One of the most powerful features of Functional Programming that we can leverage in Ruby is the concept of a Closure.

That said, what in the world is a closure and what does it do?

An Example to Start

Let’s say we have a function that returns another function:

adder = proc { |a|

proc { |b| a + b }

}

If we were to call this function, we would get back another function. Let’s call it add3:

add3 = adder.call(3)

Now why is that useful? Well we could pass it to a function like map to start:

[1, 2, 3].map(&add3)

# => [4, 5, 6]

Hold on, how did it remember that?

The function remembered that a was 3 . How exactly was that?

A closure is a function which remembers the context it was created in.

That means that inside that returned function, anything around it is absolutely fair game to get a hold of.

It counts for something

Consider the idea of a counter. In Ruby we might make a class for this:

class Counter

attr_reader :count def initialize(count = 0)

@count = count

end def increment(n = 1)

@count += 1

end

end

# => #<Counter:0x00007fb9353179f0

c.increment

# => 1

c.increment

# => 2 c = Counter.new# => # @count =0>c.increment# => 1c.increment# => 2

You could also use a closure for the same idea:

counter = proc {

count = 0 {

increment: proc { |n = 1| count += n }

}

} c = counter.call

# => {:increment=>#<Proc:0x00007fb9352d3b10@(pry):19>}

c[:increment].call

# => 1

c[:increment].call

# => 2

Wait, proc arguments can take defaults!? Yep. Anything you can put in a method signature is fair game in a block’s argument list. There are some interesting things you can do with this, but that’s beyond the scope of this particular article. Spoilers for the fun one though: they can take a block as an argument too.

Now granted that’s not incredibly practical in Ruby. Even the class has a shorter variant:

counter = (1..Float::INFINITY).to_enum

# => #<Enumerator: ...>

counter.next

# => 1

counter.next

# => 2

You can even get it to count by multiples too:

counter = (1..Float::INFINITY).step(5).to_enum

# => #<Enumerator: ...>

counter.next

# => 1.0

counter.next

# => 6.0

counter.next

# => 11.0

Though this quickly gets into a discussion on Enumerators and Lazyness, which we’ll save for another post. Try it with letters too, they’re loads of fun!

Wait, didn’t that class “remember” too?

Now that’s a fun point. Classes are, in ways, an approximation for closures. They encapsulate a bit of state and allow you to modify it through a defined API (fancy talk for methods you can call on it.)

A fair argument to make would be that they’re not really functions and can’t act li…

class Adder

def initialize(n)

@n = n

end def to_proc

proc { |v| @n + v }

end

end [1, 2, 3].map(&Adder.new(5))

# => [6, 7, 8]

Well that may be, but new is cumbersome, we want to be able to use some of our Proc-like methods kinda like…

class Adder

def initialize(n)

@n = n

end def to_proc

proc { |v| @n + v }

end



def call(v)

self.to_proc.call(v)

end



alias_method :===, :call



class << self

def call(n)

new(n)

end



alias_method :[], :call

end

end [1, 2, 3].map(&Adder[15])

# => [16, 17, 18]

[1, 2, 3].map(&Adder.(7))

# => [8, 9, 10]

As it turns out, classes can make some very fair approximations of some closure-like behavior by either implementing the methods themselves or just straight inheriting from a Proc.

In the Wild

Personally I use this trick a lot for libraries like Qo and Xf, mostly because it allows for inheritance to stack on top of it, redefining what it means to express them as functions. A particularly fun example of this is in the Guard Block matcher from Qo:



# => true

matcher = Qo.m('baweaver', :*) { |(name, _)| "It's the creator" }

# => #<Qo::Matchers::GuardBlockMatcher:0x00007fb2ae983d08

#

#

#

#

# >

matcher.call(['baweaver', 'something'])

# => [true, "It's the creator"]

matcher.call(['havenwood', 'something'])

# => [false, false] require 'qo'# => truematcher = Qo.m('baweaver', :*) { |(name, _)| "It's the creator" }# => # @array_matchers =["baweaver", :*], @fn =# , @keyword_matchers ={}, @type ="and"# >matcher.call(['baweaver', 'something'])# => [true, "It's the creator"]matcher.call(['havenwood', 'something'])# => [false, false]

We’ll get to the array return in a second, but let’s take a look at how it’s different from a regular matcher which just returns true or false:



# a status and potentially call through to the associated block

# if a base matcher would have passed

#

#

# (status, result) tuple

def to_proc

Proc.new { |target|

super[target] ? [true,

}

end # Overrides the base matcher's #to_proc to wrap the value in# a status and potentially call through to the associated block# if a base matcher would have passed @return [Proc[Any] - (Bool, Any)]# (status, result) tupledef to_procProc.new { |target|super[target] ? [true, @fn .call(target)] : NON_MATCHend

The Guard Block inherits from a regular matcher, meaning if it would have matched before it knows it can call the guarded function.

So why the Array return? What if the guarded block returns false? How do we know that was a match? The secret there is it returns an additional piece of state with it to let us know that it did indeed match, and that the value that guard block returned was indeed falsy.

This is similar to a concept I’ll cover in a future article about Some and None types to wrap that concept. The only reason I don’t use that in Qo is to keep it lightweight and not impose any additional ideas on someone’s applications.

Wrapping Up

As mentioned before, Functional Programming and Object Oriented programming are not such different concepts as much as different ways to express some of the same ideas.

Given that Ruby does both, we can leverage ideas from both domains to get even more expressive code.

If you haven’t yet, I would highly recommend taking a brief stint in Scala to see another OO / FP language that leans more heavily towards FP. This book does a great job of building into those concepts:

If Javascript is more your thing, there are also a few good reads in that domain:

There’s an abundance of good ideas in other languages, so don’t be afraid to journey out and learn from them. If there’s enough demand for it, I could be convinced to write up a FP reading list as well so let me know in the comments or on Twitter @keystonelemur!

Enjoy!

The next article is on Flow Control: