Ceres is the largest asteroid belt object, and the Dawn spacecraft observed Ceres since 2015. Dawn observed two morphologically distinct linear features on Ceres's surface: secondary crater chains and pit chains. Pit chains provide unique insights into Ceres's interior evolution. We interpret pit chains called the Samhain Catenae as the surface expression of subsurface fractures. Using the pit chains' spacings, we estimate that the localized thickness of Ceres's fractured, outer layer is approximately ≥58 km, at least ~14 km greater than the global average. We hypothesize that extensional stresses, induced by a region of upwelling material arising from convection/diapirism, formed the Samhain Catenae. We derive characteristics for this upwelling material, which can be used as constraints in future interior modeling studies. For example, its predicted location coincides with Hanami Planum, a high‐elevation region with a negative residual gravity anomaly, which may be surficial evidence for this proposed region of upwelling material.

1 Introduction Prior to Dawn's arrival, dwarf planet Ceres (radius ~ 470 km) was studied via telescopic observations, which allowed for the initial determination of its dimensions and average bulk density, and provided evidence for at least partial differentiation (Drummond et al., 2014; Thomas et al., 2005). Additionally, some thermal models predicted an undifferentiated Cerean interior (Zolotov, 2009), while others predicted Ceres differentiated into two layers: a rocky interior covered by a 50–100 km thick water‐ice‐dominated outer layer (Castillo‐Rogez & McCord, 2010; McCord & Sotin, 2005). Extensive viscous relaxation was predicted to occur within the water‐ice‐dominated outer layer (Bland, 2013). A deeper understanding of Ceres's interior required Dawn's orbital observations, which refine Ceres's dimensions and bulk density (Russell et al., 2016) and also indicate partial differentiation into two layers: a rock‐rich interior covered by an outer layer that is comparatively enriched in volatiles (Park et al., 2016). Dawn's images are of higher resolution than previous telescopic observations: ≥35 m/pixel (Buczkowski et al., 2016) versus 30 km/pixel (Li et al., 2006). Dawn's images reveal a heavily cratered surface, and the impact craters are less viscously relaxed (Bland et al., 2016; Hiesinger et al., 2016) than pre‐Dawn predictions (Bland, 2013). Surface morphology and finite element modeling indicate that the outer layer is a mixture of <30–40% water ice/porosity and >60–70% rock/salts/clathrates (e.g., Bland et al., 2016). Dawn's ≥35 m/pixel high‐resolution images also show numerous linear features on Ceres's surface, which are interpreted to derive from both impact and tectonic processes (Buczkowski et al., 2016). Here we use a subset of the linear features to gain further insights into Ceres's interior.

3 Samhain Catenae Fractures and Thickness of Ceres's Outer Layer Another set of linear features, called the Samhain Catenae, are also not radial to a source impact crater (Figures 1 and 5). The Samhain Catenae are oriented ~NW‐SE between Occator and Urvara/Yalode craters. Unlike the Junina Catenae, we and Buczkowski et al. (2016) interpret that the Samhain Catenae are not secondary crater chains that originate from Urvara and/or Yalode, because the Samhain Catenae display the aforementioned morphological characteristics, and additional characteristics, that are typical of pit chains (Text S4 and Figure 2). Additionally, the Samhain Catenae are crosscut by Urvara's and Yalode's secondary crater chains, indicating that the Samhain Catenae formed first (Figures 3, 5). Figure 5 Open in figure viewer PowerPoint Samhain Catenae pit chains in (a) unmapped, (b) mapped, and (c) perspective views. In Figure 5 b white arrows show example locations where Urvara/Yalode radial secondary crater chains crosscut the Samhain Catenae pit chains, which are labeled at their northwestern tips. Black arrows indicate the polygonal crater Kirnis's straight rims, which align with the Samhain Catenae. Kirnis's southern straight rim merges with Samhain Catenae #4. The basemap is the Framing Camera LAMO clear filter global mosaic (Text S1 ). Figure 5 c shows Samhain Catenae #2–4 and an example en echelon pattern (black arrow) (Text S4 ). The Samhain Catenae consist of approximately six pit chains, some of which are made of multiple segments. The pit chains have a cumulative length of 1,211 km, an average length of 202 km, a maximum/minimum width of 11 km/5 km, and an average depth of 1.1 km (Figure 5). The Samhain Catenae are the only set of ≥1 km wide pit chains we identify on Ceres. Consistent with analogous pit chains on other bodies (Figure S3) (Buczkowski et al., 2008; Ferrill et al., 2011; Martin et al., 2017; Scully et al., 2014; Wyrick et al., 2004), we interpret that the Samhain Catenae pit chains are the surface expression of subsurface voids at depth. Surficial material drains into the subsurface voids and forms a funnel‐like shape that appears as a pit at the surface. The draining surficial material is likely impact‐generated debris, because Ceres is a heavily cratered body with many ejecta deposits (Buczkowski et al., 2016; Hiesinger et al., 2016). We interpret that extension fractures form the subsurface voids (Text S4). The spacing of tectonic features is often used to estimate the thicknesses of the layers in which they occur (e.g., Bland & McKinnon, 2015; Gioia et al., 2007; Yin et al., 2016). To estimate the localized thickness of Ceres's outer layer, we use a numerically and experimentally derived ratio of extension fracture spacing to fractured layer thickness, ~0.8–1.2 (Bai & Pollard, 2000). For this ratio to apply, the fractures must cut through the entire outer layer and the region must be saturated with fractures (i.e., the region contains the maximum possible number of fractures). The Samhain Catenae fractures, as indicated by the surficial pit chains, are likely near to saturation because their spacing is relatively regular: pit chains #1–2 are ~135 km apart, #2–3 are ~48 km apart, #3–4 are ~51 km apart, #4–5 are ~104 km apart, and #5–6 are ~104 km apart (Figure 5). It is possible that additional fractures exist in the subsurface, which, if located centrally between #1–2, #4–5, and #5–6, would result in a regular fracture spacing of ~50 km. Pit chains signifying such additional subsurface fractures could have been concealed or erased from the surface by superposing impact craters and their ejecta, such as Lociyo and Kirnis (Figure 5). Despite the possibility of additional fractures at depth, we only use the spacings of the six observed pit chains in our calculations. Using the mean and standard deviation of the six pit chains' spacings, and the fracture spacing to fractured layer thickness ratio (~0.8–1.2), we estimate that the thickness of Ceres's fractured, outer layer in the localized region around the Samhain Catenae is ~58–134 km. Ceres's average global outer layer thickness has been derived from interior models based on Dawn's gravity observations: 41.0+3.2 –4.7 km (Ermakov et al., 2017; Fu et al., 2017) and 43–50 km (Mitri et al., 2017). In contrast, our outer layer thickness estimate only applies to the vicinity of the Samhain Catenae. Thus, our results suggest that Ceres's outer layer in this region is thicker than the global average. This is consistent with Ermakov et al. (2017), who suggest that the outer layer is thickest in a region that the Samhain Catenae are located on and adjacent to, called Hanami Planum (Figure 4). Ermakov et al. (2017) estimate that the outer layer is ~55 km thick at Hanami Planum, which is comparable to our lower estimate of the outer layer thickness (~58 km). A regional outer layer thickness of ~58 km is consistent with our aforementioned suggestion that additional fractures, whose associated pit chains have been buried or erased, result in the Samhain Catenae being spaced regularly at ~50 km. Thus, we interpret that our lower estimate, ~58 km, is most representative of Ceres's outer layer thickness in the vicinity of the Samhain Catenae. The gravity‐derived outer layer thickness estimates reflect density differences between the outer layer and the underlying rock‐rich interior, while our fracture‐derived estimate reflects a rheology/strength difference. Therefore, the consistency between the gravity‐derived and fracture‐derived estimates suggest that the density and rheology/strength boundaries between the outer layer and underlying rock‐rich interior occur at approximately the same depth in this region.

4 Reactivation and Formation of the Samhain Catenae Crosscutting relationships indicate that the Samhain Catenae formed first, followed by Yalode, and then Urvara craters (Figures 3 and 5). It is likely that after the Samhain Catenae's formation, events such as the deposition of impact ejecta would have partially or fully erased the initial Samhain Catenae pit chains. However, we suggest that the Samhain Catenae fractures were reactivated by the Yalode‐forming impact, because the Samhain Catenae pit chains closer to Yalode are deeper than the farther pit chains (Figure S7). Reactivating the fractures would result in new surficial material draining into the fractures, forming fresh pit chains on the surface that are visible as the Samhain Catenae today. The later formation of the nearby Urvara crater, which is similar in size (170 km diameter) to Yalode (260 km diameter), could also have reactivated parts of the Samhain Catenae. In the following subsections, we investigate three hypotheses for the formation of the Samhain Catenae, which would have occurred prior to their reactivation. 4.1 Samhain Catenae Formed by a Basin‐Forming Impact The pole positions of planes defined by the Samhain Catenae fractures are located within a putative relict impact basin, suggesting that the Samhain Catenae were formed by stresses induced by the basin‐forming impact (Marchi et al., 2016). However, the existence of the impact basin is unconfirmed. Also, the poles are not located at the center of the impact basin, which would provide stronger evidence for impact‐induced stresses forming the fractures, as occurred on Vesta (Buczkowski et al., 2012). Consequently, in agreement with Buczkowski et al. (2016), this is not our favored formation mechanism of the Samhain Catenae. 4.2 Samhain Catenae Formed by Freezing of a Global Subsurface Ocean Dawn data indicate that Ceres's outer layer is mixture of water ice, rock, salts, and/or clathrates (Bland et al., 2016; Fu et al., 2017; Hiesinger et al., 2016), and this mixture's tensile strength has not been measured. However, the tensile strength of water ice increases from ~0.01–1 MPa to ~2–22 MPa when mixed with silicate particles (Lange & Ahrens, 1983; Petrovic, 2003). Thus, we infer that without preexisting weaknesses such as fractures, the tensile strength of a water ice‐rock‐salt‐clathrate mix is approximately ≥10 MPa. Freezing a subsurface ocean would add ice to an overlying outer layer, thickening and inducing tensile stresses in the outer layer (Manga & Wang, 2007; Nimmo, 2004; O'Brien et al., 2015). To fracture an outer layer on Ceres with a tensile strength of ≥10 MPa, thickening of ≥10 km would be required (O'Brien et al., 2015), which could have occurred during freezing of a global subsurface ocean within a few 100 Myr after Ceres's formation (Castillo‐Rogez et al., 2016). If the Samhain Catenae fractures formed via this process, we would expect to observe globally distributed fractures, as on icy satellites (e.g., Manga & Wang, 2007; Nimmo, 2004). If it is possible for Yalode, and perhaps Urvara, to reactivate fractures, as discussed earlier, then it is also likely that impact craters comparable in size to Yalode and Urvara, such as the 280 km diameter Kerwan crater (Figure 1), could also have reactivated fractures. However, the Samhain Catenae are the only ≥1 km wide pit chains we observe on Ceres's surface. Thus, because there were opportunities for a globally distributed fracture set to be reactivated, and hence visible across Ceres today, we interpret that globally distributed fractures are not present. Therefore, this is also not our favored formation mechanism of the Samhain Catenae. 4.3 Samhain Catenae Formed by a Region of Upwelling Material Multiple interior evolution models predict convection approximately within Ceres's first billion years (King et al., 2016; Neveu & Desch, 2015; Travis & Feldman, 2016). Some models predict that convection continued after Ceres's first billion years, initially in the liquid state and perhaps later in the solid state (Neveu & Desch, 2015; Travis & Feldman, 2016). Additionally, upwelling of salt diapirs is proposed to occur in the geologically recent past (Buczkowski et al., 2016). Thus, we hypothesize that a region of upwelling material derived from one of these instances of convection or diapirism induced extensional stresses within a particular portion of Ceres's outer layer, to form the Samhain Catenae. Further modeling studies are needed to evaluate this hypothesis, and our analysis of the Samhain Catenae provides predictions about the proposed region of upwelling material's characteristics, which can be used as constraints by future interior modeling studies.

5 Characteristics of the Proposed Region of Upwelling Material To form the Samhain Catenae, the proposed region of upwelling material would have the following characteristics. The proposed upwelling would have occurred before the formation of Urvara and Yalode because we find that the Samhain Catenae are older than both. The upwelling material would induce extensional stresses greater than our previously approximated value of the outer layer's tensile strength (≥10 MPa). The extensional stresses would be approximately perpendicular to the Samhain Catenae's current orientation. The patterns of terrestrial dike swarms are indicative of the location of the mantle plume that formed them (Ernst & Buchan, 2001) (Figure S8). Here we approximate the location of the proposed region of upwelling material by using the patterns of dikes formed by terrestrial mantle plumes as analogs to the pattern of the Samhain Catenae. This comparison is possible because both dikes and fractures are formed by tensile stresses/extension, and thus, a dike is essentially a fracture that is infilled with material. The Samhain Catenae are most consistent with the linear pattern categorized by Ernst and Buchan (2001), because (a) they are approximately parallel to one another, (b) have a higher density in their northern region, which is closer to the location of the proposed region of upwelling material, and (c) their average width increases with distance from the location of the proposed region of upwelling material (Figures S7 and S8). The average width may have also been affected by reactivation from Yalode and possible Urvara. The Samhain Catenae's linear pattern is consistent with the proposed region of upwelling material being located adjacent to the northwestern end of the Samhain Catenae, at ~36°N, ~207°E (Figure 4).

6 Conclusions Our detailed analysis of Ceres's linear features finds that the Samhain Catenae are the only ≥1 km wide pit chains on Ceres's surface. There are also secondary crater chains formed by material ejected from nearby and distant impact craters. The Samhain Catenae's spacing indicates that Ceres's outer layer in their vicinity is approximately ≥58 km thick, which is at least ~14 km thicker than the global average. This localized outer layer thickness is consistent with gravity‐derived interior model estimations (Ermakov et al., 2017) and thus provides independent confirmation for this model. Additionally, we hypothesize that a region of upwelling material, derived from convection or diapirism, formed the Samhain Catenae. We find the characteristics of this proposed region of upwelling material, which can be used as constraints in future modeling of Ceres's interior evolution. For example, we find that its approximate location broadly coincides with Hanami Planum, a topographically high region with a negative residual gravity anomaly. A subsurface buoyancy‐driven anomaly combined with a high‐rigidity/thick outer layer is one possible explanation for Hanami Planum (Ermakov et al., 2017). Consequently, Hanami Planum may be evidence for our proposed region of upwelling material, and the Samhain Catenae may represent surficial evidence for past interior activity.

Acknowledgments Part of the research was carried out at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL), California Institute of Technology, under a contract with the National Aeronautics and Space Administration. We thank the Dawn Flight Team at JPL for the development, cruise, orbital insertion, and operations of the Dawn spacecraft at Ceres. We thank the instrument teams at the Max Planck Institute, German Aerospace Center (DLR), Italian National Institute for Astrophysics (INAF), and Planetary Science Institute (PSI) for the acquisition and processing of Dawn data. We thank both of the reviewers for their helpful comments. The Framing Camera data and shape model upon which we base our mapping are available on the PDS Small Bodies Node website at http://sbn.pds.nasa.gov/data_sb/missions/dawn.

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