One of the most powerful parts of the Rust programming language is the trait system. They form the basis of the generic system and polymorphic functions and types. There’s an interesting use of traits, as so-called “trait objects”, that allows for dynamic polymorphism and heterogeneous uses of types, which I’m going to look at in more detail over a short series of posts.

Update 2015-02-19: A lot of this document has been copied into the main book, with improvements and updates.

This post will set the scene, with an introduction to the internals of a trait object; the remaining posts will look at the Sized trait and “object safety” in detail (a lot of people have encountered trouble with somewhat abstruse compiler errors about this recently).

Traits

A simple example of a trait is this Foo . It has one method that is expected to return a String , and, in the real world, there would be some expectation about what the string would mean, but this is just a blog, so you’re free to make up your own favourite meaning.

1 2 3 trait Foo { fn method ( & self ) -> String ; }

This can then be implemented for certain types, stating that these types satisfy whatever behaviours the trait is trying to summarise and allow polymorphism over. For example, bytes and strings are Foo , apparently:

1 2 3 4 5 6 impl Foo for u8 { fn method ( & self ) -> String { format! ( "u8: {}" , * self ) } } impl Foo for String { fn method ( & self ) -> String { format! ( "string: {}" , * self ) } }

There’s two basic ways to use traits to be polymorphic:

The first and most common are generic functions like fn func<T: Foo>(x: &T) . These are implemented via monomorphisation, the compiler creates a specialised version of the generic function for every type used with it. This has some upsides—static dispatching of any method calls, allowing for inlining and hence usually higher performance—and some downsides—causing code bloat due to many copies of the same function existing in the binary, one for each type.

Fortunately, there’s second option if that trade-off is inappropriate, or if being required to know every type everywhere is impossible or undesirable.

Trait objects

Trait objects, like &Foo or Box<Foo> , are normal values that store a value of any type that implements the given trait, where the precise type can only be known at runtime. The methods of the trait can be called on a trait object via a special record of function pointers (created and managed by the compiler).

A function that takes a trait object—say fn func(x: &Foo) —is not specialised to each of the types that implements Foo : only one copy is generated, often (but not always) resulting in less code bloat. However, this comes at the cost of requiring slower virtual function calls, and effectively inhibiting any chance of inlining and related optimisations from occurring.

Trait objects are both simple and complicated: their core representation and layout is quite straight-forward, but there are some curly error messages and surprising behaviours to discover.

Obtaining a trait object

There’s two similar ways to get a trait object value: casts and coercions. If T is a type that implements a trait Foo (e.g. u8 for the Foo above), then the two ways to get a Foo trait object out of a pointer to T look like:

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 let ref_to_t : & T = ... ; // `as` keyword for casting let cast = ref_to_t as & Foo ; // using a `&T` in a place that has a known type of `&Foo` will implicitly coerce: let coerce : & Foo = ref_to_t ; fn also_coerce ( _u nused : & Foo ) {} also_coerce ( ref_to_t );

These trait object coercions and casts also work for pointers like &mut T to &mut Foo and Box<T> to Box<Foo> , but that’s all at the moment. Other than some bugs, coercions and casts are identical.

This operation can be seen as “erasing” the compiler’s knowledge about the specific type of the pointer, and hence trait objects are sometimes referred to “type erasure”.

Representation

Let’s start simple, with the runtime representation of a trait object. The std::raw module contains structs with layouts that are the same as the complicated build-in types, including trait objects:

1 2 3 4 pub struct TraitObject { pub data : * mut (), pub vtable : * mut (), }

That is, a trait object like &Foo consists of a “data” pointer and a “vtable” pointer.

The data pointer addresses the data (of some unknown type T ) that the trait object is storing, and the vtable pointer points to the vtable (“virtual method table”) corresponding to the implementation of Foo for T .

A vtable is essentially a struct of function pointers, pointing to the concrete piece of machine code for each method in the implementation. A method call like trait_object.method() will retrieve the correct pointer out of the vtable and then do a dynamic call of it. For example:

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 struct FooVtable { destructor : fn ( * mut ()), size : usize , align : usize , method : fn ( * const ()) -> String , } // u8: fn call_method_on_u8 ( x : * const ()) -> String { // the compiler guarantees that this function is only called // with `x` pointing to a u8 let byte : & u8 = unsafe { &* ( x as * const u8 ) }; byte .method () } static Foo_for_u8_vtable : FooVtable = FooVtable { destructor : /* compiler magic */ , size : 1 , align : 1 , // cast to a function pointer method : call_method_on_u8 as fn ( * const ()) -> String , }; // String: fn call_method_on_String ( x : * const ()) -> String { // the compiler guarantees that this function is only called // with `x` pointing to a String let string : & String = unsafe { &* ( x as * const String ) }; string .method () } static Foo_for_String_vtable : FooVtable = FooVtable { destructor : /* compiler magic */ , // values for a 64-bit computer, halve them for 32-bit ones size : 24 , align : 8 , method : call_method_on_String as fn ( * const ()) -> String , };

(The call_method_on_... functions could also be UFCS: <... as Foo>::method , but that’s somewhat less clear.)

The destructor field in each vtable points to a function that will clean up any resources of the vtable’s type, for u8 it is trivial, but for String it will free the memory. This is necessary for owning trait objects like Box<Foo> , which need to clean-up both the Box allocation and as well as the internal type when they go out of scope. The size and align fields store the size of the erased type, and its alignment requirements; these are essentially unused at the moment since the information is embedded in the destructor, but will be used in future, as trait objects are progressively made more flexible.

Suppose we’ve got some values that implement Foo , the explicit form of construction and use of Foo trait objects might look a bit like (ignoring the type mismatches: they’re all just pointers anyway):

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 let a : String = "foo" .to_string (); let x : u8 = 1 ; // let b: &Foo = &a; let b = TraitObject { // store the data data : & a , // store the methods vtable : & Foo_for_String_vtable }; // let y: &Foo = x; let y = TraitObject { // store the data data : & x , // store the methods vtable : & Foo_for_u8_vtable }; // b.method(); ( b .vtable.method )( b .data ); // y.method(); ( y .vtable.method )( y .data );

If b or y were owning trait objects ( Box<Foo> ), there would be a (b.vtable.destructor)(b.data) (respectively y ) call when they went out of scope.

Why pointers?

The use of language like “fat pointer” implies that a trait object is always a pointer of some form, but why? I wrote above that

[Trait objects] are normal values and can store a value of any type that implements the given trait, where the precise type can only be known at runtime.

Rust does not put things behind a pointer by default, unlike many managed languages, so types can have different sizes. Knowing the size of the value at compile time is important for things like passing it as an argument to a function, moving it about on the stack and allocating (and deallocating) space on the heap to store it.

For Foo , we would need to have a value that could be at least either a String (24 bytes) or a u8 (1 byte), as well as any other type for which dependent crates may implement Foo (any number of bytes at all). There’s no way to guarantee that this last point can work if the values are stored without a pointer, because those other types can be arbitrarily large.

Putting the value behind a pointer means the size of the value is not relevant when we are tossing a trait object around, only the size of the pointer itself.