SEM micrograph obtained using back scattered electrons from the multimetal-graphite composite after 80 hours of milling is shown in Fig. 1. In Fig. 1, the bright contrast represent the multimetal deposits whereas the dark contrast represents graphite. Figure 1 reveals a fairly uniform distribution of multimetal deposits in the metal-graphite mixture. SEM-EDS compositional analysis revealed the average composition of the multimetal deposits to be 17.14 ± 1.6 at% Fe, 18.59 ± 3.7 at% Cr, 25.83 ± 2.2 at% Co, 31.41 ± 2.8 at% Cu and 7.04 ± 1.1 at% Ni. X-ray diffraction (XRD) peak of the graphite phase obtained from as-mixed and 80 h milled sample is shown in Fig. 2. Considerable shift of the (002) graphite peak to lower 2-theta values reveal a large increase in the interplanar spacing. This indicated towards the incorporation of fine metal clusters within the spaces between the graphite planes during the mechanical milling operation. This was confirmed by TEM imaging of the milled graphite powder. Figure 3(a,b) respectively provides low and high magnification images of the stacked graphene layers (of the graphite) containing ultra-fine particles in the milled sample. Strain caused due to the presence of nanoparticles within the inter-layer spacing facilitated the exfoliation process during the subsequent sonication of the multimetal-graphite powder resulting in the formation of HEA nanoparticle decorated graphene.

Figure 1 SEM back-scattered electron micrograph of 80 hours milled sample. Graphite (2) and multimetal clusters (1) are denoted by arrows in the SEM micrograph. Full size image

Figure 2 X-ray diffraction (XRD) profiles, showing the graphite peak, obtained from as-mixed powder (zero hours milling) and powder sample milled for 80 h. Full size image

Figure 3 Representative (a) low and (b) high magnification TEM images of 80 h milled sample showing the stacked graphite layers containing nanoparticles. Full size image

The multimetal-graphite composite milled for 80 h was exfoliated using SLS. XRD profile of the exfoliated sample is given in Fig. 4(a). The XRD pattern shows broad diffraction peak at 23.4° 2-theta value and a sharp peak at 26.13° 2-theta value which reveal that the exfoliated sample contains graphene42. Raman spectrum obtained from the exfoliated sample is shown in Fig. 4(b). The Raman spectrum shows three characteristic graphene peaks: D band at ~1356 cm−1, G band at ~1582 cm−1 and 2D band at ~2702 cm−1 which corresponds to sp2 hybridized carbon atoms. UV-Visible absorption spectrum obtained from the exfoliated sample is provided in Fig. 4(c). In Fig. 4(c), the maximum absorption peak (λ max ) around 270 nm wavelength which corresponds to the π-π* transition of the aromatic C-C bonds confirmed the presence of graphene in the exfoliated sample43. AFM topographical image of the exfoliated sample is shown in Fig. 4(d). Analysis of the Z-height profile from several AFM images of exfoliated samples revealed the average size of the multimetal nanoparticles and the thickness of the exfoliated graphene as 10.3 ± 2.4 nm and 3.3 ± 0.9 nm respectively. The Z-height profile analysis therefore confirmed the presence of nanoparticles and few layered graphene in the exfoliated sample.

Figure 4 (a) XRD profile, (b) Raman spectrum, (c) UV-Vis absorption spectrum obtained from exfoliated sample, (d) representative AFM topographical image of nanoparticle decorated graphene exfoliated sample. Exfoliated graphene (2) and multimetal clusters (1) are denoted by arrows. Full size image

Representative TEM bright field images of multi-component nanoparticle-graphene composite is provided in Fig. 5(a,b). Figure 5(a) reveals the presence of large graphene sheet with nanoparticles dispersed over it. Figure 5(b) shows nanoparticle-graphene composite in relatively higher magnification. Average size of the nanoparticles calculated from the summation average of sizes of individual nanoparticles was 8 ± 2 nm. The histogram revealing a large distribution in nanoparticle sizes is provided in Fig. 5(c). A representative SAED pattern obtained from graphene decorated with nanoparticles is provided in Fig. 5(d). Interplanar spacing values of the planes corresponding to the diffraction rings in the SAED pattern were calculated as r 1 = 1.96 Å; r 2 = 1.72 Å; r 3 = 1.22 Å; r 4 = 0.982 Å. Ratio of the d-spacing values (r 1 /r 2 = 1.14; r 1 /r 3 = 1.6; r 1 /r 4 = 1.9; r 2 /r 3 = 1.4; r 2 /r 4 = 1.7; r 3 /r 4 = 1.2) of the diffracting planes matched with the ratio of the d-spacing values of a standard face centred cubic crystal44. The lattice parameter of the fcc unit cell was calculated to be 3.394 Å. The SAED pattern did not show diffraction rings corresponding to pure metal phases or their oxides. The electron diffraction analysis therefore clearly revealed alloying of the five component metal atoms in the nanoparticles.

Figure 5 Representative (a) low and (b) higher magnification image of nanoparticle-graphene sample, (c) histogram showing the distribution of nanoparticle sizes and (d) SAED pattern obtained from nanoparticle agglomerate. The insert in (a) shows the larger graphene sheet from which the main image was obtained. Full size image

STEM-EDS technique was used for obtaining compositional maps and compositional line profiles. STEM-high angle annular dark field (STEM-HAADF) image of the region of interest (nanoparticles over a large graphene sheet), carbon map, Fe map, Cu map, Ni map, Co map and Cr map provided in Fig. 6 qualitatively shows that the nanoparticles formed over the graphene sheet contains all the five component metal atoms. A representative compositional mapping analysis result obtained from an individual nanoparticle is shown in Fig. 7. A representative compositional line profile analysis result obtained from a different nanoparticle is shown in Fig. 8. It can be observed in Figs 7 and 8 that all the component metal atoms are fairly uniformly distributed within the nanoparticle volume. To investigate the composition distribution between the nanoparticles, elemental composition of 35 individual nanoparticles were determined using the nano-sized electron probe in STEM. Histograms showing the distribution of the five component elements between the nanoparticles is provided in Fig. 9. Histograms in Fig. 9 reveal that all the nanoparticles contain all the five component element atoms however there exists a large distribution in the composition between the nanoparticles. Fe, Cu and Co histograms exhibit similarity in distribution of these elements, Cr histogram shows a relatively wider distribution character for this element and Ni histogram reveal that a large fraction of the nanoparticles contains Ni in the lowest amount among the five component elements.

Figure 6 Representative compositional mapping result obtained from the region of interest (nanoparticles over a large graphene sheet). Full size image

Figure 7 Representative compositional mapping result obtained from a nanoparticle. Full size image

Figure 8 Representative compositional line profile obtained from a nanoparticle. Full size image

Figure 9 Histogram showing the distribution of five component elements between nanoparticles. Full size image

Corrosion properties of as-synthesized multi-component HEA nanoparticle-graphene composite (HEA-Gr) was investigated. HEA-Gr coating was produced by applying a mixture of HEA-Gr composite and araldite standard epoxy adhesive (resin hardener) over mild steel (MS) substrate. Weight ratio of composite to epoxy was 1:40. Corrosion parameters of this coating was compared with the corrosion parameters of bare MS substrate, araldite coated MS and coating (over MS) made by mixing araldite with 80 hours milled and exfoliated only graphene. Figure 10 shows the images of bare MS, epoxy coated MS, graphene-epoxy coated MS and HEA-Gr composite-epoxy coated MS substrate. The electrochemical corrosion analysis was conducted for these samples in 3.5% NaCl solution at room temperature. Tafel polarization or potentiodynamic polarization curves provided in Fig. 11 were measured by polarizing the working electrode (coated sample) to ±200 mV with respect to the open circuit potential (OCP) value at a scan rate of 1 mVs−1. The corrosion parameters E corr , I corr and corrosion rate (CR) obtained are summarized in Table 1. It can be observed that the HEA-Gr composite-epoxy coating sample exhibits increased E corr value towards positive potential and decreased I corr and CR values when compared to all other samples.

Figure 10 Images of bare mild-steel (MS), epoxy coated MS, graphene-epoxy coated MS and HEA Gr composite-epoxy coated MS substrate. Full size image

Figure 11 Tafel polarization curves of mild-steel (MS), epoxy coated MS, graphene-epoxy coated MS and HEA Gr composite-epoxy coated MS substrate in 3.5% NaCl solution. Full size image

Table 1 The corrosion parameters determined from the Tafel plots for mild-steel (MS), epoxy coated over MS, graphene-epoxy coated over MS and HEAs-np Gr composite-epoxy coated over MS substrate. Full size table

Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) were measured at the respective OCP values in the frequency range of 100 kHz to 0.01 Hz with the sinusoidal signal amplitude of 5 mV. The measured EIS data for bare MS, epoxy coated MS, graphene-epoxy coated MS and HEA-Gr composite-epoxy coated MS samples are shown in Fig. 12(a). The EIS plots show two capacitive loops indicating that the corrosion process involved two relaxation events for all the samples. The EIS data were curve fitted with electrical equivalent circuit (EEC) model (using Zsimp win 3.21 software) which is shown in Fig. 12(b). The capacitive element was replaced with a constant phase element (CPE) for better results. In the EEC model, R s , R coat , Q coat , R ct and Q dl are solution resistance, coating resistance, coating capacitance, charge transfer resistance and double layer capacitance respectively. The obtained corrosion parameters associated with EEC for all the samples are provided in Table 2. As observed in Fig. 12(a), the width of the capacitive loop, which is the measure of corrosion resistance or polarization resistance (R p ) varies significantly between the samples. Total R p i.e. R p = R coat + R ct was found to be 903.9 Ω, 1339 Ω, 5843 Ω and 19650 Ω for bare MS, epoxy coated MS, graphene-epoxy coated MS and HEA-Gr composite-epoxy coated MS substrate samples respectively. Maximum R p value for HEA-Gr composite-epoxy coating represents maximum decrease in the surface activity towards corrosion environment in case of this sample when compared to graphene-epoxy coated, only epoxy coated and bare MS substrate samples. The corrosion parameters illustrate that the presence multi-component nanoparticles over graphene significantly enhances the corrosion resistance offered by only graphene coating. The as-synthesised HEA nanoparticle graphene composite can therefore be spray painted over surfaces to provide enhanced corrosion protection.

Figure 12 (a) Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) and (b) electrical equivalent circuit (EEC) model of mild-steel (MS), epoxy coated MS, graphene-epoxy coated MS and HEA-Gr composite-epoxy coated MS substrate in 3.5% NaCl solution. Full size image