at this point, there is inconsistent evidence whether this translates into fewer heart events or lower rates of cardiovascular mortality. Vegetable oils are routinely recommended as “heart healthy.” There is high-quality evidence demonstrating that replacing saturated fat with vegetable oils reduces LDL cholesterol levels. But at this point, there is inconsistent evidence whether this translates into fewer heart events or lower rates of cardiovascular mortality. Because of inconsistent evidence of health benefits, potential negative health effects, concerns about the ultra-processed and unstable nature of many of these oils and due to evolutionary considerations, we believe that the conventional recommendations about vegetable oils deserve a more detailed analysis. Full disclaimer Controversial topics related to vegetable oils, and our take on them, include saturated fats and cholesterol.

What are vegetable oils?

In a technical sense, vegetable oils include all fats from plants. However, in common usage, “vegetable oil” refers to the oil extracted from crops like soy, canola (rapeseed), corn and cotton.

Is olive oil a vegetable oil? What about palm oil and coconut oil? Technically, yes, these oils come from plants, so they are vegetable oils. But they originate from the fruit or nut rather than the seed and are easier to extract.

These oils have been a part of the food supply for thousands of years. Together, these three traditional oils account for less than 15% of today’s vegetable oil consumption in the US. More than half — about 53% — of the vegetable oils consumed in the US comes from just one crop: soybeans.

For purposes of this post, we will narrow the meaning of vegetable oils to include only oils from the industrial oilseed crops: soybean, canola (rapeseed), corn, sunflower, cottonseed and safflower oils.

In addition, we will assume the vegetable oils we are discussing haven’t been hydrogenated. Partially hydrogenated vegetable oil products, like Crisco and margarine, were once marketed to Americans as “heart healthy.” Now we call them “trans fats,” which we are in the process of eliminating from our food supply due to their negative health effects.

How are vegetable oils made?

Unlike olive oil that has been pressed for centuries, most vegetable oils require significant industrial processing.

Heat, cold, high-speed spinning, solvents like hexane, degumming agents, deodorizers and bleaching agents are typically used to process the seeds into a palatable oil.

For a visual rendition of this industrial process, check out this video that documents the production of canola oil.

Given the level of industrial work required to extract the oil, many modern vegetable oils are rightly classified as processed food products.

How much vegetable oil did we eat historically, and how much are we eating now?

Refined vegetable oils are the ‘new kid on the block’ in human diets.

Millions of years ago, the only vegetable fats our ancestors consumed likely came from wild plants. Around 4000 BC or earlier, pressed olive oil became a staple in the diets of people living in Italy, Greece, and other Mediterranean countries.

The vegetable oils we know today were developed at the end of the 19th century, when technological advances allowed oils to be extracted from other crops.

Around 100 years ago, there was very little vegetable oil in the food supply, and it did not form a significant part of the diet.

The consumption of soybean oil increased more than 1,000-fold between 1909 to 1999. According to food availability data, by 2010, the amount of vegetable oil in the US food supply was 50 grams, or 11 teaspoons of vegetable oils each day per capita.

This data does not account for waste, however, and consumption data suggests intake of linoleic acid (the major omega-6 fatty acid) is around 17 grams per day, about 7% of energy intake. Vegetable oil intake in total is probably twice this amount.

The dramatic increase in vegetable oil consumption is supported by high-quality human data showing the rise in linoleic acid consumption is changing the fatty acid composition of our own body’s cells.

What types of fatty acids are in vegetable oils?

All fats contain a blend of saturated (SFA), monounsaturated (MUFA) and polyunsaturated (PUFA) fatty acids (learn more), and vegetable oils are no exception. Each type of seed has its own signature blend of the dozens of possible fatty acids that occur in nature, and each fatty acid is either a saturated, monounsaturated or polyunsaturated fatty acid.

Take a look at the percentage makeup of the three main vegetable oils in our food supply, compared to coconut oil, a traditional plant fat:

Polyunsaturated fats are made up of omega-6 and omega-3 fatty acids. Within these subgroups, there are two types of fatty acids which are essential – meaning the body cannot make them itself. These are alpha-linolenic acid (an omega-3 fatty acid) and linoleic acid (an omega-6 fatty acid).

In addition, there are two other omega-3 fatty acids which can be made from alpha-linolenic acid: eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA). The conversion from ALA to EPA and DHA is generally poor, so getting EPA and DHA from foods or supplements is advised.

Most vegetable oils contain predominantly omega-6 fatty acids and contribute to the abundance of omega-6 fatty acids (over omega-3 fatty acids) in the standard American diet.

This is a decidedly modern pattern. Until relatively recently, it’s estimated that humans consumed omega-6 and omega-3 fats in a roughly 1:1 ratio. Today, that ratio is estimated to be around 16:1, on average.

For more on the origin and structure of different types of fat, check out our guide below:

Healthy fats on a keto or low-carb diet

Are vegetable oils healthy?

Whether vegetable oils are beneficial or harmful is a topic of intense debate. Let’s take a look at the potential concerns about them.

What happens to the vegetable oils that we eat?

Fatty acids can be burned for energy, so vegetable oils are a source of fuel. If we do not need that energy immediately, our bodies store it in our fat cells.

But fatty acids are also used to build and repair body parts, create internal signaling molecules, and build cell membranes. And the selection of fatty acids in the food you eat provides the array of building blocks available to the body. So the vegetable oils you eat literally become a part of you. Your mother was right — you really are what you eat!

The fatty acids vegetable oils provide are not identical to those found in more traditional fats. Some evidence, albeit weak evidence, suggests the fatty acids from vegetable oils may be less stable than those from more traditional fats. Therefore, incorporating them into our cell membranes could potentially negatively affect membrane fluidity and cellular function.

On the other hand, other data in humans shows that the omega-6 fatty acid phospholipid content (a marker for omega-6 consumption) is positively related to insulin sensitivity.

How can we make sense of this contradictory data? Read on for more details, including data from controlled trials, which are the highest-quality evidence.

Are vegetable oils inflammatory?

There are theories and mechanistic studies suggesting that a high absolute intake of omega-6 fatty acids and a high ratio of omega-6 to omega-3 fatty acids can increase inflammation. Despite a number of suggestive mechanistic studies, when repeatedly tested in randomized trials, this hasn’t been shown to be true.

For example, a systematic review found no evidence that linoleic acid, the main omega-6 fatty acid in vegetable oils, increases inflammatory markers, at least in healthy people.

Additionally, randomized controlled trials — one in people with non-alcoholic fatty liver disease and one in overweight men — found that meals high in omega-6 fatty acids led to lower levels of inflammatory markers than meals high in saturated fat. Of note, both groups consumed 40% of their calories from carbohydrates.

Bottom line: There’s no clear high-quality human evidence that vegetable oils are inflammatory, despite the many mechanistic studies suggesting they are.

What happens when we cook with vegetable oils?

Vegetable oils contain mostly polyunsaturated and monounsaturated fatty acids, which means they are liquid at room temperature. It also means they are typically less stable than predominantly saturated fats. This is because unsaturated fatty acids have one or more double chemical bonds that react with oxygen more easily than the single bonds in a saturated fatty acid.

Even if vegetable oils can be stabilized during production to achieve a reasonable shelf life, adding heat can oxidize (damage) them.

Some animal studies have shown that consuming repeatedly heated vegetable oils may increase blood pressure and cause other adverse health effects due to the formation of aldehydes and other potentially toxic compounds.

There is limited short-term evidence that long-term heating (8 hours at 210 degrees Celsius) of polyunsaturated fats like safflower oil may increase oxidation of fatty acids in humans, when compared to heating olive oil. However, other studies show that despite this increased oxidation, there are no clear negative health consequences.

At this time, research suggests that vegetable oils are probably safe for cooking as long as they aren’t exposed to very high temperatures for long time periods. However, the quality of the data is not strong and more research is needed, as questions still exist.

To minimize any risk, it could still be a good idea to mainly use more stable oils for cooking. Fats that contain higher levels of saturated fatty acids, like clarified butter and coconut oil, may be safer for cooking because they remain stable at high heat. These mostly saturated fats are solid at room temperature, do not become rancid when stored, and resist oxidation when heated.

Lard and extra virgin olive oil, both made up of mostly monounsaturated fatty acids, are also quite heat stable. Monounsaturated fat-rich oils such as pressed rapeseed may also be stable at high heat possibly related to its beta-carotene and tocopherol content.

Are vegetable oils “heart healthy”?

For decades public health officials have recommended that we replace butter and other saturated fats with vegetable oils for better heart health. But is there strong evidence that this reduces heart disease risk?

Observational studies are mixed, but typically find that people who eat more polyunsaturated fat and less saturated fat have slightly fewer heart events.

Observational data like this can’t prove that eating more PUFAs protects heart health, though; it only suggests a possible relationship between the two. This is because people who tend to eat more PUFAs may have a greater tendency for other healthy behaviors. In other words, the position that vegetable oils are superior and “heart healthy” is largely based on very weak observational associations.

If you’re interested in learning more about the problems with inferring causation from observational studies, have a look at our guide.

Before replacing butter and other natural fats with vegetable oils, we recommend looking for better evidence from carefully designed clinical trials!

Randomized clinical trials (RCTs) are considered the “gold standard” for evidence. And meta-analyses that pool the evidence from several RCTs provide the strongest, best quality of evidence.

At least five of these recent meta-analyses of RCTs find no link between vegetable oils and death due to heart disease.

However, a few other recent meta-analyses suggest that vegetable oils might reduce heart disease risk, though the effect is fairly small.

How can different meta-analyses come up with slightly different answers like this? It depends on many factors, including upon which underlying clinical trials the authors of the review include, what other type of fat is included in the diet, the population in question, the length of follow-up of the study and many other factors.

For example, some meta-analyses exclude large RCTs like the Minnesota Coronary Experiment and the Sydney Diet Heart Study. These studies found that diets higher in vegetable oils and lower in saturated fat did indeed lower total blood cholesterol. Yet the lower cholesterol level did not improve mortality rates.

In fact, in these two trials, the opposite was true. The groups who consumed more vegetable oil actually had higher death rates, despite their lower blood cholesterol levels.

However, these trials also have some significant deficiencies. For example, in the Minnesota Coronary Experiment, the diet included an artificially high amount of linoleic acid — more than is recommended by any government or health body.

In order to create this diet, they used lots of heavily processed foods which had other important dietary components like omega-3 fatty acids removed. In addition, the corn oil margarine which was used was created by hydrogenating the fat, which resulted in a high quantity of trans fat in the intervention group.

We now know that omega-3 fats are beneficial in the prevention of heart disease and that trans fats cause heart disease. So it’s possible that those were confounding factors in the study conclusions.

As we note in our saturated fat guide, it is very difficult for scientists to study the effect of nutrition on heart disease because heart disease develops over such a long period of time.

Long-term nutrition studies are especially challenging because you can never be sure that the people within the study are following the diet they were randomized to.

However, in the case of omega-6 and -3 fatty acids, scientists have an advantage, because you can measure the fatty acid composition of the body’s own cells as a measure of intake. We can then use these so-called “biomarkers” as objective markers of intake in prospective cohort studies. This helps to overcome a significant limitation of epidemiological nutrition studies, which typically rely on self-reported data.

Studies that do this find a beneficial association between serum linoleic acid and reduced cardiovascular disease mortality. Notably, getting sufficient omega-3 intake alongside the omega-6 is a key point noted by expert groups.

Nevertheless, any protective effect of vegetable oil or linoleic acid is not always consistent, and any effect observed in randomized controlled trials is generally weak.

It’s a bit confusing, isn’t it? The American Heart Association (AHA) bases its endorsements of vegetable oils on the purported link between lower LDL cholesterol levels and better heart health. But as shown, many of the clinical trials do not support that final step.

Do vegetable oils lower LDL cholesterol? Yes. Does that improve health outcomes that matter most to patients, i.e., does this prolong life, or save anyone from dying of heart disease? The answer from all these trials appears to be that the effect is either small or non-existent.

If vegetable oils are truly good for our heart health, why aren’t the RCTs more consistently showing that people who consume them consistently live longer lives?

Some scientists and doctors think that the unstable, easily oxidized PUFAs may play a role in the development of coronary heart disease. Yet this also remains to be proven in high-quality experimental studies, and antioxidant therapies don’t appear to reduce the risk of CHD in randomized trials.

What’s the bottom line? The science is still inconclusive. There is a lack of consistent evidence proving vegetable oils meaningfully improve heart health and all-cause mortality. Pragmatic advice for those concerned about vegetable oils for heart health can choose to consume whole, natural foods which contain linoleic acid alongside other healthy fats such as nuts, seeds, oily fish, avocado and olive oil

Do vegetable oils increase cancer risk?

As we struggle to understand cancer risk, diet is often identified as a key driver. But studies are all over the map. One observational trial (and the splashy headlines that follow) shows a particular food is protective; the next trial of the same food shows the opposite effect.

As with coronary heart disease, cancer develops over long periods of time. Cancer is also arguably less well understood than heart disease. Many cancers are also rarer than heart disease, which makes studying these cancers more difficult as you need a much larger sample size.

There are some observational studies showing associations between high omega-6 polyunsaturated fatty acid consumption and cancer. However, analyzing all observational studies together generally show no link between the two.

But remember, this is observational data, and we cannot assume causation from this weak evidence.

Ultimately, we must look to well-designed clinical trials for answers. There is little of this rigorous science available.

An older trial, conducted in a Los Angeles Veterans’ home in the late 60s, revealed increased cancer mortality among men eating the experimental diet that was heavy in vegetable oils. (This trial also showed lower CVD mortality for those replacing dairy fats with vegetable oils.)

But there were problems with the study, such as more heavy smokers in the control group, and subjects eating many meals away from the controlled institutional setting. We simply need more data to carefully evaluate vegetable oils and cancer risk.

Bottom line: We don’t yet know for sure if vegetable oils have any significant effect on cancer risk. There is no high-level evidence to suggest there is a significant risk.

Do vegetable oils affect mental health?

Some psychiatry experts have suggested that high omega-6 intake contributes to ADHD and depression. Psychiatrist Georgia Ede writes about this potential link, and the mechanisms she believes are behind it, on her website.

However, until clinical trials are completed, we just don’t know whether or not vegetable oils have contributed to the escalating rates of anxiety, attention disorders, and depression in recent decades.

Are vegetable oils contributing to the obesity and diabetes epidemics?

The rise of obesity and diabetes that we have seen over the last 40 years has been matched by an equally dramatic increase in vegetable oil consumption. Is there a connection, or is this just a coincidence?

Animal studies are numerous and mixed. But in humans, the science is scant.

A Cochrane review of clinical trials concluded that consuming more polyunsaturated fats likely has little or no effect on body weight. Overall, researchers found that increasing polyunsaturated fat intake (omega-3, omega-6, or both) led to a slight but significant gain of 0.76 kg (1.7 pounds), on average, over one to eight years.

The question of a causal link between vegetable oils and diabetes has yet to be carefully explored. A recent systematic review of clinical trials found that high intake of either omega-6 or omega-3 fatty acids failed to improve blood sugar control or reduce diabetes risk.

However, the majority of the trials looked at omega-3 supplementation, not omega-6s or vegetable oils. Long-term “food-based” trials are very difficult to carry out, as people typically revert to their normal intake over time. This is one of the reasons why most long-term trials fail to find any effect.

There are a number of shorter-term trials which do show benefit of replacing saturated fat with vegetable-oil-derived foods on important markers for type 2 diabetes. For instance, in well-controlled feeding studies, replacing saturated fat with omega-6 polyunsaturated fat improves insulin sensitivity and lowers abdominal and liver fat.

Omega-6-rich fats also appear to protect against fat storage in the liver during overfeeding. For example, overconsuming palm oil (saturated fat) but not sunflower oil (omega-6) increases liver fat in lean and overweight individuals.

Even in the context of a ketogenic diet, one five-day study showed getting more fat from PUFAs at the expense of saturated fat increased ketosis and improved insulin sensitivity.

Because each of these studies was short-term, we don’t know whether the effects last over time. And while many of these studies suggest that consuming omega-6 fats in place of saturated fats may be beneficial, the actual improvement is very small.

So how do you navigate all this uncertainty? See our conclusion below.