Caitlin m. Vander Weele Picower Institute for Learning & Memory Brain & Cognitive Sciences, MIT

2016 / Volume 1

Interstellate

Curated by

A Collection of thoughts

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Mission Statement

Outreach & Education. What is the brain made of? What do different parts do? How do we study it? And why should my tax money pay for brain research? These are all questions I have heard from my friends and family. Answering some of these questions is the primary goal of Interstellate. I hope Interstellate provides some insight into how the brain works, what it is made of, how we study it, and why it is important. While Interstellate is first debuting in the neuroscience community, the goal is to eventually reach our broader communities. Celebration. Science is not easy and the publication of research projects can take years! The secondary goal of Interstellate is to celebrate all of the components of scientific research - from the images generated from breakthrough findings to the experiment that didn't quite go right. Interstellate provides a platform for all neuroscience images to be seen and celebrated. Inspiration. After a hard day at the bench, beautiful brain images motivate and inspire me. I hope that Interstellate can provide inspiration to the neuroscience community by showing neuroscience research through several different lenses and showcasing how our colleagues are tackling brain questions. I also hope that Interstellate provides a glimpse into what it is like to be a neuroscientist in hopes of recruiting the next generation of brain explorers. Art. At the very least, Interstellate is a collection of breathtaking images contributed by outstanding scientists that can be appreciated by all science curious individuals. Not for profit. Participation in Interstellate is strictly on a volunteer basis. All images were donated for outreach and educational purposes, with permission from the parties involved. Interstellate does not own any image rights nor does it generate profit. If magazines are sold, they are sold at printing and shipping costs. The future of Interstellate. Interstellate is a devloping project and who knows what the future may hold! I hope to have a new issue every year. Stay informed by following us on Twitter [@interstellate_] and visiting [www.interstellate.me]. Contact or contribute via interstellate@gmail.com

Caitlin M. Vander Weele Creator & curator of Interstellate Graduate Student, NSF fellow, Tye Lab Picower Institute for Learning & Memory Massachusetts Institute of Technology

Image Credit: Caitlin Vander Weele, MIT

Neuroscience outreach and education through art

Peering into the brain

Image Credit: Caitlin Vander Weele, MIT

My favorite part of being a neuroscientist comes at the end of my experiment, when I get to peek into my microscope. It is breathtaking to see neurons displaying all of their intricacies, their delicate connections, and fragile branches. Interstellate was born from this moment of awe and inspiration.

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The brain is beautiful. Our brain is the only organ in our bodies that cannot be replaced. It is the storage place of our childhood memories and the origin of our deepest thoughts and happiest emotions. Who would we really be without our brains? Do our brains define who we are? I think so. This also makes our brains scary. When our brains fail us, we get sick. Sometimes very sick. All because of some broken machinery or a couple of loose connections hidden in the mass of wiring resting behind your eyes. A needle in a haystack. 1 in 5 Americans suffer from mental illnesses (SAMHSA, 2014). My dream, and the dream of many neuroscientists, is to discover how the brain works in health, and what goes wrong in disease. If we can find the broken pieces, maybe we can fix them. Or maybe, we can prevent them from breaking in the first place. But how do we find this "needle"? Research. On all parts and functions of the brain. In men and women, in rodents and flies. Experiment after experiment, we get closer. It might not always be a giant leap forward, but every micron helps. But research experiments often fail. Actually, experiments fail a lot. Of course, this does not mean they are truly "failures". Experiments don't work for a reason and those reasons help scientists make new predictions and generate better methods. Failing, picking up the pieces, modify, repeat. This is the not so glamorous part of the scientific process. The part that isn't written up on a glossy page and therefore, is the part that most people don't get to see. But just because you don't see it, does not mean it is not important. Many of the images in Interstellate are from experiments that went wrong. They will not be published or heard about in the news, but they do tell a story and help us wade through the haystack, straw by straw. One goal of Interstellate is to celebrate the entire scientific process. The failures and successes. Science is also a product of team work. We learn from each other's discoveries and mistakes, and Interstellate is no exception. I am deeply grateful to all the scientists around the world who contributed these beautiful images and shared their stories. Without them, this project would simply not exist. Interstellate's mission: Basic brain research should not just be available to those wearing the white lab coats. I invite you to come peer through our microscopes and I hope you develop a greater appreciation for the world sitting on our shoulders. -CMVW

At one time, those interested in the brain could study the drawings of Leonardo da Vinci or could image brain tissues with the small group of staining methods available, to put distinguishable hues into different cell types or fiber types. However, those methods often rendered what the famous neuroanatomist Santiago Ramón y Cajal called ‘the dismal fog’, a feathering or even disappearence of neuronal processes making them difficult to capture. With the development of then new histological techniques, such as the Golgi method, combined with the stunning studies by Ramón y Cajal and his students, imaginations were sparked as never before. Synergies began to develop between the great anatomists and great physiologists of the time. Just think of how Sherrington’s “synapse” was evoked by his knowledge of Cajal’s work. It is difficult now to think of how little we could see. Cortical columns, 1950s and 1960s; chemical anatomy to identify neurotransmitter and neuromodulator-containing circuits, 1960s; and contemporaneously, high-resolution imaging giving the first detailed glimpses of synapses and other structures. These advances were thrilling to those who were students at the time. What a change to today, when any neuron (or glial cell) can be tagged to show its chemical identity, its input connections, its output connections, and with trans-synaptic specificity. And now, views of the human brain in action. Indeed, imaging is now at the very most advanced frontier of neuroscience. These images have a powerful influence on how we conceive of the brain as a functional organ. We see the evolutionary extravagance of different cell-types in brains across species, and yet the conservation of cardinal organizational features of circuit design. We see details in living tissues, at never-before-viewed levels of resolution. We see, with human brain imaging methods, heartening extensions of basic neuroscience to critical clinical issues. Now, more explosions! The use of optical and chemical functional probes, new levels of imaging, extensions of optogenetics and photometry, miniature lenses inserted into the very fabric of the brain. The brilliance of the Interstellate is that the images obtained by many researchers throughout the world can now be fully shared.

Dr. Ann M. Graybiel Institute Professor, Principal Investigator McGovern Institute for Brain Research Massachusetts Institute of Technology

Foreword

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All of us who work with images of the brain have been inspired by its beauty. We all marvel at the complexity of the brain’s many circuits and microcircuits, organized into interacting components that by coordinated patterns of activity bring about our behavior – and that do so across different time scales and with adaptive plasticity.

Image Credit: Gillian Matthews, Caitlin Vander Weele, MIT

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A Brain divided Ekaterina Turlova, Sun Lab, University of Toronto

Brain cells can be classified into two broad categories. Neurons are the primary communication cells that transmit signals across the brain. The other category, glia, provide several support functions. Pictured are glial cells from a mouse stained for tubulin (green), actin (red), and the DNA in cell nuclei (DAPI, blue).

a Slice of life Margaret Davis, Laboratory for Integrative Neuroscience, NIAAA/NIH

To explore brain anatomy, thin sections of the brain are prepared, mounted on glass slides, and examined under a microscope. The most common preparation is a coronal section, when the brain is cut across the crown from ear-to-ear. In this sagittal mouse section, the brain is cut front-to-back and neurons were labeled for parvalbumin (blue), neurofilament (green), GAD65-Cre:ChR2 (red) and choline acetyltransferase (ChAT, magenta).

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The ability to tag and visualize neurons helps researchers examine connections, gene expression, and verify experimental manipulations. The development of the green fluorescent protein (GFP) by the late Roger Tsien (1952-2016) and colleagues was a significant advance in viewing genetically- defined cell populations. Pictured are dopamine (red) and non-dopamine (green) neurons in the substantia nigra. To achieve cell-type specificity, transgenic DAT-Cre mice expressing tdTomato (red) were used with a Cre-Off adeno-associated virus driven enhanced GFP (green).

all lit up C. Savio Chan Lab, Northwestern University

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Tag, You're it Megha Maheshwari, Vaidya Lab, Tata Institute of Fundamental Research

Immunohistochemistry (IHC) is a technique used to label specific types of proteins in brain tissue. IHC utilizes a primary antibody to first find and bind to a protein of interest, and a secondary antibody carrying a tag for visualization. Pictured is a brain section from an adult mouse containing the hippocampus. Doublecortin-immunopositive neurons are stained in red and glia (GFAP) are stained in blue. Doublecortin is expressed in neuronal precursor cells and thus identifies recently generated neurons.

A neuron has three primary components: dendrites, a cell body, and an axon. The dendrites branch out and receive signals from other neurons and transmit it to the cell body. The cell body, the globular structure in the middle, contains the cell's DNA and sums the signals received by the dendrites. The axon is a long projection which transmits the electrical signal away from the cell body and to its downstream target(s) - sometimes making connections all the way at the other end of the brain. Pictured is a hippocampal neuron (DIV21) labeled with a fluorescent protein.

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structure & Function Ewout Groen, Brain Center Rudolf Magnus, Utrecht University

When an excitatory signal is received at the dendrites of a neuron, the membrane of the neuron becomes depolarized, or more positively charged than its surrounding environment. When the neuron become sufficiently depolarized, it fires an action potential, which is a brief electrical impulse that travels away from the cell body, down the axon, and causes neurotransmitter to be released. These hippocampal neurons are labeled with soluble tdTomato.

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Conductance Christoph Straub, Sabatini Lab, Harvard

An "up close & personal" view of a synapse captured by electron microscopy. An electron microscope uses a beam of electrons, rather than light, to create high resolution images of the brain's finer details. The presynaptic neuron (the cell transmitting a signal, pseudocoloured in yellow) contains tiny bubbles called synaptic vesicles (blue). These vesicles are filled with neurotransmitters. The neurotransmitters are released from the vesicle when the presynaptic neuron becomes activated. Vesicles dock to the membrane, are released into the synaptic cleft, and the neurotransmitters bind to receptors on the receiving neuron, called the postsynaptic neuron (green).

Brass Tacks Andrea Globa, Bamji Lab, University of British Columbia

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Counting Memories Austin Ramsey, Blanpied Lab, University of Maryland School of Medicine

Connections between neurons (called synapses) often occur at protrusions on the the neuronal membrane, called spines. Changes in spine number, volume, & shape are implicated in the storage of memories & experiences.

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Lock & Key Caitlin M. Vander Weele, Tye Lab, MIT

Neurotransmitters, the chemicals in our brain responsible for communication between neurons, affect their target cells by binding to receptors expressed on their membranes. Each neurotransmitter in the brain has a specific subset of receptors that is allowed to bind to and subsequently influence. Shown are neurons in the medial prefrontal cortex that express different types of dopamine receptors (D1 = red; D2 = green) and retrogradely labeled neurons (blue and pink).

After being released from the presynaptic neuron, leftover neurotransmitters need to be removed from the extracellular space. Transporters are pumps located on the cellular membrane that act as neurotransmitter vacuums. Transporters quickly suck up extra neurotransmitters and either destroy or recycle them for future use. Pictured is a coronal section of the mouse forebrain showing the striatum with axons of neurons expressing the dopamine transporter (DAT, red) and those containing tyrosine hydroxylase (TH, green), the enzyme necessary for making dopamine. The DNA in cell nuclei are stained with DAPI (blue).

Recyle & Reuse Nicolas Tritsch, Sabatini Lab, Harvard

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There are just some experiments that cannot be easily (or ethically) completed in human subjects. For more invasive experiments, scientists use model organisms, or non-human species that are easily studied within the laboratory. Common model organisms include: rats, mice, zebrafish, fruit flies (Drosophila), and C. elegans (among many others). Pictured are fast flexor motor neurons of abdominal ganglion 2 in the Louisiana red swamp crayfish (Procambarus clarkii) - visualized by a cobalt backfill of nerve 3 of abdominal ganglion 2, precipitated with ammonium sulfide.

Model Organism Zen Faulkes, University of Texas Rio Grande Valley

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Growing Pains Jaroslav Icha, Norden Lab, Max Planck Institute of Molecular Cell Biology and Genetics

The zebrafish is a particularly powerful model organism for researchers interested in the development of the nervous system because the zebrafish has a short life cycle and a fully sequenced genome that is not wildly different from mammals. A zebrafish embryo is pictured here with the DNA in cell nuclei stained in blue and microtubules stained in gray/white.

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Bullseye Anahita Hamidi, Wiltgen Lab, UC Davis

Imagine having 100 different kinds of noodles packed into a baseball and then only trying to find the spaghetti. This is essentially the problem many scientists face every day: wanting to target a very specific type of cell, in a very tiny region, where there are lots of other types of cells. One method to pinpoint a cell-type of interest is to take a virus, gut it, and engineer it to detect and infect only the cells you want. In this image, a virus expressing a green fluorescent protein (GFP) was injected into the dorsal hippocampus of a mouse, and pictured is viral spread into the ventral hippocampus.

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To assess the role of specific genes in brain development, cell signaling, or behavior, transgenic mice can be engineered with various genetic modifications - to either express a gene of interest (knock in) or to delete it (knock out [KO]). Pictured are cells in the mouse cerebellum labeled with Mosaic Analysis with Double Markers (MADM). MADM provides simultaneous single-cell labeling and gene knockout in vivo. Here, red cells are wild type, yellow cells and unlabeled cells are heterozygous for a mutation in a gene of interest, and green cells are homozygous mutant.

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KnockOut Lindsay Schwarz, Luo Lab, Stanford University

Feeding billions of brain cells takes work. An often overlooked, but crucially important feature of the brain's architecture is its intricate vasculature system. In an attempt to record from neurons in the medial prefrontal cortex in brain slices, these blood vessels were inadvertently labeled (biocytin), revealing these delicate roadways.

Life Lines Caitlin M. Vander Weele Gillian Matthews Tye Lab, MIT

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Spatial work Christoph Straub, Sabatini Lab, Harvard

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The hippocampus, named after the Greek word for "seahorse", is critically involved in navigating through space. Some neurons in the hippocampus are responsive to specific environmental characteristics, including places (place cells) or borders (border cells), while other respond to the direction of the head (head direction cells) or the speed of travel. Pictured are neurons in the hippocampus labeled with tdTomato by in utero electroporation.

At birth, our brain contains the majority of neurons that we will have during our lifetime. However, a few brain regions maintain the ability to generate new neurons, a process called neurogenesis, during adulthood. The dentate gyrus, a subregion of the hippocampus retains this ability, which is thought to be important for memory formation and storage. Pictured are adult-born dentate gyrus neurons in the rat, labeled with a GFP-expressing retrovirus and pseudocolored by depth.

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NeuroGenesis Desiree Seib, Snyder Lab, University of British Columbia

The neurotransmitter glutamate is the primary excitatory signal in the brain, whereas GABA provides the primary inhibitory signal. In this section of the cerebellum, both GABAergic and glutamatergic cells are intermingled. Purkinje cells contain GABA-producing enzymes, GAD67 (green) and GAD65 (red). Both enzymes are sufficient to make GABA, and most inhibitory neurons make both, resulting in a yellow overlay. Neurons in the granule layer (blue), are glutamatergic, and therefore do not express GADs.

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Balancing act Nicolas Tritsch, Sabatini Lab, Harvard

While research in model organisms provides important insight into the inner workings of the brain, it can be difficult to assess how an organism feels or thinks. Human imaging techniques provide powerful insight into brain activity and anatomy in awake human subjects. This image of a human brain was captured using diffusion magnetic resonance imaging and processed using tractography, a tool used to visualize neural tracts based on water diffusion. The color of tracks reflects their orientation relative to the head: red=left-right, green=front-back, blue=top-down.

Inside out Thijs Dhollander, The Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health

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Studying how neurons grow and communicate is often easier in a controlled environment outside of the intact brain. By growing neurons in a petri dish, called a cell culture, scientists can gain a clearer window into the growth and development of brain cells. This image shows cortical neurons ~11 days in culture, labeled for DNA methyltransferase 3a (DNMT3a, green), microtubule- associated protein 2 (MAP2, red), and DNA (DAPI, blue).

For The Culture Jeremy Day Lab, University of Alabama at Birmingham

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The olfactory bulb, located at the front of the brain, interfaces with the nose to translate and transmit odor information. Pictured are neurons expressing the dopamine precursor, tyrosine hydroxylase (TH), extending up toward the glomerular layer. The glomerular layer is the initial site of neural processing after receiving input from the olfactory nerves in the nose.

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Smell Test Catherine Kaminski, Mast Lab, Eastern Michigan University

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Retrograde Johannes de Jong, Lammel Lab, UC Berkeley

To find out how brain regions are connected to one another, scientists use retrograde tracers that are absorbed at axon terminals and then travel back to the cell body. In this picture a modified rabies virus expressing green fluorescent protein was injected in the nucleus accumbens of a mouse, an area known to be involved in motivation and reward. The tracer was taken up by axons from neurons in the hippocampus and transported back to their cell bodies. The results from this experiment demonstrated that the hippocampus sends projections to the nucleus accumbens.

Isolating the function of specific neurons is a primary goal in neuroscience. Using optogenetic tools, scientists can rapidly and reversibly turn on or off neurons in awake, freely-moving animals to assess their impact on behavior. Optogenetics involves expressing light-sensitive channels, called opsins, within the cellular membrane of neurons. By using laser light, opsin-expressing neurons can be either activated or inhibited, depending on the opsin that is expressed. Pictured is a rat brain with blue (473 nm) laser light delivered via an optical fiber.

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Mind Control Mike JF Robinson Lab, Wesleyan University

Designer Receptors David Brann, Siegelbaum Lab, Columbia University

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Another method for manipulating neuronal activity is designer receptors exclusively activated by designer drugs (DREADDS). DREADDS involves engineering a receptor that is not activated by any neurotransmitters in the brain and expressing it in a cell-type of interest. By administering a drug that binds to the "artificial" receptors, scientists can activate or inhibit the neurons expressing these receptors. Here, DREADDs are stained for with mCitrine (green), with an HA-tag (blue), and the CA2 marker RGS14 (red).

Flashing Lights Caitlin M. Vander Weele, Tye Lab, MIT

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When neurons are activated, calcium rushes into the cell. We can visualize calcium fluctuations within a cell as a means to examine activity in hundreds of individual neurons across many days using calcium imaging techniques. To achieve this, we can use a genetically-encoded fluorescent calcium indicator (green) within neurons which causes them to transiently “light up” when calcium is present - reminiscent of a lightening storm. These fast calcium events can be detected with a small, head-mounted mini-microscope (Inscopix) so we can examine neuronal activity in unrestrained animals while they perform various behavioral tasks. Here, the calcium indicator is expressed in neurons in the medial prefrontal cortex. The DNA in cell nuclei are stained with DAPI (blue).

The neurotransmitter dopamine is produced by a collection of neurons in the midbrain. While dopamine is typically thought to signal the delivery of rewards, a population of dopamine neurons in the substania nigra par compacta (SNc) is critical for promoting movement. This image shows dopamine neurons (TH+, green) that express the dopamine transporter (DAT, red). Most dopamine neurons express both TH and the transporter so the overlay becomes yellow. The DNA in cell nuclei are labeled with DAPI (blue).

Moving Forward Nicolas Tritsch, Sabatini Lab, Harvard

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Yin & YanG William Giardino, de Lecea Lab, Stanford

The neuropeptide oxytocin contributes to the initiation and maintenance of social bonds. When released, oxytocin promotes feelings of well-being and reduces anxiety. In contrast, the neuropeptide corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF) promotes feelings of uneasiness and enhances anxiety. Both neuropeptides are produced by neurons in the paraventricular nucleus of the hypothalamus, shown here. Red: Oxytocin-Cre x Cre-inducible Ai14 (tdTomato), Green: immunostaining against CRF (Alexa 488).

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The ventral striatum is a key node in the limbic circuit. This brain region is involved in the generation of emotions by integrating dopaminergic and glutamatergic signals from several upstream brain regions. Shown are ventral striatal neurons ~14 days in culture labeled for microtubule-associated protein 2 (MAP2, red) and DNA (DAPI stain, blue). This experiment was a "failure" because the cells are not supposed to clump.

work in progress Jeremy Day Lab, University of Alabama at Birmingham

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Good Vibrations Praneeth Namburi, Tye Lab, MIT

Sounds. How does our brain make sense of them? Sound vibrations enter our ear and are transformed into electrical and chemical impulses. These impulses are processed by auditory networks within the brain, which help assign them meaning. This image shows neurons in the inferior colliculus (top) and brainstem (bottom) that provide input to neurotensin neurons within the auditory thalamus.

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Plasticity Jason Shepherd, Huganir Lab, The Johns Hopkins University

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The connections between neurons are constantly changing with experience and this synaptic plasticity is essential for cognition. One way to change the strength of connections between two neurons is for the postsynaptic cell, the one receiving neurotransmitter, to increase or decrease the number of receptors expressed at the surface of synapses. Pictured is a co-culture of hippocampal neurons and glia that highlight one of the main glutamate receptors (the AMPA receptor subunit, GluA1, green) and two structural proteins in neurons, actin (red) and MAP2 (purple). The DNA in cell nuclei are stained with DAPI (blue). Note, the prominent glial cell in the middle lacks AMPA receptors or MAP2.

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One technique used to eavesdrop on the communication and properties of specific neurons is patch-clamp electrophysiology. A small glass pipette is used to latch onto the cell membrane of a neuron, break it open, and record the electrical activity coursing through it. Here is a 2-photon reconstruction of a targeted dendritic whole-cell recording from a tdTomato-labeled mouse layer 5 pyramidal neuron (red) and the recorded neuron was filled through the pipette with AlexaFluor488 (green).

PinPoint Lou Beaulieu-Laroche, Harnett Lab, MIT

The primary visual cortex (V1) is the first stop in visual processing in the brain. V1 receives images detected by the retina and forms a spatial map to help us make sense of the world in front of us. This is an in vivo two-photon image of layer 2/3 of mouse primary visual cortex. Cells were labeled with OGB-1 (green, calcium indicator) and parvalbumin-expressing neurons in this transgenic mouse express tdTomato (red).

Visual effects Alex Kwan, Yale School of Medicine Image taken in Yang Dan Lab, UC Berkeley

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Mind Games Steve Ramirez, Tonegawa Lab, MIT

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Using special genetic-based tools. scientists can manipulate an ensemble of neurons responsible for holding a particlar memory, called an engram, in mice. In this image, cells that were active during the formation of a positive memory were genetically tagged (red). By activating this "positive engram" in a brand new situation, mice learn to associate positive memories to the new situation. Similar to the movie "Inception", this results in essentially implanting a false memory.

very cerebral Nicholas Sofroniew, Svoboda Lab, Janelia

The wrinkled layer of tissue around the outside of the brain is the cerebral cortex. The cortex is composed of gray matter, a term used to describe tissue containing neuronal cell bodies and dendrites. Imaged is the cortex of a transgenic mouse which expresses the fluorescent calcium indicator GCaMP6f under the Thy-1 promoter. The black branch-like structures are blood vessels.

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Milk Fed Jason Askvig, Watt Lab, University of North Dakota

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In addition to maintaining social bonds, oxytocin neurons also mediate a mother's milk let-down after giving birth. Oxytocin neurons in a brain region called the supraoptic nucleus (SON) of the hypothalamus undergo significant remodeling to support lactation. Imaged are neurons from the SON of the hypothalamus in culture showing oxytocin neurons (red) mixed with glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP)-expressing cells (green).

Life, Camera, Actin Christophe Leterrier, CRN2M/CNRS-AMU, Marseille

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The cytoskeleton, made of microtubule and actin filaments, supports the neuronal morphology and aids in synapse formation, cell division, and cell movement. Actin plays pivotal role in neuronal growth, formation of synapses, and remodeling of dendritic spines; whereas microtubules support the extension of dendrites and axons, as well as the intracellular transport of proteins. Pictured are hippocampal neurons after 2 days in culture stained for actin (magenta) and microtubule (yellow).

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Finding Direction Joaquin Navajas Acedo, Piotrowski Lab, Stowers Institute for Medical Research

This image depicts a 5 day post-fertilization zebrafish larvae neuromast: a garlic-shaped structure that is responsible for water movement detection. This is due to the presence of specialized mechanosensory neurons called hair cells (in the middle of the organ, labeled with sqet4:GFP), homologous to the ones found in our inner ears. Upon injury, hair cells in zebrafish can be regenerated from support cells (GFP negative cells, around the hair cells). Surrounding the entire structure of the neuromast, there are mantle cells (labeled with sqet20:GFP) - a quiescent population of cells that can re-enter the cell cycle under severe injury conditions. Cell nuclei are labeled using H2A-mCherry.

Pyramidal Anna Beyeler, Tye Lab, MIT

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Pyramidal neurons, named for their triangular shaped cell bodies, are an excitatory cell-type located in several brain regions, including the cortex, hippocampus, and amygdala. These pyramidal neurons, located in the basolateral amygdala project to two different brain regions and differentially respond to rewarding and fearful events. These neurons were labeled with biocytin after patch-clamp electrophysiology recordings.

Fine Motor Skills Ayesha Tasneem, Lefebvre Lab, University of Toronto

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Cerebellum, the brain area situated all the way at the back and base of the brain, is responsible for motor coordination. The cerebellum has well-defined connectivity comprised of three layers: the internal granule layer (IGL), Purkinje cell layer (PCL), and the molecular layer (ML). The IGL contains granule neurons (magenta), the most abundant neuron in the mammalian brain, while the PCL is composed of Purkinje neurons (gold), the principal neurons of the cerebellum. The ML has two kinds of inhibitory interneurons, stellate and basket cells (red), that synapse onto Purkinje neurons.

High Tension Praneeth Namburi, Tye Lab, MIT

Neurotensin is a ubiquitous neuropeptide in both the central nervous system and gastrointestinal tract. While neurotensin is released from neurons and modulates activity in several neuronal populations, it is also expressed in glia. Here, a transgenic mouse expressing neutotensin (NT-Cre) was crossed with a reporter line (Ai14). The resulting mouse expressed a fluorescent neurotensin reporter in oligodendrocytes wrapped around blood vessels in the cerebellum.

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Fireworks Christoph Straub, Sabatini Lab, Harvard

The striatum is primarily composed of inhibitory neurons called medium spiny neurons (MSN). MSNs can be subdivided into two categories: those in the direct or indirect pathway. Direct pathway MSNs promote movement and express the dopamine receptor subtype 1 (D1), while indirect pathway MSNs inhibit movement and express the dopamine receptor subtype 2 (D2). Striatal MSNs in this horizontal brain slice were randomly labeled with a fluorescent protein by in utero electroporation.

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BASKET weavE Wendy Wang, Lefebvre Lab, University of Toronto

The molecular layer of the cerebellum contains inhibitory interneurons, stellate and basket cells. In this image, cerebellar basket and Purkinje cells are individually labeled with multicolor XFP. This “Cerebellar Brainbow” image shows basket cells forming baskets around Purkinje cell bodies labeled in gray.

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Average Joe Yiming Xiao & Vladimir Fonov, NIST Lab, Montreal Neurological Institute, McGill University

Brain atlases, or "maps," of the organization of a brain's structures are important tools in medical education, diagnosis of brain diseases, and planning of neurosurgery. However, everyone’s brain is different and the optimal atlas should depict the average brain shape of a population. This image shows a brain atlas made of 20 human brain scans using magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) with the brain surface rendered in blue, blood vessels in yellow, and the rest of the head artistically stylized.

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Among the thousands of cells in this view, one lone neuron was struck by a bullet - a gold bullet carrying DNA to express a fluorescent protein. The cell body lies within the CA1 region of the hippocampus (pink), where numerous dendrites plunge back towards the granule cell layer, receiving tens-of-thousands of inputs from cells such as CA3 neurons, inhibitory neurons, and granule cells. The culmination of these signals is sent as output through the cell's long and thin axons, orbiting the outer ring of tissue called the stratum oriens.

Golden BulleT Kathleen Beeson, Schnell Lab, Vollum Institute

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Dendrites, the part of the neuron that receives signals from other neurons, branch out, or arborize, to make connections with neighboring neurons. The size, orientation, and density of dendritic arbors vary dramatically across different cell types in the brain. Pictured is a layer 2/3 pyramidal neuron retrogradely labeled from a cortical cholinergic interneuron (ChAT-IRES-Cre transgenic mouse and modified rabies virus tracing).

Branching Adam Granger, Sabatini Lab, Harvard

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The parts of neurons that pass through a given brain region on their way to their final destinations are called axons of passage. These neurons originated in the medial prefrontal cortex and the axons were observed at the bottom of the midbrain in the cerebral peduncle. Neurons were labeled with a dual viral strategy (AAV-DIO-eYFP and retrograde CAV2-Cre)

En Route Caitlin M. Vander Weele, Tye Lab, MIT

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The BirdS & The Bees Amanda Kentner Lab, Massachusetts College of Pharmacy & Health Sciences

The reproductive cycle of the female rat is characterized by four different stages: estrus, metestrus, diestrus, and proestrus. Ovulation, when the eggs are released, occurs between the beginning of proestrus and the cessation of estrus. It is during this time that breeding may occur. Pictured is a vaginal swab sample from a female rat in estrus, as viewed through a microscope. The focus is on the female's rounded cornified cells (with jagged irregular edges) and the male's spermatozoa (squiggly long lines with 'hooked' heads). The presence of these cells together indicates a successful mating.

Cosmic Rodrigo Garcia, Sur Lab, MIT

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Astrocytes, named after their star-like shape, are the the most abundant category of glial cells found in the brain and spinal cord. Although once ignored, astrocytes have recently been shown to play a critical role in regulating synaptic transmission between neurons. Pictured is a single astrocyte (red) imaged across multiple depths.

Neurons are held in place in through a variety of mechanisms. Perineuronal nets are lattices of linked proteins and sugars that connect neurons to their neighbors and anchor them in position. These nets have important roles in gating plasticity and regulate some forms of learned behaviors. The pink punctate staining here highlights perineuronal nets on parvalbumin-expressing interneurons (green) in the prelimbic cortex of a rat.

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Connecting dots Wes Paylor, Ian Winship Lab, University of Alberta In collaboration with Howland Lab, University of Saskatchewan

iN THE zONE Benjamin Saunders, Janak Lab, Johns Hopkins

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The dorsal striatum is a crucial component of the brain's reward system. The dorsal striatum can be divided into two distinct compartments: striosomes (also known as "patch") & matrix. Shown are projections from neurons in the lateral orbitofrontal cortex (OFC) to the dorsal striatum. These lateral OFC neurons preferentially terminate in striosomes - which appear as the uneven and blotchy pattern observed.

Constellation Nicholas Sofroniew, Svoboda Lab, Janelia

By removing a small section of a mouse's skull and replacing it with glass, called a cranial window, hundreds of neurons can be visualized stably across many days. This picture, taken with a large field 2-photon microscope (2p-RAM), shows data from a 4.4 x 4.2 mm2 field of view containing somatosensory, retrosplenial, parietal, and motor cortical areas recorded in a behaving mouse. Individual neurons are visible as clusters of similarly colored pixels based on their functional class. Blue pixels are correlated with tactile input, orange pixels are correlated with locomotion, and green pixels are active but uncorrelated.

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Clusters of specialized dendritic spines, called thorny excrescences, are found on excitatory pyramidal neurons in the CA3 subregion of the hippocampus. These unique postsynaptic structures are composed of a single spine neck containing multiple spine heads. In this image, CA3 pyramidal neurons were filled with a rabies virus expressing GFP.

Thorn & rose David Brann, Siegelbaum Lab, Columbia University

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The locus coeruleus is one of the main sources of the neurotransmitter norepinephrine (NE) in the mammalian brain. NE signaling has promotes arousal and alertness. This image is of the locus coeruleus from a transgenic NET-Cre mouse, which allows for selective targeting of NE neurons, crossed with a reporter line (Ai32). Neurons expressing the NE transporter (NET) are in red and those constitutively expressing ChR2-GFP are in green. The almost total overlap of the fluorescent proteins results in a yellow overlay. The DNA in cell nuclei are stained with DAPI (blue).

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Cerulean Storm Andrea Bari & Sarah LeBlanc, Tonegawa Lab, MIT

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Edge of Infection Eitan Kaplan, Bear Lab, MIT

Interneurons are GABAergic cells that make local connections within a brain region, rather than making long-range connections to another structure. Interneurons are often grouped based on the types of proteins they express. Here, parvalbumin (PV)-expressing interneurons (pink) are infected with an adeno-associated virus (yellow). Infected neurons can be seen reaching out to contact non-infected neurons in the mouse visual cortex.

Brain impulses are translated into motor movement at the neuromuscular junction (NMJ). At NMJs, motor neurons directly contact muscles, causing them to contract when activated. This image shows a developing motoneuron projecting to muscle 12 in a fruit fly (Drosophila). All neurons (HRP) are shown in green and Wingless/Wnt in magenta.

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TeAming up Tim Mosca Lab , Thomas Jefferson University

Food for thought Anastassia Voronova, Miller & Kaplan Labs, Hospital for Sick Children

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To develop properly, the brain needs stem cells, including one type called cortical precursor cells. Found in the cortex these cells contain the intricate instructions necessary to produce a healthy, functioning brain. This image of a healthy, newborn mouse brain shows all the cells arising from cortical precursors. We can track these cells because they contain a gene that produces a red-glowing protein.

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PeakS & ValleyS Christopher R Madan, Kensinger Lab, Boston College

The folded structure of the cortex increases the brain's surface area while still allowing it to fit within the constraints of the skull. The "peaks" are called gyri and the "valleys" are called sulci. Interestingly, not all animals have cortical gyrification, and instead have a smooth appearance. This is a 3D reconstruction of Chris' brain inside his head, aligned with a sagittal slice through the volume, derived from a structural magnetic resonance image (MRI).

As we travel through the world, our movements destabilize our heads and bodies. Despite this, our gaze remains steady. We have a simple, ancient reflex to thank for this most useful bit of brain function. Key to this reflex are central vestibular neurons. They transform the sensation of destabilization into the language of the motor neurons that ultimately move the eyes. Here we can see two prominent central vestibular neurons — in the brain of a larval zebrafish — with large yellow branches in yellow/orange that relay stabilizing commands to motor neurons.

Staring Contest David Schoppik, NYU, Image taken in the Schier Lab, Harvard

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Sensing Scents Jeremy C. McIntyre Lab, University of Florida

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Scents we breathe in from the air stimulate our olfactory sensory neurons in the nose, which then pass the signal on to the olfactory bulbs. Second order neurons in the olfactory bulb, transmit this information downstream into the brain for further processing. This image is of an olfactory bulb following a viral injection to express GFP (green). The section was immunostained for tyrosine hydroxylase (TH, red) and counterstained with DAPI (blue) to label DNA in cell nuclei.

What looks like a “cells on fire” is staining for microtubule-associated protein 2 (MAP2, green), which binds to the structures that help maintain cell shape, and excitatory amino acid protein transporter 2 (EAAT2, red), a protein on the surface of astrocytes that removes excitatory neurotransmitters from the space around the cells. By removing extra excitatory neurotransmitters, astrocytes protect neighboring neurons from “overstimulation” that otherwise can be detrimental to their function or even kill the neuron.

cells On Fire Henrik Martens, Synaptic Systems

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Decisions, Decisions Tristan Hynes & Catherine Thomas, Lovic Lab, University of Calgary

The prefrontal cortex (PFC), located just behind your forehead, is responsible for decision-making, planning, and behavioral control. Shown are pyramidal projection neurons in the medial PFC transduced with hM4D(Gi)-mCherry DREADDs using a dual-viral strategy.

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Retinal Display Jaroslav Icha, Norden Lab, Max Planck Institute of Molecular Cell Biology and Genetics

The retina is the tissue in the back of the eye that detects light from our environment. When light reaches the photoreceptors cells at the very back of the eye, electrical conductances are then sent through an intricate network of neurons that parse through visual information and extract specific features of the complex visual scene. Imaged is the eye of a four days old zebrafish larva with ganglion, amacrine, horizontal and photoreceptor cells visualized with different membrane targeted fluorescent proteins.

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Clearing and labeling techniques for large-scale biological tissues, such as recently developed CLARITY and stochastic electrotransport, enable simultaneous extraction of molecular and structural information with minimal disassembly of whole-brain samples. Shown here is the whole brain of a Thy1-eYFP mouse that is cleared and half-immunostained with stochastic electrotransport. Sparsely labeled neurons are scattered throughout the cortex and subcortical structures, with highest concentration in the hippocampus.

See-Through Brain Sung-Yon Kim, Chung Lab, MIT

The retina is filled with different types of directionally-selective ganglion cells that prefer motion in all of the four main directions of visual space. Retinal ganglion cells are the output neurons of the retina that send their axons to the brain. In order to detect highly specific features in a visual scene, retinal ganglion cells have evolved a diverse array of specializations. This image is of a directionally-selective retinal ganglion cell (or DSGC) which only fires action potentials when light moves upwards. This is how our brain starts to piece together information about moving objects in our outside world.

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One Way street Malak El Quessny, Feller Lab, UC Berkeley

Spinal tap Brett Hilton, Tetzlaff Lab, University of British Columbia

Although many neuroscientists study neurons within the brain, the spinal cord is critically important for transmitting sensory experiences to the brain and for executing motor commands from the brain. After spinal cord injury, sensation and movement is lost below the site of injury. Neuroscientists are investigating regeneration of the corticospinal tract (green) which controls hand function. Here, corticospinal axons regenerate past a spinal cord injury site that contains transplanted Schwann cells (red), a type of glia.

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Holding shape Ekaterina Turlova, Sun Lab, University of Toronto

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The structure of a cell is maintained by its cytoskeleton, a complex network of specialized proteins. The cytoskeleton is filled with cytoplasm, a viscous, gel-like substance. This image shows mouse hippocampal neurons at an early stage of development, stained for two cytoskeletal proteins: tubulin (green) and actin (red).

Frozen In Time Anna Beyeler, Tye Lab, MIT

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The amydgala is another key brain region in the limbic circuit and processes emotional information about both good and bad things in the environment. Pictured are neurons in the amydgala that express CAMPARI, an activity-dependent marker that switches from green to red when the neurons are active and exposed to violet light.

Making Contact Christophe Leterrier, CRN2M/CNRS-AMU, Marseille

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Newly forming axons and dendrites are called neurites. Neurites reach outwards in search of appropriate targets to form synapses, or connections with other neurons. At the tip of each neurite is a structure called a growth cone, which contains numerous actin filaments. The growth cone reaches out and tests different contacts until it finds the right path and connects with the right partner. Pictured is actin in a large axonal growth cone imaged with 3D STORM super-resolution microscopy, which allows to get a ten times better resolution than classical microscopy, down to 20 nanometers.

High Times Margaret Davis, Laboratory for Integrative Neuroscience, NIAAA/NIH

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The brain's endocannabinoid system is involved in mood, movement, memory, and appetite modulation, and is the target of the drug marijuana. Unlike traditional neurotransmtters, endocannabinoids are released from the postsynaptic neuron and travel backwards to act on the presynaptic neuron. This image shows cannabinoid receptor 1 (CB1) stained in blue and dopamine receptors, D2-GFP (green), and D1-tdTomato (red) in a double transgenic "XMAS" mouse.

subStratum Gillian Matthews, Caitlin Vander Weele, Tye Lab, MIT

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Inputs and outputs of the prefrontal cortex (PFC) are organized into layers. This image shows dopamine terminals (white) in layer 5 of the medial PFC surrounding pyramidal neurons projecting to the dorsal periaqueductal gray (cyan).

twisted Sean Reed, Britt Lab, McGill University

Planning and executing voluntary movement, like picking up a pen, is controlled by the motor cortices. Stimulation of neurons in the motor cortex results in muscle contractions on the opposite side of the body. This illustration depicts a small cluster of pyramidal neurons in the motor cortex expressing a fluorescent calcium indicator (GCaMP6s), both within their cell bodies and throughout their dendrites and axons.

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The Picower Institute for Learning & Memory https://picower.mit.edu/ Massachusetts Institute of Technology Kay M. Tye Lab http://tyelab.mit.edu/ Massachusetts Institute of Technology

Gold Sponsors (180 copies)

Silver Sponsors (90 copies)

Image Credit: Rodrigo Garcia, MIT

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Patricio O'Donnell Pfizer

Dr. Jorge & Heidi Ochoa

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Acknowledgements

Dr. Ann Graybiel Massachusetts Institute of Technology Institute Professor, foreword contributor, & generous supporter of Interstellate Jordan Matelsky Johns Hopkins University Researcher and website developer at interstellate.me Dr. Benjamin Saunders Johns Hopkins University Postdoctoral fellow & creative mind behind the title "Interstellate" Dr. Gillian Matthews Massachusetts Institute of Technology Postdoctoral fellow, sci art mentor, & creator of our gorgeous cover image Christine Liu UC Berkeley Graduate student, artist, & skilled hands responsible for our logo www.twophotonart.com

Image Credit: Gillian Matthews, Caitlin Vander Weele, MIT

Aadil Bharwani The Brain-Body Institute, Dept. of Pathology & Molecular Medicine Michael G. DeGroote School of Medicine McMaster University, ON, CA C. Savio Chan, PhD Assistant Professor, Principal Investigator Department of Physiology Northwestern Univeristy, IL, USA Kurt Fraser Graduate Student, Janak Lab Department of Psychological & Brain Sciences The Johns Hopkins University, MD, USA Andrea Globa Graduate Student, Shernaz Bamji Lab Graduate Program in Neuroscience Dept. of Cellular & Physiological Sciences University of British Columbia, BC, CA Vedran Lovic, PhD Assistant Professor, Principal Investigator Dept. of Psychology Alberta Children's Hospital Research Institute Hotchkiss Brain Institute University of Calgary, AB, CA

Writing & Editing Team

Image Credit: Lou Beaulieu-Laroche, MIT

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Tabitha Moses School of Medicine Wayne State University, MI, USA Amy Nusbaum Graduate Student Department of Psychology Washington State University Ayesha Tasneem Undergraduate Researcher, Julie Lefebvre Lab Dept. of Molecular Genetics University of Toronto / SickKids ON, CA Ben Saunders, PhD Postdoctoral Fellow, Janak Lab Department of Psychological & Brain Sciences The Johns Hopkins University, MD, USA Amanda Kentner, PhD Associate Professor, Principal Investigator School of Arts & Sciences Massachusetts College of Pharmacy & Health Sciences, MA, USA Caitlin M. Vander Weele Graduate Student, Kay Tye Lab Dept. of Brain and Cognitive Sciences Massachusetts Institute of Technology, MA, USA

Image Credit: David Brann, Columbia University

Joaquin Navajas Acedo Predoctoral Researcher Piotrowski Lab Stowers Institute for Medical Research, MO, USA Jason Askvig, PhD Assistant Professor, Principal Investgator Dept. of Biology Concordia College, MN, USA Lou Beaulieu-Laroche Graduate Student, Mark Harnett Lab Dept. of Brain and Cognitive Sciences Massachusetts Institute of Technology, MA, USA Andrea Bari, PhD Postdoctoral Fellow, Tonegawa Lab Dept. of Brain and Cognitive Sciences Massachusetts Institute of Technology, MA, USA Kathleen Beeson Graduate Student, Schnell / Westbrook Labs Vollum Insitute Oregon Health & Science University, OR, USA Nora Benavidez Graduate Student, Hongwei Dong Lab Program in Neuroscience University of Southern California, CA, USA Anna Beyeler, PhD Postdoctoral Fellow, Kay Tye Lab Dept. of Brain and Cognitive Sciences Massachusetts Institute of Technology, MA, USA

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Contributor Affiliations

David H. Brann Graduate Student Program in Neuroscience Harvard University, MA, USA C. Savio Chan, PhD Assistant Professor, Principal Investigator Department of Physiology Northwestern Univeristy, IL, USA Ana R. Conde Graduate Student, Division of Neuroscience Dept. of Physiology, Anatomy, and Cell Biology Pablo de Olavide University, Seville, Spain Margaret Davis, PhD Staff Scientist Laboratory for Integrative Neuroscience National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism Jeremy Day, PhD Assistant Professor, Principal Investigator Dept. of Neurobiology University of Alabama at Birmingham, AL, USA Johannes de Jong, PhD Postdoctoral fellow, Lammel Lab Dept. of Molecular & Cell Biology UC Berkeley, CA, USA Thijs Dhollander, PhD Postdoctoral Fellow The Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health Melbourne, Australia

Malek El Quessny Graduate Student, Feller Lab Helen Wills Neuroscience Institute UC Berkeley, CA, USA Zen Faulkes, PhD Professor, Principal Investigator Dept. of Biology University of Texas Rio Grande Valley, TX, USA Vladimir Fonov, PhD Research Associate, NIST Lab McConnell Brain Imaging Centre Montreal Neurological Institute, Montreal, CA Rodrigo Garcia, PhD Postdoctoral Fellow, Sur Lab Dept. of Brain and Cognitive Sciences Massachusetts Institute of Technology, MA, USA William Giardino, PhD Postdoctoral Fellow, de Lecea Lab Dept. of Psychiatry & Behavioral Sciences Stanford Univeristy, CA, USA Andrea Globa Graduate Student, Shernaz Bamji Lab Dept. of Cellular & Physiological Sciences University of British Columbia, BC, CA Adam Granger, PhD Postdoctoral Fellow, Bernardo Sabatini Lab Dept. of Neurobiology Harvard Medical School, MA, USA

Image Credit: Steve Ramirez, MIT

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Ewout Groen, PhD Postdoctoral Fellow, Gillingwater Lab Centre for Integrative Physiology University of Edinburgh, Scotland Anahita Hamidi Graduate Student, Wiltgen Lab Neuroscience Graduate Group UC Davis, CA, USA Brett Hilton, PhD Graduate Student, Tetzlaff Lab International Collaboration on Repair Discoveries (ICORD) University of British Columbia, BC, CA John Howland, PhD Associate Professor, Principal Investigator Dept. of Physiology University of Saskatchewan, SK, CA Tristan Hynes Graduate Student, Lovic Lab Dept. of Psychology University of Calgary, AB, CA Jaroslav Icha Graduate Student, Norden Lab Max Planck Institute of Molecular Cell Biology and Genetics Dresden, Germany

Contributor Affiliations

Catherine Kaminski Graduate Student, Mast Lab Department of Biology Eastern Michigan University, MI, USA Eitan Kaplan, Ph.D. Postdoctoral Fellow, Hevner Lab Center for Integrative Brain Research Seattle Children's Research Institute, WA, USA Sung-Yon Kim, PhD Assistant Professor, Principal Investigator Institute of Molecular Biology and Genetics Seoul National University, Korea Amanda Kentner, PhD Associate Professor, Principal Investigator School of Arts & Sciences Massachusetts College of Pharmacy & Health Sciences, MA, USA Alex Kwan, PhD Assistant Professor, Principal Investigator Dept. of Psychiatry Yale School of Medicine, CT, USA Sarah LeBlanc Technical Associate, Tonegawa Lab Picower Institute for Learning and Memory Massachusetts Institute of Technology, MA, USA Christophe Leterrier, PhD Researcher Center for Neurobiology & Neurophysiology Aix-Marseille Universite, Marseille, France

Christopher R. Madan, PhD Postdoctoral Fellow, Kensinger Lab Dept. of Psychology Boston College, MA, USA Megha Maheshwari, PhD Postdoctoral Fellow, Vidita Vaidya Dept. of Biological Sciences Tata Institue of Fundamental Research Mumbai, India Henrik Martens, PhD Synaptic Systems GmbH Goettingen, Germany http://www.sysy.com Gillian A. Matthews, PhD Postdoctoral Fellow, Tye Lab Picower Institute for Learning and Memory Massachusetts Institute of Technology, MA, USA Jeremy C. McIntyre, PhD Assistant Professor, Principal Investigator Dept. of Neuroscience University of Florida, FL, USA Timothy J. Mosca, PhD Assistant Professor, Principal Investigator Dept. of Neuroscience Thomas Jefferson University, PA USA Praneeth Namburi, PhD Postdoctoral Associate Tye Lab Picower Institute for Learning and Memory Massachusetts Institute of Technology, MA, USA

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Contributor Affiliations

Image Credit: Caitlin Vander Weele, MIT

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Image Credit: Anna Beyeker , MIT

David Schoppik, PhD Assistant Professor, Principal Investigator Department of Neuroscience & Physiology New York School of Medicine, NY, USA Lindsay Schwarz, PhD Postdoctoral Fellow, Liqun Luo Lab Dept. of Biology Stanford University, CA, USA Desiree Seib, PhD Postdoctoral Fellow, Snyder Lab Dept. of Psychology, Behavioral Neuroscience University of British Columbia, BC, CA Jason Shepherd, PhD Assistant Professor, Principal Investigator Dept. of Neurobiology & Anatomy University of Utah, School of Medicine, UT, USA Jason Snyder, PhD Assistant Professor, Principal Investigator Dept. of Psychology, Behavioral Neuroscience University of British Columbia, BC, CA Nicholas Sofroniew, PhD Postdoctoral Fellow, Svoboda Lab Janelia Research Campus Christoph Straub, PhD Postdoctoral Fellow, Bernardo Sabatini Lab Dept. of Neurobiology Harvard Medical School, MA, USA

Wes Paylor Graduate Student, Winship Lab Dept. of Psychiatry University of Alberta, AB, CA Mike J.F. Robinson, PhD Assistant Professor, Principal Investigator Dept. of Psychology, Neuroscience, & Behavior Wesleyan University, MA, USA Steve Ramirez, PhD Junior Fellow, Principal Investigator Center for Brain Science Harvard University, MA, USA Austin Ramsey Graduate Student, Blanpied Lab Dept. of Physiology University of Maryland, MD, USA Sean J. Reed Graduate Student, Britt Lab Department of Psychology McGill University, Montreal, CA Bernardo Sabatini, PhD, MD Professor of Neurobiology, Principal Investigator Dept. of Neurobiology, Harvard Medical School Harvard University, MA, USA Benjamin Saunders, PhD Postdoctoral Fellow, Patricia Janak Lab Dept. of Psychological & Brain Sciences John’s Hopkins School of Medicine, MD, USA

Contributor Affiliations

Ayesha Tasneem Undergraduate Researcher, Julie Lefebvre Lab Dept. of Molecular Genetics University of Toronto / SickKids ON, CA Catherine Thomas Graduate Student, Lovic Lab Dept. of Psychology University of Calgary, AB, CA Nicolas Tritsch, PhD Assistant Professor, Principal Investigator Neuroscience Institute New York University, NY, USA Ekaterina Turlova Graduate Student, Sun Lab Dept. of Physiology University of Toronto, ON, CA Caitlin M. Vander Weele Graduate Student, Kay Tye Lab Dept. of Brain and Cognitive Sciences Massachusetts Institute of Technology, MA, USA Anastassia Voronova, PhD Postdoctoral Fellow, Miller & Kaplan Labs Neurosciences & Mental Health Program Hospital for Sick Children University of Toronto, ON, CA

Contributor Affiliations

Image Credit: Nora Benavidez, Hongwei Dong Lab, Univeristy of Southern California

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Ian Winship, PhD Associate Professor, Principal Investigator Neurochemical Research Unit Department of Psychiatry University of Alberta, AB, CA Vidita Vaidya, PhD Associate Professor, Principal Investigator Dept. of Biological Sciences Tata Institute of Fundamental Research Mumbai, India Yiming Xiao, PhD Postdoctoral fellow PERFORM Centre Concordia University, Montreal, CA Wendy Wang Graduate Student, Julie Lefebvre Lab Dept. of Molecular Genetics University of Toronto / SickKids ON, CA

"Our Thicket Brain" by: Ana R. Conde

Contact E-mail: interstellate@gmail.com Twitter: @interstellate_ Web: http://interstellate.me/

By: Christopher Madan