For tasks such as buffering, when a heap is available, it’s ergonomic to have a data structure own the buffer. However, with no heap, owning a buffer (which can now only be an array, on stack or in a static mut ) would make that data structure have a variable size, which precludes most genericism. In this note I explore some solutions to this issue.

Motivation

I am writing a networking stack. A platform where a network stack is deployed often has a heap, but just as often it does not; a networking stack that does not require a heap also provides much tighter guarantees on packet processing latency, so it is desirable in its own regard.

Let’s focus on two details in a networking stack:

An interface has a set of assigned addresses, which can dynamically change.

An interface has a set of open sockets, which all contain buffers, and which can dynamically change.

Set of assigned addresses

Let’s start with the set of assigned addresses. An address, for the purpose of this note, will be:

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 pub enum Address { Invalid , Ipv4 ([ u8 ; 4 ]) } impl Address { pub fn is_invalid ( & self ) -> bool { match self { & Address :: Invalid => true , _ => false } } }

The API should:

Permit reading addresses;

Permit replacing addresses;

Permit appending addresses, if used with a collection.

Prohibit adding invalid addresses to the set.

Borrowing a mutable slice

A naïve solution would be to borrow a mutable slice of addresses:

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 pub struct Interface < 'a > { addresses : & 'a mut [ Address ] } impl < 'a > Interface < 'a > { pub fn new ( addresses : & 'a mut [ Address ]) -> Interface < 'a > { Interface { addresses : addresses } } pub fn addresses ( & 'a self ) -> & 'a [ Address ] { self .addresses } pub fn set_addresses ( & mut self , addrs : & 'a mut [ Address ]) { for addr in addrs .iter () { if addr .is_invalid () { panic! ( "invalid address" ) } } self .addresses = addrs } }

This works as expected, but can we improve the ergonomics of the case where we have the heap?

Using BorrowMut

We can parameterize Interface over not just the lifetime of the address slice but rather over anything that permits borrowing a slice:

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 use core :: borrow :: BorrowMut ; pub struct Interface < AddressesT : BorrowMut < [ Address ] > > { addresses : AddressesT } impl < AddressesT : BorrowMut < [ Address ] > > Interface < AddressesT > { pub fn new ( addresses : AddressesT ) -> Interface < AddressesT > { Interface { addresses : addresses } } pub fn addresses ( & self ) -> & [ Address ] { self .addresses .borrow () } pub fn set_addresses ( & mut self , addrs : AddressesT ) { for addr in addrs .borrow () .iter () { if addr .is_invalid () { panic! ( "invalid address" ) } } self .addresses = addrs } }

In case when heap is used (e.g. AddressesT is Vec<Address> ), even updating a single address would require allocating a new vector and then deallocating the old one, which is inefficient. In case without heap (e.g. AddressesT is &mut [Address] ), updating an arbitrary number of times isn’t possible at all! Fortunately, both issues can be solved in the same way:

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 pub fn update_addresses < R , F > ( & mut self , f : F ) where F : FnOnce ( & mut [ Address ]) -> R { f ( self .addresses .borrow_mut ()); for addr in self .addresses .borrow () .iter () { if addr .is_invalid () { panic! ( "invalid address" ) } } }

A downside of this solution is that it only works if the update function panics on error. I do not see an easy way to handle errors through Result using this pattern.

Specializing for collections

All collections may be BorrowMut<T> , but some may expose more methods than others— e.g. Vec<T> permits appending. We can specialize the impl Interface to permit appending to the set of addresses:

1 2 3 4 5 impl Interface < Vec < Address >> { pub fn add_address ( & mut self , addr : Address ) { self .addresses .push ( addr ) } }

Set of sockets

Let’s consider a simplified model again. A socket, using the techniques above to parameterize it with different kinds of buffers, could be represented with:

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 pub struct TcpSocket < BufferT : BorrowMut < [ u8 ] > > { rx_buffer : BufferT , tx_buffer : BufferT , // ... } impl < BufferT : BorrowMut < [ u8 ] > > TcpSocket < BufferT > { pub fn new ( rx_buffer : BufferT , tx_buffer : BufferT ) -> TcpSocket < BufferT > { TcpSocket { rx_buffer : rx_buffer , tx_buffer : tx_buffer } } pub fn recv ( & mut self , data : & mut [ u8 ]) { // dequeue from self.rx_buffer into data } pub fn send ( & mut self , data : & [ u8 ]) { // enqueue from data into self.tx_buffer } }

Generalizing over type of sockets

There could be different kinds of sockets, perhaps also an UdpSocket , and they would use a different type for the buffer (an UdpSocket would need to store the remote endpoint as well as the payload, at the very least). To accomodate this, let’s define a trait that the network interface could use to dispatch packets from the network and send queued packets to the network:

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 pub trait Socket { fn receive ( & mut self , data : & [ u8 ]) -> bool ; fn transmit ( & mut self ) -> & mut [ u8 ]; } impl < BufferT : BorrowMut < [ u8 ] > > Socket for TcpSocket < BufferT > { fn receive ( & mut self , data : & [ u8 ]) -> bool { // enqueue data into self.rx_buffer } fn transmit ( & mut self ) -> & mut [ u8 ] { // dequeue data from self.tx_buffer } }

Since the trait does not (and can not) expose the type parameters, the only way the network interface could manage the socket is through a slice of pointers to the trait object:

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 use std :: marker :: PhantomData ; pub struct Interface < 'a , SocketsT : BorrowMut < [ & 'a mut Socket ] > > { sockets : SocketsT , phantom : PhantomData <& 'a mut Socket > } impl < 'a , SocketsT : BorrowMut < [ & 'a mut Socket ] > > Interface < 'a , SocketsT > { pub fn new ( sockets : SocketsT ) -> Interface < 'a , SocketsT > { Interface { sockets : sockets , phantom : PhantomData } } pub fn poll ( & mut self , rx_data : & [ u8 ]) { for socket in self .sockets .borrow_mut () { if socket .receive ( rx_data ) { break } } } }

Accessing sockets held by interface

This is great, but how does the application code actually access the socket? Since the interface holds a mutable pointer to the socket, all access would have to be requested through the interface:

1 2 3 4 pub fn with_sockets < R , F > ( & mut self , f : F ) -> R where F : FnOnce ( & mut [ & 'a mut Socket ]) -> R { f ( self .sockets .borrow_mut ()) }

This solves the problem of obtaining the pointer, but that’s still a &Socket . There is the Any trait, but we cannot use it because it requires the contained value to have a 'static bound; a socket with e.g. a buffer borrowed from the stack would not have one.

To solve this, we can try cloning the implementation of Any (which regretfully restricts us to nightly, as there’s no way to get the TypeId of a type that’s not 'static ), and so we have to redeclare the intinsic ourselves:

1 2 3 4 5 6 impl Socket { pub fn downcast < T , R , F > ( & mut self , f : F ) -> R where T : Socket , F : FnOnce ( & mut T ) -> R { unsafe { /* dark magic */ } } }

Writing application code

Unfortunately, this doesn’t actually work. The downcast function would require spelling out the entire type, including the type of the buffer inside the socket:

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 fn main () { let mut rx_buffer = [ 0 ; 2048 ]; let mut tx_buffer = [ 0 ; 2048 ]; let mut socket = TcpSocket :: new ( & mut rx_buffer [ .. ], & mut tx_buffer [ .. ]); let mut sockets : [ & mut Socket ; 1 ] = [ & mut socket ]; let mut interface = Interface :: new ( & mut sockets [ .. ]); loop { interface .poll (); interface .with_sockets (| sockets | { sockets [ 0 ] .downcast :: < TcpSocket <& mut [ u8 ] > , _ , _ > (| socket | { // ... }); }) } }

All is well until we add the downcast call—but once we do, compilation fails with an error:

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 rustc 1.13.0 (2c6933acc 2016-11-07) error: `rx_buffer` does not live long enough --> <anon>:87:42 | 87 | let mut socket = TcpSocket::new(&mut rx_buffer[..], &mut tx_buffer[..]); | ^^^^^^^^^ does not live long enough ... 98 | } | - borrowed value only lives until here | = note: borrowed value must be valid for the static lifetime...

It’s not clear to me why exactly, but the downcast call implicitly adds a 'static lifetime, so that the constraint becomes T: Socket + 'static ; this appears to be a dead end.

Rethinking ownership

If we step back, it becomes clear that that the root cause is the fact that the socket is parameterized. If that wasn’t the case, we would not need any tricky downcasting, because we could simply use an enum.

To get rid of a parameter, we’ll (sadly) have to introduce a configuration feature. To make a type that wraps either a reference or an owned collection, we need to use indirection— through a heap allocation—and that means using Box. Something like:

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 use core :: ops ::{ Deref , DerefMut }; use core :: borrow :: BorrowMut ; use core :: fmt ; #[cfg(feature = "std" )] use std :: boxed :: Box ; #[cfg(feature = "std" )] use std :: vec :: Vec ; pub enum Managed < 'a , T : 'a + ? Sized > { Borrowed ( & 'a mut T ), #[cfg(feature = "std" )] Owned ( Box < BorrowMut < T >> ) } impl < 'a , T : 'a + fmt :: Debug + ? Sized > fmt :: Debug for Managed < 'a , T > { fn fmt ( & self , f : & mut fmt :: Formatter ) -> fmt :: Result { write! ( f , "Managed::from({:?})" , self .deref ()) } } impl < 'a , 'b : 'a , T : 'b + ? Sized > From <& 'b mut T > for Managed < 'b , T > { fn from ( value : & 'b mut T ) -> Self { Managed :: Borrowed ( value ) } } #[cfg(feature = "std" )] impl < T , U : BorrowMut < T > + 'static > From < Box < U >> for Managed < 'static , T > { fn from ( value : Box < U > ) -> Self { Managed :: Owned ( value ) } } #[cfg(feature = "std" )] impl < T : 'static > From < Vec < T >> for Managed < 'static , [ T ] > { fn from ( mut value : Vec < T > ) -> Self { value .shrink_to_fit (); Managed :: Owned ( Box :: new ( value )) } } impl < 'a , T : 'a + ? Sized > Deref for Managed < 'a , T > { type Target = T ; fn deref ( & self ) -> & Self :: Target { match self { & Managed :: Borrowed ( ref value ) => value , #[cfg(feature = "std" )] & Managed :: Owned ( ref value ) => ( ** value ) .borrow () } } } impl < 'a , T : 'a + ? Sized > DerefMut for Managed < 'a , T > { fn deref_mut ( & mut self ) -> & mut Self :: Target { match self { & mut Managed :: Borrowed ( ref mut value ) => value , #[cfg(feature = "std" )] & mut Managed :: Owned ( ref mut value ) => ( ** value ) .borrow_mut () } } }

(The weird (**value).borrow_mut() construct is necessary because of Rust issue 38425).

Using Managed<T> in libraries

Now, let’s rewrite the sockets using Managed<T> ; this will considerably simplify them. To demonstrate the composability of Managed<T> I am going to use UDP sockets for this example, since UDP sockets should own a collection of packet buffers.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 mod managed ; use managed :: Managed ; pub struct UdpBuffer < 'a > { storage : Managed < 'a , [ u8 ] > , // endpoint: SocketAddr, // ... } impl < 'a > UdpBuffer < 'a > { pub fn new < T > ( storage : T ) -> UdpBuffer < 'a > where T : Into < Managed < 'a , [ u8 ] >> { UdpBuffer { storage : storage .into () } } } pub struct UdpSocket < 'a , 'b : 'a > { rx_buffer : Managed < 'a , [ UdpBuffer < 'b > ] > , tx_buffer : Managed < 'a , [ UdpBuffer < 'b > ] > , // ... } impl < 'a , 'b : 'a > UdpSocket < 'a , 'b > { pub fn new < T > ( rx_buffer : T , tx_buffer : T ) -> Socket < 'a , 'b > where T : Into < Managed < 'a , [ UdpBuffer < 'b > ] >> { Socket :: Udp ( UdpSocket { rx_buffer : rx_buffer .into (), tx_buffer : tx_buffer .into () }) } pub fn recv ( & mut self , data : & mut [ u8 ]) { // dequeue from self.rx_buffer into data } pub fn send ( & mut self , data : & [ u8 ]) { // enqueue from data into self.tx_buffer } } pub enum Socket < 'a , 'b : 'a > { Udp ( UdpSocket < 'a , 'b > ), // Tcp(TcpSocket<'a, 'b>), // ... } impl < 'a , 'b : 'a > Socket < 'a , 'b > { fn receive ( & mut self , data : & [ u8 ]) -> bool { // forward to the contained socket } fn transmit ( & mut self ) -> & mut [ u8 ] { // forward to the contained socket } }

To elegantly downcast Socket to e.g. concrete TcpSocket , let’s introduce a helper trait:

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 pub trait AsSocket < T > { fn as_socket ( & mut self ) -> & mut T ; } impl < 'a , 'b > AsSocket < UdpSocket < 'a , 'b >> for Socket < 'a , 'b > { fn as_socket ( & mut self ) -> & mut UdpSocket < 'a , 'b > { match self { & mut Socket :: Udp ( ref mut socket ) => socket , _ => panic! ( ".as_socket::<UdpSocket> called on wrong socket type" ) } } }

And finally, the interface. Note how the interface still uses BorrowMut —this preserves the ability to add methods on the interface that are specialized on the concrete type of SocketT , e.g. add_socket when SocketT is Vec<Socket> :

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 pub struct Interface < 'a , 'b : 'a , SocketsT : BorrowMut < [ Socket < 'a , 'b > ] > > { sockets : SocketsT , phantom : PhantomData < Socket < 'a , 'b >> } impl < 'a , 'b , SocketsT : BorrowMut < [ Socket < 'a , 'b > ] > > Interface < 'a , 'b , SocketsT > { pub fn new ( sockets : SocketsT ) -> Interface < 'a , 'b , SocketsT > { Interface { sockets : sockets , phantom : PhantomData } } pub fn sockets ( & mut self ) -> & mut [ Socket < 'a , 'b > ] { self .sockets .borrow_mut () } pub fn poll ( & mut self , rx_data : & [ u8 ]) { // ... } }

Using Managed<T> in applications

Finally, let’s confirm that we can use the resulting API in code that runs both with and without heap. The variant with heap is easy to write:

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 fn main () { let tx_buffer = UdpBuffer :: new ( vec! [ 0 ; 2048 ]); let rx_buffer = UdpBuffer :: new ( vec! [ 0 ; 2048 ]); let socket = UdpSocket :: new ( vec! [ tx_buffer ], vec! [ rx_buffer ]); let mut interface = Interface :: new ( vec! [ socket ]); loop { interface .poll (); let socket : & mut UdpSocket = interface .sockets ()[ 0 ] .as_socket (); let mut data = [ 0 ; 8 ]; socket .recv ( & mut data ); socket .send ( & data ) } }

The variant without heap is a bit more tricky:

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 fn main () { let mut tx_buffer_data = [ 0 ; 2048 ]; let mut rx_buffer_data = [ 0 ; 2048 ]; let tx_buffer = UdpBuffer :: new ( & mut tx_buffer_data [ .. ]); let rx_buffer = UdpBuffer :: new ( & mut rx_buffer_data [ .. ]); let mut tx_buffers = [ tx_buffer ]; let mut rx_buffers = [ rx_buffer ]; let socket = UdpSocket :: new ( & mut tx_buffers [ .. ], & mut rx_buffers [ .. ]); let mut sockets = [ socket ]; let mut interface = Interface :: new ( & mut sockets [ .. ]); loop { interface .poll (); let socket : & mut UdpSocket = interface .sockets ()[ 0 ] .as_socket (); let mut data = [ 0 ; 8 ]; socket .recv ( & mut data ); socket .send ( & data ) } }

Lifetime pitfalls

The heap-less variant as well as UdpSocket have some implementation subtleties. For example, my initial implementation of UdpSocket was as follows:

1 2 3 4 5 pub struct UdpSocket < 'a > { rx_buffer : Managed < 'a , [ UdpBuffer < 'a > ] > , tx_buffer : Managed < 'a , [ UdpBuffer < 'a > ] > , // ... }

While it’s not incorrect at the first glance (and indeed the library code typechecks), trying to use this implementation without a heap would run into a snag: the lifetimes of the buffer and the buffer container get tied together, and borrow checker rejects the code with “dropped here while still borrowed”.

Similarly, writing the initialization code with the statements interleaved like this won’t work, even if it may look more natural:

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 fn main () { let mut tx_buffer_data = [ 0 ; 2048 ]; let tx_buffer = UdpBuffer :: new ( & mut tx_buffer_data [ .. ]); let mut tx_buffers = [ tx_buffer ]; let mut rx_buffer_data = [ 0 ; 2048 ]; let rx_buffer = UdpBuffer :: new ( & mut rx_buffer_data [ .. ]); let mut rx_buffers = [ rx_buffer ]; let socket = UdpSocket :: new ( & mut tx_buffers [ .. ], & mut rx_buffers [ .. ]); // ... }

In this case, while the lifetime of individual UdpBuffer s is always longer than the lifetime of their data, the unified lifetime of both UdpBuffer s is not longer than the unified lifetime of their data.

Conclusions

Rust admits a highly ergonomic interface for logically owning collections that works both with code that has a heap, and code that does not.

Logical ownership of collections is composable, although every level of nesting requires adding another lifetime parameter; this may result in issues when using e.g. trait associated types.

Using logical ownership with mutable pointers has some minor pitfalls due to how lifetimes are unified.

The implementation of Managed<T> requires a feature flag and changes depending on whether libstd is available; however, since it is desirable that Managed<T> would be available on systems without libstd , and that means that the Managed::Owned variant would switch between std::boxed::Box and alloc::boxed::Box , which requires a feature flag anyway.

Future work