Herbalism (also herbal medicine or phytotherapy) is the study of botany and use of plants intended for medicinal purposes or for supplementing a diet. Plants have been the basis for medical treatments through much of human history, and such traditional medicine is still widely practiced today. Modern medicine recognizes herbalism as a form of alternative medicine, as the practice of herbalism is not strictly based on evidence gathered using the scientific method. Modern medicine makes use of many plant-derived compounds as the basis for evidence-based pharmaceutical drugs. Although phytotherapy may apply modern standards of effectiveness testing to herbs and medicines derived from natural sources, few high-quality clinical trials and standards for purity or dosage exist. The scope of herbal medicine is sometimes extended to include fungal and bee products, as well as minerals, shells and certain animal parts.

History

Archaeological evidence indicates that the use of medicinal plants dates back to the Paleolithic age, approximately 60,000 years ago. Written evidence of herbal remedies dates back over 5,000 years, to the Sumerians, who compiled lists of plants. A number of ancient cultures wrote about plants and their medical uses in books called herbals. In ancient Egypt, herbs are mentioned in Egyptian medical papyri, depicted in tomb illustrations, or on rare occasions found in medical jars containing trace amounts of herbs. Among the oldest, lengthiest, and most important medical papyri of ancient Egypt, the Ebers Papyrus dates from about 1550 BC, and covers more than 700 drugs, mainly of plant origin. The earliest known Greek herbals come from Theophrastus of Eresos who in the 4th c. B.C. wrote in Greek Historia Plantarum, from Diocles of Carystus who wrote during the 3rd century B.C, and from Krateuas who wrote in the 1st century B.C. Only a few fragments of these works have survived intact, but from what remains scholars have noted a large amount of overlap with the Egyptian herbals. Seeds likely used for herbalism have been found in archaeological sites of Bronze Age China dating from the Shang Dynasty (c. 1600 BC–c. 1046 BC). Over a hundred of the 224 drugs mentioned in the Huangdi Neijing, an early Chinese medical text, are herbs. Herbs also commonly featured in the medicine of ancient India, where the principal treatment for diseases was diet. De Materia Medica, originally written in Greek by Pedanius Dioscorides (c. 40 – 90 AD) of Anazarbus, Cilicia, a Greek physician, pharmacologist and botanist, is a particularly important example of herbal writing; it dominated for some 1500 years until the 1600s.

Modern herbal medicine

The World Health Organization (WHO) estimates that 80 percent of the population of some Asian and African countries presently use herbal medicine for some aspect of primary health care. Pharmaceuticals are prohibitively expensive for most of the world's population, half of whom lived on less than $2 U.S. per day in 2002.In comparison, herbal medicines can be grown from seed or gathered from nature for little or no cost.

Many of the pharmaceuticals currently available to physicians have a long history of use as herbal remedies, including opium, aspirin, digitalis, and quinine. According to the World Health Organization, approximately 25% of modern drugs used in the United States have been derived from plants. At least 7,000 medical compounds in the modern pharmacopoeia are derived from plants. Among the 120 active compounds currently isolated from the higher plants and widely used in modern medicine today, 80% show a positive correlation between their modern therapeutic use and the traditional use of the plants from which they are derived.

Clinical tests

In a 2010 global survey of the most common 1000 plant-derived compounds, only 156 had clinical trials published. Preclinical studies (cell culture and animal studies) were reported for about one-half of the plant products, while 12% of the plants, although available in the Western market, had "no substantial studies" of their properties. Strong evidence was found that 5 were toxic or allergenic, so that their use ought to be discouraged or forbidden. Nine plants with evidence of therapeutic effect included Althaea officinalis, Calendula officinalis, Centella asiatica, Echinacea purpurea, Passiflora incarnata, Punica granatum, Vaccinium macrocarpon, Vaccinium myrtillus, and Valeriana officinalis.

In 2015, the Australian Government's Department of Health published the results of a review of alternative therapies that sought to determine if any were suitable for being covered by health insurance; Herbalism was one of 17 topics evaluated for which no clear evidence of effectiveness was found.

According to Cancer Research UK, "there is currently no strong evidence from studies in people that herbal remedies can treat, prevent or cure cancer".

Establishing guidelines to assess safety and efficacy of herbal products, the European Medicines Agency provides criteria for evaluating and grading the quality of clinical research in preparing monographs about herbal products.

In the United States, the National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health of the National Institutes of Health funds clinical trials on herbal compounds, provides fact sheets evaluating the safety, potential effectiveness and side effects of many plant sources, and maintains a registry of clinical research conducted on herbal products.

Prevalence of use

The use of herbal remedies is more prevalent in patients with chronic diseases such as cancer, diabetes, asthma and end-stage renal disease. Multiple factors such as gender, age, ethnicity, education and social class are also shown to have association with prevalence of herbal remedies use.

A survey released in May 2004 by the National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health focused on who used complementary and alternative medicines (CAM), what was used, and why it was used. The survey was limited to adults, aged 18 years and over during 2002, living in the United States. According to this survey, herbal therapy, or use of natural products other than vitamins and minerals, was the most commonly used CAM therapy (18.9%) when all use of prayer was excluded.

Herbal remedies are very common in Europe. In Germany, herbal medications are dispensed by apothecaries (e.g., Apotheke). Prescription drugs are sold alongside essential oils, herbal extracts, or herbal teas. Herbal remedies are seen by some as a treatment to be preferred to pure medical compounds that have been industrially produced.

In India the herbal remedy is so popular that the government of India has created a separate department—AYUSH—under the Ministry of Health & Family Welfare. The National Medicinal Plants Board was also established in 2000 by the Indian government in order to deal with the herbal medical system.

Herbal preparations

There are many forms in which herbs can be administered, the most common of which is in the form of a liquid that is drunk by the patient—either an herbal tea or a (possibly diluted) plant extract.

Several methods of standardization may be determining the amount of herbs used. One is the ratio of raw materials to solvent. However different specimens of even the same plant species may vary in chemical content. For this reason, thin layer chromatography is sometimes used by growers to assess the content of their products before use. Another method is standardization on a signal chemical.

Leaves of Eucalyptus olida being packed into a steam distillation unit to gather its essential oil.

Herbal teas, or tisanes, are the resultant liquid of extracting herbs into water, though they are made in a few different ways. Infusions are hot water extracts of herbs, such as chamomile or mint, through steeping. Decoctions are the long-term boiled extracts, usually of harder substances like roots or bark. Maceration is the old infusion of plants with high mucilage-content, such as sage, thyme, etc. To make macerates, plants are chopped and added to cold water. They are then left to stand for 7 to 12 hours (depending on herb used). For most macerates 10 hours is used.

Tinctures are alcoholic extracts of herbs, which are generally stronger than herbal teas.Tinctures are usually obtained by combining 100% pure ethanol (or a mixture of 100% ethanol with water) with the herb. A completed tincture has an ethanol percentage of at least 25% (sometimes up to 90%). Herbal wine and elixirs are alcoholic extract of herbs, usually with an ethanol percentage of 12–38%.[38] Extracts include liquid extracts, dry extracts, and nebulisates. Liquid extracts are liquids with a lower ethanol percentage than tinctures. They are usually made by vacuum distilling tinctures. Dry extracts are extracts of plant material that are evaporated into a dry mass. They can then be further refined to a capsule or tablet.

The exact composition of an herbal product is influenced by the method of extraction. A tea will be rich in polar components because water is a polar solvent. Oil on the other hand is a non-polar solvent and it will absorb non-polar compounds. Alcohol lies somewhere in between.

A herb shop in the souk of Marrakesh, Morocco

Many herbs are applied topically to the skin in a variety of forms. Essential oil extracts can be applied to the skin, usually diluted in a carrier oil. Many essential oils can burn the skin or are simply too high dose used straight; diluting them in olive oil or another food grade oil such as almond oil can allow these to be used safely as a topical. Salves, oils, balms, creams and lotions are other forms of topical delivery mechanisms. Most topical applications are oil extractions of herbs. Taking a food grade oil and soaking herbs in it for anywhere from weeks to months allows certain phytochemicals to be extracted into the oil. This oil can then be made into salves, creams, lotions, or simply used as an oil for topical application. Many massage oils, antibacterial salves, and wound healing compounds are made this way.

Inhalation, as in aromatherapy, can be used as a treatment.

Practitioners of herbalism

A herbalist gathers the flower heads of Arnica montana.

Herbalists must learn many skills, including the wildcrafting or cultivation of herbs, diagnosis and treatment of conditions or dispensing herbal medication, and preparations of herbal medications. Education of herbalists varies considerably in different areas of the world. Lay herbalists and traditional indigenous medicine people generally rely upon apprenticeship and recognition from their communities in lieu of formal schooling.

In some countries formalized training and minimum education standards exist, although these are not necessarily uniform within or between countries. For example, in Australia the currently self-regulated status of the profession (as of April 2008) results in different associations setting different educational standards, and subsequently recognising an educational institution or course of training. The National Herbalists Association of Australia is generally recognised as having the most rigorous professional standard within Australia. In the United Kingdom, the training of medical herbalists is done by state funded Universities. For example, Bachelor of Science degrees in herbal medicine are offered at Universities such as University of East London, Middlesex University, University of Central Lancashire, University of Westminster, University of Lincoln and Napier University in Edinburgh at the present.

A

Aconitum anthora

Aconite (Aconitum spp.

Also called: aconitum, monkshood, wolfsbane, leopard's bane, mousebane, women's bane, devil's helmet, Queen of all Poisons, blue rocket

Usage

In traditional Chinese medicine (TCM): many species are used as a general panacea, including as a diaphoretic, diuretic, arthritic, sedative, alterative, and deobstruent, and for rheumatism, bruises, arthritis, acute hypothermia, diarrhea, impotence, and yang imbalance.

In Western herbal medicine: A. napellus) for pain relief, fever reduction, sedation. ) for pain relief, fever reduction, sedation.

There isn't enough evidence to know if it's good for anything.

Harmful effects:

Aconite is very poisonous, and ingestion may lead to nausea, vomiting, weakness, sweating, breathing problems, heart problems, and death. (Indeed, aconite was, and sometimes is, used as a poison.)

Topical use can also cause severe side effects.

Aloe vera

Aloe Aloe vera)

Also called: Aloë, true aloe, in TCM: lúhuì ( 蘆薈

Usage'

In TCM: although not native to China, it is used as an anthelmintic, stomachic, and laxative, and for ecsema.

In Western herbal medicine: softening and smoothing skin (topical), purgative (oral), and wound healing (topical)

Beneficial effects: It is effective for topical application to treat minor burns and some skin problems, but may possibly be too dangerous to use internally as a laxative for constipation. Aloe was formerly promoted by some CAM practitioners as a cancer treatment, but it is ineffective, and some patients died after receiving aloe injections.

Harmful effects: A cancer study of aloe vera extract in rats and mice found that it "caused cancers of the large intestine in male and female rats and also caused hyperplasia of the large intestine, small intestine, stomach, and lymph nodes in male and female rats. Aloe vera extract also caused hyperplasia of the large intestine in male and female mice and hyperplasia of the mesenteric lymph node in male mice and hyperplasia of the stomach in female mice."

Scutellaria lateriflora

American skullcap Scutellaria lateriflora)

Also called: blue skullcap, mad dog skullcap

Claimed to: Be good for tension, anxiety, insomnia, neurasthenia, panic, headaches, fatigue, depression, melancholy, convulsions, jerking muscles, epilepsy, wobbliness, heart trembles, depression, arthritis, fever, snake bites, diuresis, sedation, increasing vigor, rabies, and for PMS when used with chaste tree ( Vitex agnus-castus ) or false unicorn ( Chamaelirium luteum ).

Research: Not much research has been done on the herb, so these claims can't be evaluated.

Harmful effects: High doses can cause giddiness, stupor, mental confusion, twitching, irregular heartbeat, and seizures. American skullcap has, on occasion, been contaminated with germander, which can cause liver damage. American skullcap has been implicated in some cases of liver damage.

Arnica montana

Arnica Arnica montana, also known as "Leopard's Bane" or "Dog's Bane") , also known as "Leopard's Bane" or "Dog's Bane")

Claimed to: Help skin problems (not effective), , induce perspiration, diuresis, expectoration, wound healing, and be a stimulant

Harmful effects:

Topical arnica is generally safe, but "repeated use can cause skin reactions, severe inflammation, itching, blisters, skin ulcers, and other allergy-related skin problems," especially when used on broken skin.

Arnica is extremely toxic when ingested and shouldn't be taken internally.

Panax ginseng roots for sale

Asian ginseng (Panax ginseng); in TCM: rénshēn ( 人參

P. quinquefolius ) is believed by herbalists to have the same constituents as P. ginseng but to be less efficacious than P. ginseng . American ginseng () is believed by herbalists to have the same constituents asbut to be less efficacious than

Claimed to: be a wonder plant and cure everything.

Beneficial effects: and ," but not in young adults. Ginseng is effective for erectile dysfunction and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease symptoms. A specific cream containing ginseng can help with premature ejaculation. When used with ginkgo leaf extract (see Ginkgo below), ginseng may "improve memory in otherwise healthy people between the ages ofand ," but not in young adults.

Harmful effects:

Side effects may include insomnia, or, more rarely, menstrual problems, breast pain, increased heart rate, high or low blood pressure, headache, loss of appetite, diarrhea, itching, rash, dizziness, mood changes, vaginal bleeding, Stevens-Johnson syndrome (a severe rash), liver damage, severe allergic reactions , mania and psychosis

Panax ginseng contains a substance that has been found to cause birth defects in animals.

B

Ocimum basilicum

Basil (Ocimum basilicum); in TCM: luólè ( 羅勒 ):

Usage: vaginal steaming

Claimed to: reduce spasms, help expel farts, increase milk production, and it's tasty! It has also been said to be spiritually cleansing.

Beneficial effects: In vitro, has been shown to be antioxidant, antiviral, and antimicrobial. No clinical studies, yet, however.

Harmful effects: Lowers blood pressure and prevents clotting, which situationally might be good but is often bad. Little efficacy otherwise.

Vaccinium myrtillus

Bilberry (Vaccinium spp.)

Also called: blaeberry, whortleberry, hurts, ground hurts, whinberry, winberry, windberry, wimberry, myrtle blueberry and fraughan

Claimed to: V. myrtillus is claimed to be an antiseptic and astringent; it is used for diarrhea, as a mouthwash, for skin problems and for burns. be good for eye problems and night vision. Not effective for either. is claimed to be an antiseptic and astringent; it is used for diarrhea, as a mouthwash, for skin problems and for burns.

Safety ratings: cause diarrhea Prescribed for diarrhea and inflammation in Germany (but candiarrhea

Harmful effects: Small doses are safe. Some negative interaction with prescribed anticoagulants.

Areca catechu

Betelnut (Areca catechu

Also called: areca nut, paan; in TCM: bīnláng ( 檳榔

Preparation: Areca nuts are usually wrapped with Piper betel leaves and/or slaked lime (calcium hydroxide) and/or tobacco. The concoction is ingested.

Usage: traditional Chinese medicine for deworming, antiparasitic, malaria prophylaxis, and "foul-smelling" diseases. Used in Southeast Asia to colourblacken teeth. It's also apparently "widely used in Ayurveda".

Harmful effects:

Prolonged use can lead to mouth, liver, cervical, stomach, prostate, lung, and sweat gland cancer.

Other side effects of betel nut/leaf include skin color changes, dilated pupils, blurred vision, wheezing/difficulty breathing, increased breathing rate, salivation, increased tearing, incontinence, sweating, diarrhea, fever, confusion, problems with eye movement, psychosis, amnesia, stimulant effects, and a feeling of euphoria. It can also cause dependence, and withdrawal can cause anxiety or memory lapse. Betel nut chewing can cause nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, stomach cramps, chest pain, irregular heartbeats, high or low blood pressure, and irregular heart beats.

Usage may be associated with other diseases (HIV/AIDS, dengue fever, tuberculosis, and typhoid) due to immunosuppression, injury to the oral mucosa, and associated fecal-oral contamination of the betel quid ingredients.

A. californica

Birthwort Aristolochia spp.) spp.)

See the main article on this topic: Aristolochia

Also called: pipevine, Dutchman's pipe

Usage: Ninety-nine species have been documented to be used ethnobotanically worldwide, so usage would tend to be that of a panacea overall. Some of the main usages are:

Traditional Chinese Medicine for various things, including eczema

A. indica ) Ayurveda (

A. clematitis for promoting sweating, menstruation, reducing fever, inducing childbirth, and stimulation. Western herbal medicine, particularlyfor promoting sweating, menstruation, reducing fever, inducing childbirth, and stimulation.

Harmful effects:

It contains aristolochic acid, (AA) which is a known human carcinogen, and causes kidney failure and upper urinary tract cancer.

Birthwort is considered to be a significant cause of kidney failure and upper urinary tract cancer in Taiwan, because of the popularity of herbal medicine there (approximately % of Taiwan's herbal medicine prescriptions contain aristolochic acid, and AA has been ingested by approximately % of Taiwan's population.) The Taiwanese Department of Health banned its use in cosmetics and commercial skincare preparations in .

In Belgium, a weight loss spa using TCM herbs gave its clients herbal supplements containing birthwort, and as a result, more than out of of its patients developed kidney failure, and several also developed urothelial and bladder cancers. Because Traditional Chinese Medicine allows for the substitution of identically or similarly named plants, plants that are botanically unrelated may be substituted. In this case, the relatively safe Stephania tetrandra ( 漢防己 , Han Fang Ji) was intended for the clients, but the lethal Aristolochia fangchi ( 廣防己 , Guang Fang Ji) was given to the clients.

European birthwort ( Aristolochia clematitis ) is also used as a medicinal plant and contains aristolochic acid. It has been linked to thousands of cases of kidney failure (Balkan endemic nephropathy ) in Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Croatia, Romania and Serbia.

The true number of cases of aristolochic acid nephropathy (usually fatal) is unknown and is probably underestimated.

Citrus × aurantium

Bitter orange Citrus × aurantium)

Also called: Seville orange, sour orange, bigarade orange, marmalade orange

Claimed to: help expel farts, be a stimulant, aid the stomach, also used as a general tonic

Beneficial effects: May be effective as a topical treatment for fungus infections.

Harmful effects: Internal use may increase risk of high blood pressure, fainting, heart attack, stroke, and other severe side effects, especially if taken with caffeine. The essential oil is phototoxic ; topical use of the undiluted essential oil can cause phytophotodermatitis upon exposure to UV light.

Juglans nigra outer husk

Black walnut Juglans nigra)

Also called: eastern black walnut

Claimed to: be good for killing parasites (such as worms), and treating acne, thyroid disease, colitis, eczema, hemorrhoids, ringworm, sore throats, tonsillitis, skin irritations, wounds, and curing cancer.

Effects: Unfortunately, there is insufficient research to determine what side effects it has or whether it is effective for anything.

Actaea racemosa

Black cohosh Actaea racemosa)

Also called: black bugbane, black snakeroot, fairy candle

Claimed to: reduce spasms, contract tissues, increase urination, increase menstruation, increase mucous, and be a sedative

Harmful effects: may include stomach upset, cramping, headache, rash, a feeling of heaviness, vaginal spotting or bleeding, and weight gain.

Vachellia rigidula

Blackbrush Acacia Vachellia rigidula)

Also called: Acacia rigidula chaparro prieto,

Usage: Weight loss dietary supplements

Harmful effects: N,N-dimethyltryptamine, mescaline, β-methylphenylethylamine, and different amphetamines), study by the FDA found that % of blackbrush acacia supplements were contaminated with the amphetamine isomer β-methylphenylethylamine (BMPEA), which is not found in natural blackbrush acacia. One research group reported an unprecedentedly wide variety of psychoactive alkaloids in blackbrush acacia (including nicotine,-dimethyltryptamine, mescaline, β-methylphenylethylamine, anddifferent amphetamines), suggesting that the laboratory might have had contamination problems. study by the FDA found that % of blackbrush acacia supplements were contaminated with the amphetamine isomer β-methylphenylethylamine (BMPEA), which is not found in natural blackbrush acacia. Subsequently, the FDA warned supplement manufacturers to cease selling BMPEA because it is not natural. On May , , the first adverse event from BMPEA as a weight loss supplement was reported in Sweden: a woman had a stroke associated with her BMPEA consumption.

C

Uncaria gambir

Cat's claw (Uncaria spp. species)) (approx.species))

Claimed to: cure HIV, cancer, viral infections (such as herpes simplex), tremors, fever reduction, high blood pressure, Alzheimer's disease, chronic fatigue syndrome, and almost everything.

Preparation: The inner bark and/or root of is/are used to make liquid extracts, capsules, and teas. Preparations can also be applied to the skin.

Popularity: Cat's claw was ranked as the seventh most popular herb in U.S. sales in .

Research: There is not enough scientific evidence to determine whether cat's claw works for any health condition.

Beneficial effects:

Small studies in humans have shown a possible benefit of cat's claw in osteoarthritis and rheumatoid arthritis, but no large trials have been done.

In laboratory studies, cat's claw stimulates part of the immune system, but it has not been proven to reduce inflammation or boost the immune system in humans.

The National Institute on Aging funded a study that looked at how cat's claw may affect the brain. Findings may point to new avenues for research in Alzheimer's disease treatment.

Harmful effects:

It may have an unwanted effect on blood pressure.

Chelidonium majus

Greater Celandine Chelidonium majus)

Usage: Everything.

Useful for: Nothing.

Harmful effects:

May cause hepatitis.

Ranunculus ficaria

Lesser Celandine Ranunculus ficaria)

A buttercup-like plant unrelated to the greater celandine, one of the poppy family

Usage: treating piles

Harmful effects: rare cases of hepatitis after use.

Chamomile or camomile (Asteraceae family)

Usage: Vaginal steaming

There are many species called chamomile, each with some level of distinct chemical properties. Despite this, chamomile is routinely treated as a single herb and proscribed as such. The two most common species are:

Matricaria nobilis (Roman chamomile) and M. chamomilla (German chamomile) Two species are most commonly used,(Roman chamomile) and(German chamomile)

Larrea divaricata

Chaparral (Larrea divaricata) and L. tridentata

Usage: L. tridentata is often an ingredient in the quack cancer cure Cansema. lots of things, including treating cancer. is often an ingredient in the quack cancer cure Cansema.

Harmful effects: Chaparral is not effective for cancer and not known to be effective for anything else, either. One CAM site claims it's good for lots of unrelated illnesses and only has "temporary unpleasant side effects", but, actually, it can cause fatal liver damage and kidney failure. Other side effects may include fatigue, stomach pain, diarrhea, weight loss, fever, itching, rash, and allergic reactions. Despite the title of that old cowboy serial, Chaparral cannot get you high.

Chrysanthemum × morifolium

Chrysanthemum Asteraceae family) family)

In TCM: Jú ( 菊 Aster trinervius ( mǎ lán , .) 馬嵐 ) is used to treat hemorrhaging, animal poisoning, malaria, and a disease called 沙 shā ) (literally, "sand disease"). Chrysanthemum sinense ( ) (literally, "sand disease"). 菊花 júhuā ) is used for many diseases. ) is used for many diseases.

Insufficient research to evaluate efficacy. Chrysanthemum can cause the skin to be more sensitive to the sun.

Cinnamomum cassia bark

Cinnamon Cinnamomum spp.) spp.)

C. cassia , a.k.a. Chinese cinnamon. Most of the health studies have been on true cinnamon ( C. verum ). Most of the spice sold in the U.S. as culinary cinnamon is from the species, a.k.a. Chinese cinnamon. Most of the health studies have been on true cinnamon ().

In TCM: several species of Cinnamomum ( zhāng , 樟 C. camphora (camphor); C. cassia C. japonicum , C. loureiroi , C. obtusifolium and C. pedunculatum . li ( miles) in a day, and lift a weight of one thousand chin (, pounds)." ) are used:(camphor);and It is used as a stomachic, stimulant, carminative, astringent, sedative, and tonic. It is used for colic, excessive sweating, postpartum difficulties and hair treatments. It was said that "if cassia was taken with toad's brains for seven years, one could walk on the surface of the water and never grow old or die; and Chao, the hunch-back, took the drug continuously for twenty years, with the result that hair grew on the bottom of his feet; he was able to walk five hundred( miles) in a day, and lift a weight of one thousand(, pounds)."

Claims: Lowers LDL cholestrol, maintains blood sugar, promotes appetite for elderly and sick, antioxidant, anti-microbial, anti-bacterial, stops tumor growth, anti inflammatory, arthritis, hair loss and bladder infections, colds, upset stomach, and even pimples.

Truth: Apparently, it really does stop tumor growth — when it is injected into tumors in mice. Clearly, it's not really a home remedy. The indications are quite good that it has an effect on blood sugar, however the details remain unknown. None of the other claims seem to hold up, however.

Syzygium aromaticum dried flower buds of

Cloves Syzygium aromaticum)

In TCM: Dīngxiāng , 丁香 It is used for nasal polyps, ulcers, cracked nipples, carious teeth, and scorpion stings.

In Western herbal medicine: topical anesthesia in pre-modern dentistry. Also used as an antimetic and antiseptic.

Harmful effects: Large amounts of cloves or clove oil may cause nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain, diarrhea, burns in the mouth and throat, sore throat, seizures, difficulty breathing, rapid heartbeat, sleepiness, intestinal bleeding, and liver or kidney failure. More serious side effects may occur in children, even when small amounts are used. "Excessive application of undiluted clove oil on or near the teeth may cause irritation or damage to the gums or mouth and may damage the dental pulp, the soft core of the tooth, made up of living soft tissue and cells. … Undiluted clove oil may cause skin irritation, rashes, or even burns. Clove oil can cause blindness in laboratory animals, so keep clove preparations away from the eyes."

Erythroxylon coca

Coca leaves Erythroxylon coca)

See the main article on this topic: Coca

Usage: nasal congestion in powdered form pain relief and altitude sickness in the Andes. Coca regulates carbohydrate metabolism and normalizes body functions. Otherwise known as cocaine when refined, though the unrefined leaf isn't addictive. Side effects include turning into a yuppie, or a celebrity.

Endorsed by: Pope Leo XIII (coca-infused Vin Mariani) , also enjoyed by Pope Pius X (Vin Mariani) and Pope John Paul II (coca tea) . Pope Francis begged off the healthful coca and instead imbibed in the carcinogenic maté for his visit to the Andes.

Not to be confused with cocoa or coconuts.

Tussilago farfara

Coltsfoot Tussilago farfara)

In TCM: Kuǎndōng ( 款冬 ). It is used as an expectorant in apoplexy, phthisis, coughs, and asthma, and as a demulcent in fevers.

In Western herbal medicine: expectoration, soothing mucous membranes, reducing discharges, skin softening, and for coughs. Coltsfoot cigarettes are used for asthma.

Efficacy: Not enough research has been done to evaluate efficacy.

Harmful effects: Can cause liver damage leading to cancer and death. Coltsfoot naturally contains pyrrolizidine alkaloids, which are carcinogenic. Coltsfoot supplements that are labeled "PA-free" (meaning without pyrrolizidine alkaloids) are perhaps better, but their safety is unknown.

Symphytum officinale

Comfrey Symphytum officinale)

Usage: pain relief, secretion reduction, soothing and softening tissues, bleeding reduction, cooling and wound healing; it is used internally for stomach problems and topically for wounds. Several randomized controlled trials have confirmed efficacy for treatment of pain, contusions and sprains.

Harmful effects: Can cause liver damage leading to cancer and death. Comfrey contains compounds called pyrrolizidine alkaloids (PA), which have been shown by animal studies to cause liver tumours, so the plant may also cause cancer in humans. In humans, comfrey has been associated with veno-occlusive liver disease. Even topical use may lead to a dangerous build-up in the body of some of the herb's poisonous substances, so long-term use is not advised. Oral comfrey products are banned in the U.K., Australia, Canada, and Germany. Due to the danger of PA, only commerically-produced PA-free comfrey products should be consumed.

Sida cordifolia

Country mallow Sida cordifolia)

Not enough research to evaluate efficacy. Used in Ayurvedic medicine.

Harmful effects: Country mallow contains ephedrine, which is also found in ephedra, and may cause ephedrine-related side effects like high blood pressure, heart attacks, muscle disorders, seizures, strokes, irregular heartbeat, loss of consciousness, and death. Other side effects may include dizziness, restlessness, irritability, insomnia, headache, lack of appetite, nausea, vomiting, flushing, tingling, difficulty urinating, kidney stones, and pounding heartbeat. May make anxiety, thyroid problems, and angina worse.

D

Taraxacum officinale

Dandelion Taraxacum spp.) spp.)

Also called: pissabed

In TCM: púgōngyīng ( 蒲公英 ). Used as a tonic, and for abscesses and swellings, carious teeth, and snake bites.

In Western herbal medicine: Known to be an effective diuretic, claimed to help with digestive and liver problems, but there has been no serious research of these claimed effects. The entire plant is edible.

The plant has no known harmful side effects aside from its diuretic properties, which may interfere with certain medications, and/or cause increased frequency of changing pajamas and bedsheets.

Datura : See Jimson weed

Digitalis : See Foxgloves

Harpagophytum procumbens

Devil's claw Harpagophytum procumbens)

Usage: Effective for osteoarthritis pain. Insufficient study has been done to evaluate its effectiveness for anything else.

Harmful effects: Side effects may include diarrhea, nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain, headaches, ringing in the ears, loss of appetite, and loss of taste. Other side effects may include allergic skin reactions, menstrual problems, and changes in blood pressure. Use of devil's claw during pregnancy is not advised, as it may harm the fetus.

Angelica sinensis

Dong quai (Angelica sinensis); 當歸

Usage: traditional Chinese medicine.

Harmful effects: weeks before surgery. It may be dangerous to take dong quai in large amounts for a long time because it contains carcinogens. Dong quai can cause skin to be more sensitive to sunlight, thus possibly increasing the risk of skin cancer. It may or may not act like estrogen in the body. It can slow blood clotting and increase the risk of bleeding, and so should not be taken less thanweeks before surgery. Dong quai may increase the risk of miscarriage.

E

Echinacea purpurea

Echinacea (Echinacea spp.)

Usage: Claimed to be effective for supporting the immune system and preventing and treating colds and flus. It isn't.

E. angustifolia is used as an antispetic, blood cleanser, and to help digestion.

Harmful effects: Side effects may include headache, dizziness, nausea, constipation, abdominal pain, and rash.

Eleutherococcus senticosus

Eleuthero Eleutherococcus senticosus)

Usage: Like many other herbs, eleuthero is promoted for a wide variety of unrelated conditions. There is no evidence to support its effectiveness in treating anything.

Harmful effects: Side effects may include headache, diarrhea, nervousness, trouble sleeping, raised blood pressure and increased heart rate.

Beneficial effects: It may also lower blood sugar levels. "Eleuthero may alter the amount of time it takes for bleeding to stop."

Ephedra sinica

Ephedra Ephedra spp.) spp.)

Also called: Ephedra sinica is used in traditional Chinese medicine and is known as má huáng ( 麻黃 Ephedra , known as "desert tea" or "Mormon tea", have been used by Native Americans and Mormons in the western United States. ). Other species of, known as "desert tea" or "Mormon tea", have been used by Native Americans and Mormons in the western United States.

In traditional Chinese medicine: It is used for promoting sweating and the treatment of upper respiratory tract infections during winter. Studies done on the active chemicals of Ephedra/ma huang demonstrates that it speeds the metabolism, thus, the reason for its use and abuse as a performance-enhancing drug by athletes and for weight loss.

In Western herbal medicine: Mormon tea is used for increasing urination, reducing fever, for kidney and bladder problems, and for syphilis.

Harmful effects: Side effects may include dizziness, restlessness, anxiety, irritability, heart pounding, headache, loss of appetite, nausea, vomiting, hypertension, insomnia, arrhythmia, nervousness, tremor, seizure, cerebrovascular event, myocardial infarction, kidney stones, high blood pressure, heart attacks, muscle disorders, seizures, strokes, irregular heartbeat, loss of consciousness, death, and others.

Dietary supplements containing ephedra are banned in the U.S. because they pose "an unreasonable risk to health".

European birthwort Aristolochia clematitis): See birthwort ): See birthwort

Oenothera biennis

Evening primrose oil Oenothera spp.) spp.)

Usage: Used for treatment of coughs and colds, depression, and skin irritation. Useless for eczema, but may help with breast pain. Insufficient evidence for any other conditions.

Harmful effects: Side effects may include upset stomach, nausea, diarrhea, and headache.

Euphrasia alpina

Eyebright Euphrasia spp.) spp.)

Usage: Used for eye problems.

Harmful effects: Side effects may include confusion, headache, tearing, itching, redness, vision problems, sneezing, nausea, toothache, constipation, cough, trouble breathing, trouble sleeping (insomnia), sweating, and others.

F

Female ginseng : See Dong quai

Foeniculum vulgare

Fennel Foeniculum vulgare)

Usage: Used to increase appetite, relieve colic, reduce abdominal cramps and farting, and to expel mucous.

Not enough research done to evaluate claims.

Tanacetum parthenium

Feverfew Tanacetum parthenium)

Usage: Effective mild painkiller. MedlinePlus Supplements notes that "Some feverfew tablet products can contain little or no feverfew." Used to reduce farting, increase menstruation, empty the bowels, and for stimulation.

Harmful effects: Side effects may include upset stomach, heartburn, diarrhea, constipation, bloating, flatulence, nausea, and vomiting. Other reported side effects include nervousness, dizziness, headache, trouble sleeping, joint stiffness, tiredness, menstrual changes, rash, pounding heart, and weight gain. Chewing raw feverfew may lead to mouth ulcers, loss of taste, and swelling of the lips, tongue, and mouth.

Digitalis purpurea

Foxglove Digitalis spp.) spp.)

Usage: but: Used for heart problems. Is effective,

Whether or not a given quantity of digitalis contains enough digoxin to lead to an overdose depends on the individual plant(s) it's from (each individual plant (even in the same species) has a different digoxin content) so those using digitalis are effectively playing Russian roulette. There is no way of knowing if one pill is good, or if it will lead to an overdose and kill you. As Encyclopedia.com puts it:

Foxglove is no longer used as a heart medicine because the therapeutic dose and the lethal dose are very close. Seasonal variations in the level of cardiac glycosides in the plant make the safe dose impossible to estimate except by an experienced physician and prescriber of the herb who monitors the patient on an hourly basis for signs of overdose. Few living doctors and herbalists can safely use digitalis as a plant extract. Specific standardized doses of pharmaceutical digoxin are used instead.

The solution is to use pure digoxin, if prescribed by a doctor, because the doses are exactly measured.

Harmful effects: Side effects may include irregular heart function and death. Symptoms of digitalis overdose may include "stomach upset, small eye pupils, blurred vision, strong slow pulse, nausea, vomiting, dizziness, excessive urination, fatigue, muscle weakness and tremors, stupor, confusion, convulsions, abnormal heartbeats, and death. Long-term use of digitalis can lead to symptoms of toxicity, including visual halos, yellow-green vision, and stomach upset." "Even touching the plant with bare skin has been known to cause rashes, headache, and nausea."

G

Allium sativum

Garlic Allium sativum)

In traditional Chinese medicine: It is known as suàn ( 蒜 ). "The medicinal virtues of garlic are considered to be many. It is thought to have a special influence upon the spleen, stomach, and kidneys, acting as a sedative and removing poisons. It is supposed to correct the unwholesomeness of water, to destroy the noxious effect of putrid meat and fish, and to prevent goitre and pestilential diseases."

In Western herbal medicine: Used for constipation, poor digestion, intestinal worms, dysentery, cholera, typhoid and paratyphoid. Lowers blood cholesterol and blood pressure, Lowers blood sugar. Reduces risk of certain cancers. Fights minor viral infections such as cold and sore throat.

Truth:

Known antimicrobial effect in vitro, tests suggest some effect on throat infections in greater-than-typical amounts.

Cancer claims based on large-scale statistics of incidence and diet, probably bullshit.

A meta-analysis showed consistent evidence that garlic powder intake reduces the cardiovascular disease risk factors of total cholesterol, LDL cholesterol and blood pressure.

Garlic consumption increases cellular hydrogen sulfide (HS) production. Increased production of cellular HS is likely behind the life-extension effects of caloric restriction in animals.

Seductive effect on body odor well-documented and conclusive. Freshens breath for up to twelve hours.

Side effects:

Bad breath, a burning sensation in the mouth or stomach, heartburn, gas, nausea, vomiting, body odor, diarrhea, and an increased risk of bleeding.

"Asthma has been reported in people working with garlic, and other allergic reactions are possible."

Matricaria chamomilla

German chamomile Matricaria chamomilla)

Also called: camomile, Hungarian chamomile, wild chamomile, or scented mayweed. Is a subset of chamomile.

Used in: Vaginal steaming

Claimed to: calm frayed nerves, treat stomach problems, relieve muscle spasms, treat skin conditions, treat mild infections, treat chest colds, treat sore throats, treat abscesses, treat gingivitis, treat anxiety, treat insomnia, teat psoriasis, treat acne and eczema, treat first-degree burns, treat ulcerative colitis, treat stomach ulcers, treat chickenpox, treat diaper rash, and treat colic.

Beneficial effects:

Animal studies have shown that German chamomile reduces inflammation, speeds wound healing, reduces muscle spasms, and serves as a mild sedative to help with sleep. Test tube studies have shown that chamomile can kill bacteria, fungus, and viruses. Very few studies exist to see if the same is true in people.

One (out of one) controlled study suggests that chamomile may help reduce the effects of anxiety disorder.

Two studies suggest German chamomile may reduce eczema.

Non-reliable effects:

No large and reliable studies have shown chamomile to help with indigestion.

Studies report mixed results for German chamomile as prevention against mouth sores resulting from radiation or chemotherapy.

Harmful effects:

Considered "generally safe".

May be allergenic to those allergic to asters, daisies, chrysanthemums, or ragweed.

May cause miscarriage when pregnant. Do not take while pregnant or breastfeeding.

May worsen asthma.

Moderate sedative.

Thins the blood.

May lower blood sugar.

If too much is drunk, may cause vomiting.

May be dangerous to women with estrogen-sensitive conditions, such as cancer.

Interacts with the liver, potentially causing changes in other drugs.

Teucrium chamaedrys

Germander Teucrium spp.) spp.)

Claimed to: be effective for gout, fever, diarrhea, gallbladder problems, and claimed to be useful for weight loss and as an antiseptic. There is currently insufficient evidence to evaluate these claims.

May cause: hepatitis, cirrhosis, and death. A weight loss supplement sold in France that contained germander caused several cases of hepatitis, and because of this, the herb is banned in that country and others.

Ginkgo biloba

Ginkgo Ginkgo biloba)

In TCM: yínxìng ( 銀杏

O -methylpyridoxine (MPN) has never discouraged Asian people from eating them, though, it is advised to limit the seeds' consumption by children. The fleshy coating of the seeds can potentially cause irritating skin rashes if touched by sensitive people. The nut-like seeds of gingko have been consumed as both a food and as a medicine by the Chinese and other East Asian cultures for centuries. That the seeds are mildly toxic due to trace amounts of the compound '--methylpyridoxine (MPN) has never discouraged Asian people from eating them, though, it is advised to limit the seeds' consumption by children. The fleshy coating of the seeds can potentially cause irritating skin rashes if touched by sensitive people.

Ginkgo leaves contain flavonoid glycosides (myricetin and quercetin) and terpenoids (ginkgolides, bilobalides).

In Western medicine/herbalism, ginkgo is sold as a "memory aid" and a treatment for Alzheimer's disease. Studies show mixed results on efficacy, with a possibility of it being better than placebo.

A cancer study of ginkgo extract found that it "caused cancers of the thyroid gland in male and female rats and male mice and cancers of the liver in male and female mice."

Ginseng Panax spp.) spp.)

See Asian ginseng or Dong quai (female ginseng)

Hydrastis canadensis

Goldenseal Hydrastis canadensis)

Used for: vaginal douching, mouthwash, periodontal disease, congestion, laxative, stomach ailments, skin diseases, and nausea relief during pregnancy. Also used for "immune system boosting".

Effectiveness: The evidence doesn't suggest Goldenseal is effective for any condition.

Harmful effects: except during pregnancy or breastfeeding, since goldenseal might cause brain damage to the baby. Small doses may be fine,, since goldenseal might cause brain damage to the baby. "High doses may cause breathing problems, paralysis, and even death. Long-term use may lead to vitamin B deficiency, hallucinations, and delirium." It may also affect blood pressure unpredictably because it contains several different compounds that have opposite effects on blood pressure. It can also make you more sensitive to light. A cancer study of goldenseal root powder in mice and rats showed that it "caused cancer in the liver of male and female rats and male mice. There was no effect of goldenseal root powder on female mice."

Citrus × paradisi

Grapefruit seed extract Citrus × paradisi)

See the main article on this topic: Grapefruit seed extract

Claimed to: be a good disinfectant. This effect is due not to the grapefruit seed extract itself, which is not antimicrobial, but to contaminants/additives such as benzethonium chloride and triclosan, which are frequently found in grapefruit seed extract products.

Vitis vinifera seeds

Grape seed extract Vitis vinifera)

Good for chronic venous insufficiency and edema.

Side effects may include headache, itchy scalp, dizziness, and nausea.

Graviola

See soursop.

Camellia sinensis

Green tea Camellia sinensis)

See the main article on this topic: Green tea

In TCM: chá ( 茶

Used for weight loss.

Caffeine-related side effects may include headache, nervousness, sleep problems, vomiting, diarrhea, irritability, irregular heartbeat, tremor, heartburn, dizziness, ringing in the ears, convulsions, confusion, and reduced absorption of iron from food. Side effects may include stomach upset and constipation, and, in rare cases, liver damage. side effects may include headache, nervousness, sleep problems, vomiting, diarrhea, irritability, irregular heartbeat, tremor, heartburn, dizziness, ringing in the ears, convulsions, confusion, and reduced absorption of iron from food. Also implicated in outbreaks of Britishness. Jolly splendid, indeed!

Senecio vulgaris

Groundsel Senecio vulgaris)

Claimed to: be an "Anthelmintic; Antiscorbutic; Diaphoretic; Diuretic; Emmenagogue; ... Poultice; Purgative", and claimed to be good for stomach problems and worms. There is not enough evidence to evaluate these claims.

Groundsel is very toxic, and can cause liver damage, cancer, and birth defects. It should not be used.

H

C. coccinea, C. punctata var. aurea, C. ambigua, C. douglasii clockwise from top left:var. aurea,

Hawthorn Crataegus spp.) spp.)

In TCM : C. pinnatifida is shānzhā ( 山楂 ); C. cuneata is shānzhā guǒ ( 山楂果 ). It is eaten as food, but also used for backache, diarrhea, ulcers and rashes.

In Western herbal medicine: cardio-vascular diseases, anxiety, muscle spasms and insomnia

Harmful effects: can adversely interact with prescription drugs for cardiovascular diseases (e.g. digoxin, beta-blockers, calcium channel blockers, phosphodiesterase- inhibitors, and nitrates), nausea, nose bleeds, dizziness, insomnia

Efficacy: There is some evidence of improvement for heart failure symptoms with hawthorn extract, but also some evidence that it causes increased risk of death. There is insufficient evidence for treatment of other maladies.

Hyoscyamus niger

Henbane Hyoscyamus niger)

Used for: pain, nervousness, irritability, Parkinson's disease symptoms, and ulcers. It is also smoked to "cure" asthma and bronchitis (sounds familiar). There is no evidence to support its use for any of these conditions.

Harmful effects: Henbane is toxic, and when used for self-treatment may result in fatal poisoning. Side effects may include dry mouth, red skin, constipation, overheating, reduced sweating, vision disturbances, increased heart rate, urination problems, drowsiness, restlessness, hallucinations, delirium, manic episodes, and death. Mostly death.

Reinheitsgebot declared that all beers in the Holy Roman Empire could only be made with barely (Hordeum vulgare), hops (Humulus lupulus), water, and yeast. For a while, henbane berries were used in the manufacture of an herbal beer flavoring called "gruit", which was flavored with various sweet and bitter herbs, before people began using hops. Gruit fell out of favor during the Middle Ages when thedeclared that all beers in the Holy Roman Empire could only be made with barely (), hops (), water, and yeast.

Epimedium grandiflorum

Horny goat weed Epimedium spp.) spp.)

Used for: erectile dysfunction in goats.

Can prevent bone loss in postmenopausal women.

Has totally awesome name.

Harmful effects: Evidence of side effects is largely anecdotal, and range from irregular heartbeat to mood changes.

Aesculus hippocastanum fruit and nut

Horse chestnut Aesculus hippocastanum)

Used for: varicose veins, skin ulcers, hemorrhoids, neuralgia and sunburn.

Standardized horse chestnut seed extract is good for varicose veins, chronic venous insufficiency, and symptoms of poor blood circulation.

Raw horse chestnut seed, leaf, bark, and flower, on the other hand, are toxic and can be lethal. Standardized, esculin-free horse chestnut seed extract is mostly safe, with side effects including dizziness, headache, stomach upset, and itching. It may lower blood sugar. horse chestnut seed, leaf, bark, and flower, on the other hand, are toxic and can be lethal.

Equisetum arvense

Horsetail Equisetum spp.) spp.)

In TCM: A. arvense : wèn jīng ( 問荊 ); 'A. hyemale : mùzé ( 木賊 )

Used for: E. arvense' is used for lung problems (including tuberculosis), anemia and stomach and skin ulcers, urinary tract problems, water retention, excessive menstruation and vaginal discharge. vaginal steaming;

Insufficient research done on efficacy.

Side effects of long-term use may include low potassium levels and (in diabetics) low blood sugar.

Horsetail contains thiaminase, an enzyme which (if consumed), can cause thiamine (or vitamin B) deficiency (called beriberi can be removed if horsetail is prepared properly, usually involving cooking. ). Thiaminasebe removed if horsetail is prepared properly, usually involving cooking.

Symptoms of beriberi may include difficulty walking, loss of feeling (sensation) in hands and feet, loss of muscle function or paralysis of the lower legs, mental confusion/speech difficulties, pain, strange eye movements (nystagmus), tingling, vomiting, awakening at night short of breath, increased heart rate, shortness of breath with activity, and swelling of the lower legs. Beriberi, if caught early enough, can usually be reversed, but possible complications of beriberi may include coma, congestive heart failure, psychosis, and death. Because of the possibility of thiamine deficiency, people consuming horsetail should take thiamine supplements.

Rhamnus purshiana). Horsetail contains chromium and may increase the risk of chromium poisoning if taken with chromium-containing herbs like bilberry, brewer's yeast, or cascara ().

I

Impila Callilepsis laureola)

A traditional Zulu remedy used for tapeworm, snakebites, infertility, whooping cough, and to kill maggots in cattle. It is also used as a disinfectant.

It can cause fatal kidney and/or liver failure.

Indian Madder : See Madder Root

Indian Tobacco : See Lobelia

J

Datura stramonium

Jimson weed Datura stramonium)

Used for: spasmodic coughing, chronic laryngitis, asthma; used as an aphrodisiac in South America

Insufficient evidence to evaluate efficacy. Jimson weed leaves are smoked for asthma.

Harmful effects: Jimson weed is poisonous and can cause dry mouth and extreme thirst, vision problems, nausea and vomiting, fast heart rate, hallucinations, high temperature, seizures, confusion, loss of consciousness, breathing problems, and death. "The deadly dose for adults is - grams of leaf or - grams of the seeds."

K

Piper methysticum

Kava Piper methysticum)

Effective for anxiety.

Side effects may include liver damage leading to death, even with short-term use (- months) of normal doses, and sedation, oral and lingual dyskinesia, torticollis, oculogyric crisis, exacerbation of Parkinson's disease, painful twisting movements of the trunk, and rash. Several European countries banned or restricted the use of kava based on its hepatotoxic effects; the US FDA only issued a warning. A cancer study of kava extract in mice and rats found that it caused liver cancer in male and female mice and "increased incidences of lesions in the liver, forestomach, kidney, eye, and pancreas of male and female rats, in the liver of male and female mice, and in the forestomach of female mice."

L

Leopard's bane

Either aconite or arnica.

Glycyrrhiza glabra

Licorice Glycyrrhiza glabra)

In TCM: gāncǎo ( 甘草 is used as a panacea

Beneficial effects: Licorice "acts as a demulcent, a soothing, coating agent, and as an expectorant."

Harmful effects:

According to MedlinePlus Supplements, "Consuming grams or more of licorice daily for several weeks can cause severe side effects including high blood pressure, low potassium in the blood, weakness, paralysis, and occasionally brain damage in otherwise healthy people. In people who eat a lot of salt or have heart disease, kidney disease, or high blood pressure, as little as grams per day can cause these problems."

Licorice can interact with heart medicines, steroids, diuretics, or insulin. In large quantities, may have detrimental effects on heart disease, kidney disease, pregnant women, male sexual function, and may cause brain damage even in healthy people. In lower quantities, side effects may include tiredness, absence of a menstrual period in women, headache, water and sodium retention, decreased sexual interest and function in men, miscarriages or early deliveries, and raised blood pressure, and may also worsen heart and kidney disease. According to MedlinePlus Supplements, "Consuminggrams or more of licorice daily for several weeks can cause severe side effects including high blood pressure, low potassium in the blood, weakness, paralysis, and occasionally brain damage in otherwise healthy people. In people who eat a lot of salt or have heart disease, kidney disease, or high blood pressure, as little asgrams per day can cause these problems." Licorice "might act like estrogen in the body. If you have any condition such as breast cancer, uterine cancer, ovarian cancer, endometriosis, or uterine fibroids that might be made worse by exposure to estrogen, don’t use licorice." Licorice can interact with grapefruit juice, possibly increasing its ability to deplete human potassium levels, and licorice's side effects of sodium and water retention and increase in blood pressure can worsen if taken with salt. Licorice can interact with heart medicines, steroids, diuretics, or insulin.

Convallaria majalis

Lily-of-the-valley Convallaria majalis)

Used for: epileptic seizures, strokes, angina, conjunctivitis, leprosy, laxative, "neurasthenia", unconsciousness from stroke, epilepsy, edema and heart problems. Not enough studies have been done to evaluate any of the claims.

Harmful effects: The plant is poisonous and can be fatal. Doses must be very specific and prescribed by a professional (although what with the lack of evidence, what's the point?) Self-medication or wrong doses may result in blurred vision, excessive urination at night, halos around objects, diarrhea, Loss of appetite, Stomach pain, Vomiting or nausea, irregular or slow heartbeat confusion, depression, disorientation, drowsiness, fainting, headache, lethargy, weakness, rash, and hives.

Lobelia inflata

Lobelia Lobelia inflata)

Used for: Asthma, bronchitis, cough, and smoking cessation. Not enough studies have been done to verify lobelia's effectiveness for any of these.

Harmful effects: Side effects may include profuse sweating, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, tremors, rapid heartbeat, mental confusion, convulsions, hypothermia, coma, and death. It's not called Indian Tobacco for nothing.

M

Ma huang : See Ephedra.

Rubia tinctorum

Madder root Rubia tinctorum)

Used as: an "astringent diuretic, emmenagogue", and claimed to be good for many conditions, including alkaline urine, diarrhea, inflammation, wounds, broken bones, fever, and many others. There is no evidence to support the use of madder root for any of these conditions. The root is used in Ayurveda and Hildegard medicine. Madder root is also used for dyeing fabrics.

Harmful effects: May cause cancer, birth defects, and miscarriages. It can also make urine, saliva, perspiration, tears, and breast milk turn red. One wonders if happier root would be any better. An extract of madder root, used as a food coloring in Japan, was found to cause liver cancer in rats.

Cannabis sativa

Marijuana Cannabis spp.) spp.)

See the main articles on this topic: Marijuana and Marijuana woo

In TCM: C. sativa or dàmá ( 大麻 ). The flowers are used for 風 "wind" diseases, menstrual disorders and wounds. The seeds (actually the achene) are used for many diseases. In modern analyses are generally considered to be low in psychoactivity, but have measurable levels of cannabidiol (CBD).

REALLY looked at your hand? Side effects include paranoia and apathy. Marijuana and other cannabis products have little or no 'healing' purposes, but may relieve symptoms of other conditions or diseases. Effects may include mild euphoria, relaxed muscles, increased appetite and… wait, what? Did I say that out loud? Whoa… Have you ever looked at your hand? I meanlooked at your hand? Side effects include paranoia and apathy. Marijuana and other cannabis products have little or no 'healing' purposes, but may relieve symptoms of other conditions or diseases. It is considered one of the safest substances of abuse, including legal drugs, such as alcohol, which is not to say that it is risk free.

Ilex paraguariensis

Maté Ilex paraguariensis)

Also called: yerba maté

Consumed as a beverage. It is extremely popular in South America.

Harmful effects: Non-caffeine-related side effects include an increased risk of mouth, esophageal, laryngeal, kidney, bladder, and lung cancer. The oral cancer associations may be due to the very high temperatures at which maté tea is traditionally drunk, but the associations with kidney, bladder, and lung cancer would not be temperature related. Caffeine-related side effects include insomnia, nervousness and restlessness, stomach upset, nausea and vomiting, increased heart rate and breathing, high blood pressure, headache, ringing in the ears, irregular heartbeats, slowed blood clotting, and worsened diarrhea.

Best remove it from your diet.

Silybum marianum

Milk thistle Silybum marianum)

Used for: liver, stomach, gall bladder and spleen problems, and sometimes for irritable bowel syndrome.

Harmful effects: may include diarrhea, nausea, bloating, gas, and upset stomach.

Viscum album

Mistletoe Viscum album)

In TCM: hú jìshēng ( 槲寄生

Used for: cancer prevention, hypertension, insomnia, digestion problems, chilblains, and leg ulcers. Mistletoe isn't effective for cancer; insufficient research has been done to evaluate the other claims.

Harmful effects: When small amounts are taken, it is safe, with mild side effects of headaches, fever, and chills. Large amounts are toxic and can be fatal; symptoms may include seizures, coma, death, blurred vision, nausea and vomiting, stomach pain, diarrhea, slow or irregular heartbeat, low blood pressure, confusion, and drowsiness.

See also: Iscador, an extract of mistletoe

Artemisia vulgaris

Mugwort Artemisia vulgaris)

In TCM : ai ( 艾 A. vulgaris . Artemisia are also used. A. vulgaris is used in moxibustion, and is regarded as a panacea. ) refers to Other species ofare also used. is used in moxibustion, and is regarded as a panacea.

Used for: improving appetite and digestion, laxative, menstrual regulation, gout, rheumatism, tired legs, vaginal steaming, homeopathy, and moxibustion.

Claimed to: to treat everything under the sun.

Side effects: the allergenic qualities of American ragweed. Mugwort and can cause hay fever, rashes, and other irritations. It also appears to be related to some food allergies.

Benefits: No evidence that it does anything useful.

Mu Tong Aristolochia manshuriensis or Akebia spp.) orspp.)

"Mu tong" (木通) is a conflation of two unrelated genera, one highly dangerous (Aristolochia spp.) and one not so dangerous (Akebia spp.). For the dangerous one, see Birthwort.

Used in: traditional Chinese medicine for "relieving excess fire" and "stimulating the secretion of milk".

Harmful effects: Aristolochia species contain aristolochic acid. May cause fatal kidney failure because allspecies contain aristolochic acid.

N

Azadirachta indica

Neem Azadirachta indica)

Not known to be effective for anything. Also used non-medicinally as a pesticide.

Safe when taken short-term by adults. Neem is contraindicated for children, because it can cause vomiting, diarrhea, drowsiness, blood disorders, seizures, loss of consciousness, coma, brain disorders, and death. High-dose or long-term internal use by adults is dangerous, and can harm the kidneys and liver, lower blood sugar, and cause infertility and miscarriages.

O

Origanum vulgare oil

Oil of oregano Origanum vulgare, also known as marjoram oil) , also known as marjoram oil)

Used as: an anti-fungal, anti-viral, anti-bacterial, abortifactant, anti-asthma, anti-malaria, antioxidant and anti-cold/flu/headache medication (take your pick). While it has a higher rate of success on malaria and bacteria on the skin than normal water, it has significantly less success than any standard over-the-counter antibiotic or medicinal anti-malaria drug. As with most woo, there is always a glint of truth that gets warped into $$$$$. It is a good antioxidant, but not more so than raw oregano, which tastes better and makes wicked salads. And, despite its name, it tastes absolutely foul (as this user will attest).

Harmful effects: Side effects may include gastrointestinal issues and allergic reactions.

Nerium oleander

Oleander Nerium oleander)

Insufficient research to evaluate efficacy. Used for muscle cramps, asthma, cancer, and AIDS

Oleander leaf is poisonous, and can cause fatal heart failure. Symptoms may include nausea, vomiting, colic, appetite loss, dizziness, drowsiness, high potassium levels, dilated pupils, bloody diarrhea, seizures, loss of consciousness, slow or irregular pulse, and heart block. Oleander seeds are also toxic, as is the rest of the plant, sap, twigs, roots, etc.

Papaver somniferum

Opium poppy Papaver somniferum)

In TCM: yīngsù ( 罌粟

Latex exuded by immature seed pod used for analgesic purposes. Tinctures of seeds and straw used to a lesser extent. The latex at least is suggested by research to be effective, albeit prone to habituation and dependency. See also heroin.

Origanum vulgare

Oregano Origanum vulgare, also known as marjoram) , also known as marjoram)

Used for: digestion, headache, colic, "nervous complaints", coughs and respiratory ailments, menstrual cramps, and vaginal steaming

Benefits:

Studies show long-term use of oregano may reduce high cholesterol.

Blastocystis hominis, Entamoeba hartmanni, and Endolimax nana. Studies show long-term use of oregano may kill the stomach parasites, and

Non-benefits:

A study suggested that oregano did not prevent bleeding in people with hemophilia.

A study suggested that oregano did not speed or aid the wound healing process, though it did reduce skin stiffness and improve skin color.

Research: No other major research on oregano's health benefits has been conducted. Despite contrary claims, oregano has not been shown to help asthma, bronchitis, coughing, the flu, indigestion, painful menstrual periods, arthritis, headaches, or heart conditions.

Harmful effects:

Oregano is probably safe in food quantities.

Oregano is possibly unsafe in medicinal quantities during pregnancy, and may possibly cause miscarriage.

Oregano may increase the risk of bleeding, which may be problematic before surgery and in people with bleeding disorders.

Oregano can lower blood sugar levels, potentially problematic for diabetics.

People can be allergic to oregano.

Oregano is a diuretic.

P

Petroselinum crispum

Parsley Petroselinum crispum)

Used for: edema, jaundice, asthma, coughs, menstrual problems, conjunctivitis and blepharitis. It is sometimes used for home abortions, but its effectiveness for this has not been scientifically studied.

The claims: Parsley is touted as a general anti-toxin, control blood pressure, cure diabetes, urinary tract infections, prevents cancer, stimulates contractions of the uterus, cures rheumatism, treats kidney and bladder stones, and can even remove tooth aches.

The truth: Surprisingly, it is dangerous for women, as it can cause the uterus to contract prematurely and should not be inserted into or rubbed near the uterus. It is mildly anti-microbialial — on those days when you can't run to your medicine cabinet and grab a tube of far more effective antibiotic.

Harmful effects: It is harmless when taken in the small amounts found in food, but the large amounts used in herbal medicine may cause anemia and liver or kidney problems, and make water retention, high blood pressure, and kidney disease worse. Topically applied parsley oil can make skin become more sensitive to sunlight and cause a rash.

Mentha pulegium

Pennyroyal Mentha pulegium)

Used for: inducing abortion, inducing menstruation and menstrual pain, nausea, "nervous conditions" and headache. There is no evidence to support the effectiveness of pennyroyal for anything besides abortions

Harmful effects: The essential oil is toxic to the liver and lung, and can be fatal if ingested.

Mentha piperita

Peppermint oil Mentha piperita)

Used for: nervousness, insomnia, cramps, coughs, migraine, gastrointestinal problems, headache, and vomiting

Harmful effects: may include heartburn, and, more rarely, nausea, vomiting, headache, flushing, mouth irritation/sores, severe stomach/abdominal pain, and anal burning during bouts of diarrhea.

Primrose oil : See Evening primrose oil.

R

Trifolium pratense

Red clover Trifolium pratense)

Used in: vaginal steaming, fake cancer cures, livestock grazing, tea

Beneficial effects:

Available research does not show red clover treats cancer, coughing, hair loss, skin conditions, or any other medical conditions.

Available research does not show red clover is an antibiotic.

Available research has mixed results on whether red clover reduces osteoporosis, and leans towards no effect.

Available research has mixed results on whether red clover reduces menopausal symptoms.

Available research has mixed results on whether red clover reduces LDL ("bad" cholesterol) levels, and leans toward no effect.

Researchers theorize that red clover may help to prevent cancers that estrogen helps to prevent, and help to cause cancers that estrogen helps to cause.

Harmful effects:

Do not put onto wounds without a doctor's advice.

Generally safe in food and drink.

May increase risk of excessive bleeding.

May cause headaches, nausea, and rashes.

not take red clover. Women with estrogen-sensitive cancers (such as breast cancer, uterine cancer, ovarian cancer) or other estrogen-sensitive (such as endometriosis or uterine fibroids) shouldtake red clover.

Pregnant or breastfeeding women should not take red clover.

Chamaemelum nobile

Roman chamomile Chamaemelum nobile)

Also called: camomile, English chamomile, garden chamomile, ground apple, low chamomile, or whig plant. Is a subset of chamomile.

Used in: vaginal steaming

Claimed to: and "purify" the blood. calm frayed nerves, treat stomach problems, relieve muscle spasms, treat skin conditions, treat infections, treat nausea, treat vomiting, treat heartburn, treat loss of appetite, treat intestinal gas, relieve anxiety, reduce inflammation from cuts or hemorrhoids, help with burns, be antibacterial, be antiviral, be antifungal, treat morning sickness, treat painful menstrual periods, treat sinusitis, treat liver and gallbladder disease, deal with gallstones, prevent heartburn, ease the discomfort of swollen gums, treat ear inflammation, treat sore throats,"purify" the blood.

Beneficial effects:

May reduce flatulence; insufficient research.

Insufficient evidence for treatment of painful periods.

Harmful effects:

Considered "generally safe".

May be allergenic to those allergic to asters, daisies, chrysanthemums, or ragweed.

May cause miscarriage when pregnant. Do not take while pregnant or breastfeeding.

May worsen asthma.

Moderate sedative.

Thins the blood.

May lower blood sugar.

If too much is drunk, may cause vomiting.

May be dangerous to women with estrogen-sensitive conditions, such as cancer.

Interacts with the liver, potentially causing changes in other drugs.

Rosmarinus officinalis

Rosemary Rosmarinus officinalis)

In TCM: mí dié xiāng ( 迷迭香

Used in: vaginal steaming

Claimed to: solve digestion problems, heartburn, flatulence, liver and gallbladder problems, lack of appetite, gout, coughing, headaches, high blood pressure, and age-related memory loss. No such effects have been proven.

Beneficial effects:

Lab work shows rosemary has antioxidant properties.

Studies suggest long-term rosemary use may prevent thrombosis in humans.

Studies suggest rosemary may neutralize several foodborne pathogens.

one , badly designed, and small) study suggests rosemary, if used topically on the head, may help hair regrowth. One (, badly designed,small) study suggests rosemary, if used topically on the head, may help hair regrowth.

Two studies (small, aromatherapy, not compared to placebo) suggest it may help reduce stress.

people when scent was inhaled. Improved speed and accuracy on a test for a study of a samplepeople when scent was inhaled.

Contains antioxidants carnosic acid and carnosol No proven resulting benefits, however.

Is a little spicy and smells nice.

Harmful effects:

Is probably safe if the leaf itself is eaten; is rated as Generally Recognized as Safe in the U.S.; the German Commission E has approved it.

May impact blood clotting.

May impact ACE inhibitors, taken for high blood pressure.

Is diuretic

May impact blood-sugar levels.

Large quantities of rosemary leaves can cause vomiting, spasms, comas, and pulmonary edema

Large quantities of rosemary leaves may increase menstrual blood-flow and can cause miscarriage and is rated Possibly UnSafe in the U.S. Even while pregnant, however, it is safe to eat as a spice in food.

"People with high-blood pressure, ulcers, Crohn's disease, or ulcerative colitis should not take rosemary."

Rosemary oil may be toxic if consumed orally.

S

Salvia officinalis

Sage (usually Salvia officinalis, also Salvia lavandulaefolia, occasionally others

Also called: garden sage, common sage

Used in: vaginal steaming, aromatherapy

Claimed to: move blood and chi through physical and emotional obstructions, reduce loss of appetite, reduce flatulence, reduce stomach pain, reduce diarrhea, reduce stomach bloating, reduce heartburn, reduce overproduction of perspiration, reduce overproduction of saliva, reduce depression, reduce memory loss, reduce Alzheimer's disease, reduce painful menstrual periods, reduce excessive milk flow during nursing, and reduce hot flashes during menopause, (when applied topically) help cold sores, gum disease (gingivitis), sore mouth/throat/tongue, swollen nasal passages, and (when inhaled) reduce asthma.

Beneficial effects:

May potentially improve learning, memory, and information processing for mild to moderate Alzheimer's disease.

May improve memory and attention.

Appears to remove cold sores slightly slower than medical products.

May reduce "bad" cholesterol.

May reduce symptoms of menopause, such as hot flashes.

In one study, sage extract significantly reduced ultraviolet-induced erythema.

Unproven effects:

Not known if sage reduces lung cancer.

Not known if sage helps sore throats.

Not known for other conditions.

Harmful effects:

Salvia officinalis contains thujone. Thujone can be poisonous in sufficient doses, and can cause seizures, damage to the liver, and damage to the nervous systems. The amount of thujone varies with the species of plant, the time of harvest, growing conditions, and other factors.

If pregnant or breastfeeding, the risk of thujone poisoning is especially high.

For persons with higher risks of seizures, thujone is especially dangerous.

Sage may reduce blood sugar, affecting patients with diabetes and patients undergoing surgery.

Salvia lavandulaefolia ) may affect estrogen-receptive growths, such as breast cancer, uterine cancer, ovarian cancer, endometriosis, or uterine fibroids. Spanish sage () may affect estrogen-receptive growths, such as breast cancer, uterine cancer, ovarian cancer, endometriosis, or uterine fibroids.

Salvia lavandulaefolia ) might increase blood pressure in those with high blood pressure, while common sage ( Salvia officinalis ) might lower blood pressure in people with low blood pressure. Spanish sage () might increase blood pressure in those with high blood pressure, while common sage () might lower blood pressure in people with low blood pressure.

Sage can cause drowsiness.

Sassafras albidum

Sassafras Sassafras spp.) spp.)

Used for: "blood purifying", promoting sweating and urination, pain relief and venereal disease joint pain and preventing colds and flus. There is no evidence to support its use for these conditions.

Harmful effects: because of its high safrole content after safrole was discovered to be carcinogenic. Sassafras is poisonous, and even ml can be fatal. Side effects may include cancer, liver damage and miscarriages. Also, sweating and hot flashes. "High amounts can cause vomiting, high blood pressure, hallucinations, and more severe side effects. It can cause skin rashes when used on the skin." Sassafras had a long traditional use in the United States in foods, root beer, and tea. Sassafras was banned from interstate trade by the FDA inbecause of its high safrole content after safrole was discovered to be carcinogenic. Subsequently, sassafras has returned to the interstate food market after technology to remove safrole was implemented.

Serenoa repens

Saw palmetto Serenoa repens)

times at night to piss. Some studies assert its effectiveness. Has been suggested as a treatment for male pattern baldness, mainly since finasteride, the first-line treatment for MPB, is also effective against BPH. Evidence for the latter use is inconclusive, so if you're losing your mane, finasteride and minoxidil remain your best bets. Extract of the fruit of a fan palm. Taken for BPH (benign prostatic hyperplasia) a.k.a. Getting uptimes at night to piss. Some studies assert its effectiveness. Has been suggested as a treatment for male pattern baldness, mainly since finasteride, the first-line treatment for MPB, is also effective against BPH. Evidence for the latter use is inconclusive, so if you're losing your mane, finasteride and minoxidil remain your best bets.

Senna alexandrina

Senna Senna alexandrina)

Effective for: constipation

Harmful effects: Short-term use may cause stomach discomfort, cramps, and diarrhea. Long-term use (over two weeks) can stop the bowels from functioning properly and cause dependence; it may also cause heart function disorders, muscle weakness, liver damage, and other side effects.

Siberian ginseng Eleutherococcus senticosus) See Eleuthero ) See Eleuthero

Skullcap : See American skullcap, Chinese skullcap. European skullcap is used there as a substitute for American skullcap, and has similar ingredients.

Soursop Annona muricata)

are, however, definite indicators of a neurotoxic effect, with symptoms similar to Parkinsonism. A tropical fruit touted as a "wonder cure" for cancer. Despite some promising results, there are no definite conclusions in this area. There, however, definite indicators of a neurotoxic effect, with symptoms similar to Parkinsonism.

Spinacia oleracea

Spinach Spinacia oleracea)

In TCM: bō ( 菠

May contribute to kidney stone formation by increasing the amount of oxalate in the urine.

Drimia maritima

Squill Drimia maritima)

Not enough research to evaluate efficacy for anything. Used for heart problems, bronchitis, asthma, whooping cough, and wounds.

Harmful effects: The herb is cardiotoxic and can be lethal, with side effects including stomach irritation, loss of appetite, diarrhea, vomiting, headache, vision changes, depression, confusion, hallucinations, irregular heartbeat, skin rash, miscarriages, seizures, life-threatening abnormal heart rhythms, and death.

Stevia rebaudiana

Stevia Stevia rebaudiana)

Used as a sweetener.

Usually no side effects, but rare ones may include bloating, nausea, dizziness, muscle pain, and numbness.

Hypericum perforatum

St. John's wort Hypericum perforatum)

See the main article on this topic: St. John's wort

Used for: calming, bedwetting, insomnia, "nervous conditions", depression, anemia, headache, jaundice, congestion, and menstrual difficulties

Regarded by herbalists and some medical authorities as an effective treatment for depression; trials are mixed, partly due to depression's high susceptibility to the placebo effect. Popular in Germany. May interfere with effectiveness of other drugs.

Harmful effects: may cause cataracts in people exposed to visible or ultraviolet light after taking it. Other side effects may include gastrointestinal disturbances, allergic reactions, fatigue, dizziness, confusion, dry mouth, photosensitivity , mania and psychosis

T

Tea : see Green tea

Melaleuca alternifolia

Tea tree oil Melaleuca alternifolia)

Used for: (and is effective for) fungal infections, acne, and athlete's foot (topical application). Tea tree oil is, however, less effective than medications for curing athlete's foot.

Harmful effects: never be taken by mouth. Side effects may include skin irritation and swelling, and "in people with acne, it can sometimes cause skin dryness, itching, stinging, burning, and redness." Applying products containing both tea tree and lavender oil to prepubescent boys may cause gynecomastia (larger breasts). Tea tree oil is highly toxic when ingested, even in small quantities, so it shouldbe taken by mouth.

Turmeric Cucurma longa)

Tobacco Nicotiana spp.) spp.)

'Nuff said.

V

Valeriana officinalis

Valerian Valeriana officinalis)

Used for: "nervous conditions", migraine, insomnia, "hysteria", "neurasthenia", fatigue and stomach cramps

May work for insomnia.

Harmful effects: Side effects may include headache, excitability, uneasiness, and, in some cases, insomnia. Some multi-herb remedies containing valerian have been linked to liver damage.

Dionaea muscipula

Venus fly-trap Dionaea muscipula)

Active ingredient plumbagin, claimed to boost the immune system

Harmful effects: Escherichia coli. Possible side effects of plumbagin are diarrhea, skin rash, liver damage, and abnormal blood counts. Plumbagin is mutagenic to

W

Salix matsudana

Willow bark Salix spp.) spp.)

In TCM: liǔ ( S. babylonica , 柳 ) or shuǐ yáng ( S. purpurea , 水 杨

Used for: pain relief (and is effective, obviously).

Harmful effects: may include stomach upset, digestive system upset, itching, an increased risk of children developing Reyes syndrome, ulcers, stomach bleeding, and liver toxicity. (No better than aspirin, then.) Side effects from overdosing may include skin rash, stomach inflammation/irritation, nausea, vomiting, kidney inflammation, and tinnitus (ringing in the ears). Willow bark can be anywhere from .% to .% salicin (the active ingredient).

Gaultheria procumbens

Wintergreen Gaultheria procumbens)

Used for: pain relief (contains methyl salicylate, which is similar to aspirin or acetylsalicylic acid), urinary ailments, colic and farting

Insufficient research to evaluate efficacy. Used for asthma, rheumatism, and headache.

Harmful effects: mL of the oil is equivalent to about . aspirin tablets.) Wintergreen is safe, but internally taken wintegreen oil is toxic and can cause ringing in the ears, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, headache, stomach pain, confusion, and death. (Wintergreen oil contains methyl salicylate, andmL of the oil is equivalent to about . aspirin tablets.) Topical use can cause skin irritation.

Isatis tinctoria

Woad Isatis tinctoria)

times as much. In addition to producing a blue dye, woad has alleged medicinal uses. Chemicals from woad might be used to prevent cancer, as woad can produce high levels of glucobrassicin. Young leaves when damaged can produce more glucobrassicin, up totimes as much.

Indigo woad Root is a traditional Chinese medicine herb that comes from the roots of woad, but often incorrectly listed under the synonymic name, Isatis indigotica . It is also known as Radix isatidis . The herb is cultivated in various regions of northern China. The roots are harvested during the autumn and dried. The dried root is then processed into granules, which are most commonly consumed dissolved in hot water or tea. The product, called banlangen keli ( 复方板 蓝 根 颗 粒 ), is very popular throughout China, and used to remove "toxic heat", soothe sore throat and to treat influenza, measles, mumps, syphilis, or scarlet fever. It is also used for pharyngitis, laryngitis, erysipelas, and carbuncle, and to prevent hepatitis A, epidemic meningitis, cancer and inflammation.

Harmful effects: Possible minor side effects include allergic reactions and dizziness; only large dosages or long term usage can be toxic to the kidneys.

Artemisia absinthium

Wormwood Artemisia spp.) spp.)

Used for: A. absinthium , absinthe); Traditional Chinese medicine ( A. annua , sweet wormwood, stomach problems, "liver insufficiency", blood circulation, deworming, topical anesthesia, pain relief, and vaginal steaming (, absinthe); Traditional Chinese medicine (, sweet wormwood, 青蒿

Claimed to:

Prevent intestinal worms (but is not effective).

A. annua, in the treatment of malaria. Wormwood has been used to treat uncomplicated malaria; like all known chemical treatments for malaria, it can cause resistance. In , Tu Youyou was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for her discovery and development of artemisinin, a chemical derived from, in the treatment of malaria.

Harmful effects:

Harmful effects: Side effects of large doses may include nausea, vomiting, stomach pain, headache, dizziness, seizures, numbness of the legs and arms, delirium, paralysis, and kidney and liver failure.

Wormwood contains thujone (e.g. as it occurs in small amounts in absinthe ), which is neurotoxic above the threshold so caution should be exercised for therapeutic usage.

Y

Yerba maté : See maté

Multi-herb mixtures

This list is mainly for TCM remedies that consist of multiple plants.

F

Fo ti : See He shou wu

H

Polygonum multiflorum dried roots

He shou wu ( 何首 乌 ) (Polygonum multiflorum

Claimed to be a cure for baldness and grey hair, as well as being promoted as a immune system booster (though he shou wu contains emodin, a possibly immunosuppresant substance). There's not enough evidence to evaluate claims.

J

Jin bu huan ( 金不 换

Lycopodium serratum , Panax sp., "Pseudo ginseng", Polygala chinensis and two species of Stephania . Used as a sedative and analgesic, and for asthma, bronchitis, night blindness, delirium, epilepsy, vertigo, fever and inflammation. The herbs used vary, but can includesp., "Pseudo ginseng",and two species of

May cause hepatitis. It is sometimes contaminated with lead.

L

Long dan xie gan wan ( 龙 胆泻肝片 ): See Xie gan wan

X

Xie gan wan ( 泻肝片 ) (also known as Long dan xie gan wan)