Successors to NASA administrator Charles Bolden (above) could be selected—and removed—very differently if sections of the American Space Renaissance Act become law. (credit: NASA/Aubrey Gemignani) An overview of the American Space Renaissance Act (part 2)

Title II of the American Space Renaissance Act concentrates on civil space, e.g. NASA. 1 Title II addresses reorganization of NASA through amendment of existing statutory authorizations, a human mission to Mars, human presence in low Earth orbit (LEO), space debris remediation, and insuring payloads under the commercial resupply program. Sec. 202 National Aeronautics and Space Administration. 2 Section 202 addresses policy with the intent of providing NASA with clearer Congressional intent, budget clarity, and stability in leadership. 3 Pioneering Doctrine Section 202(c) amends 51 U.S.C. § 20102(d), which outlines objectives of NASA, by first removing 4, 5, and 9, and amending paragraphs 1–3 to include the following objectives: The expansion of the human sphere of influence throughout the Solar System.

To be among those who first arrive at a destination in space and to open it for subsequent use and development by others. 4

To create and prepare infrastructure precursors in support of the future use and development of space by others. 5 Section 202(c) further amends 51 U.S.C. § 20102, by revising section 20102(e), which currently addresses ground propulsion research and development, to read as follows: “(e) PIONEERING DOCTRINE.—Congress declares that the general welfare of the United States requires that the unique competence in scientific and engineering systems of the Administration also be directed toward the pioneering of space. The objectives of such pioneering shall be to increase access to destinations in space, explore the possible options for development at these destinations, demonstrate the engineering feasibility of such development, and transition those activities to Federal agencies outside of the Administration or persons or entities outside of the Federal Government.” 6 Section 202(c) eliminates 51 U.S.C. § 20102(f-h) 7 and amends 51 U.S.C. § 20103 –Definitions by first amending Paragraph (1) to read: “(1) AERONAUTICAL AND SPACE ACTIVITIES.— The term ‘aeronautical and space activities’ means—

“(A) research into, and the solution of problems of flight—

(i) within the Earth’s atmosphere;

(ii) to or from space through the Earth’s atmosphere; and

(iii) beyond the Earth’s atmosphere;”

(B) the development, construction, testing, and operation for pioneering purposes of aeronautical and space vehicles; and

(C) such other activities as may be required for the pioneering of space.” 8 Section 202(c) adds a third paragraph to 51 U.S.C. § 20103, section 20103(3), to read: “(3) SPACE.—The term ‘space’ means the domain beyond the Earth’s atmosphere.” 9 The overall effect of the act’s Pioneering Doctrine is to refocus NASA’s mission from scientific discovery and exploration to development. Of note, the definition offered in the amended section 20103(3) does not appear to create or address the issue of a definition of where the atmosphere ends or where outer space begins, however; it would be judicious to amend this section to clarify that the definition of “space” in this chapter does not conflict with the international policy of the United States with regards to the delimitation of where outer space begins. 10 Section 202(c) further directs the Administrator, consistent with the Pioneering Doctrine, to enter into an agreement with an independent entity outside of NASA to prepare a report that identifies: Activities and assets of NASA that are consistent with the Pioneering Doctrine described in section 51 U.S.C. § 20102(e) that should be consolidated or downsized;

Activities and assets of NASA that are inconsistent with such Pioneering Doctrine; and

Activities or assets that should be transferred to other Federal agencies; privatized or otherwise transferred to commercial entities; or otherwise eliminated. 11 Section 202(c) requires this report to be filed no later than one year after the Act’s authorization, for the Administrator to implement any of the report’s recommendations permitted by law no later than 30 days after the act’s authorization, and for Congress to consider legislation necessary to implement appropriate recommendations in the report no later than 90 days after receiving the report. 12 The overall effect of the act’s Pioneering Doctrine is to refocus NASA’s mission from scientific discovery and exploration to development. This policy change might be supported by many in the space advocacy community, but the potential is high the scientific community would oppose the policy shift as it would take the emphasis away from outer space, Earth science missions, and funding for them. This will create a forceful lobbying effort by the scientific community and substantial political resistance from the Democrats on the House Science Committee, not to mention other special interests that benefit from the current policy. Ensuring continuity in NASA leadership Section 202(d) begins by amending 51 U.S.C. § 20111(a), which stipulates the establishment and appointment of the NASA Administrator. Specifically, it modifies the language of § 20111(a) to set the term of the NASA Administrator to five years and requires the President to nominate a successor to the position of Administrator from a list provided by the vacating Administrator and the NASA Leadership and Advising Commission, which is established by Section 202(d)(2) of the Act. 13 Section 202(d) then stipulates the creation of the NASA Leadership and Advising Commission (the Commission). 14 The required duties of the Commission are: To provide to the President recommendations for nominees to serve as Administrator of NASA each time there is a vacancy in the office, in accordance with section 51 U.S.C. 20111(a); 15

To provide to Congress, NASA, the Office of Management and Budget, and the Office of Science and Technology Policy, an analysis of, and recommendations for changes to, each long-term plan submitted by the Administrator pursuant to Section 202(e)(4) of the Act; 16 and

and To provide to Congress an annual analysis of the President’s annual budget request for NASA. 17 Section 202(d) specifies the Commission will consist of 21 members, including a Chairperson. Section 202(d) requires the members other than the Chairperson to be appointed four each by the President, the Speaker of the House of Representatives, the minority leader of the House of Representatives, the Senate majority leader, and the Senate minority leader. 18 The Chairperson is required to be a former NASA Administrator or Deputy Administrator. The Chairperson will be selected by the other members of the Commission, unless it is not practicable or appropriate to do so. In that case, the other members of the Commission will appoint an appropriate alternative. 19 Noticeably lacking from the Commission is a representative of the commercial space industry. Members of the Commission are appointed for a five-year term. 20 Four of the initial members of the Commission will serve staggered terms with, one of the initial members each serving two-, three-, four-, and five-year terms respectively. 21 A member appointed to fill a vacancy before the expiration of the term of the member’s predecessor will only be appointed for the remainder of that term. 22 A member whose term has expired may continue to serve until a successor has taken office; vacancies in the Commission will be filled in the same manner the original appointment was made. 23 The membership of the Commission must consist of professionals in space and aerospace policy, engineering, technical, science, legal, and finance. 24 Section 202(d) enumerates the powers of the Commission to: As appropriate hold hearings, take testimony and receive evidence at the Commission’s discretion; 25

Secure information necessary to enable the Commission to perform its duties directly from any employee or officer or NASA, unless prohibited by law; and

Issue subpoenas to witnesses for their attendance and testimony as well as the production of evidence involving any matter under the authority of the Commission. Members of the Commission are not allowed additional compensation for their service. 26 However, each member of the Commission is allowed travel expenses, including per diem in lieu of subsistence. 27 The initial meeting of the Commission must take place no later than 30 days after a quorum has been appointed. 28 A quorum consists of at least 11 members of the Commission. 29 The Commission is required to meet not less than once per quarter; not less than 30 days after receipt of each long-term plan per Section 202(e)(4) of the Act, and at the call of the Chairperson. 30 The Commission is authorized to appoint a director, a press secretary, and five additional staff members to support the Commission. Appointments are subject to appropriations made in advance. 31 Noticeably lacking from the Commission is a representative of the commercial space industry. Considering the growing role of commercial actors in NASA activities, it would be reasonable to include a non-voting, non-compensated member to act as a liaison to the commercial space community. Consider the following amendment: 202(d)(2)(K) – Representative of the Commercial Space Industry

The Commission shall within 90 days of convening its first meeting consider and vote on a candidate from the commercial space industry to serve as a liaison to the Commission. The Representative shall have none of the required duties, powers or privileges of the Commission or its members and shall be granted observer status and other privileges at the discretion of the Commission. The Representative shall interact with and report to the Commission on the position of the commercial space industry with regard to matters of mutual interest to NASA and the industry, including how the commercial industry fits into NASA’s long-term plans under Section 202(e), and perform other duties as deemed appropriate by the Commission. Long-term plans Section 202(e) requires the Administrator to develop a 10-year plan and a 20-year plan. The 20-year plan must outline broad goals starting with the year the 20-year is developed. 32 The 10-year plan must provide specific objectives and budget profiles, which must be centered on broad goals outlined in the 20-year plan. 33 The Administrator must present the most recent 10-year and 20-year plans to Congress and the NASA leadership and advising commission no later than one year after the act’s authorization and then every five years. 34 This stipulation likely addresses criticism NASA is no longer focused and requires long-term goals in lieu of presentations and press releases that have been a substitute for NASA’s goals over the past decade. Depending on the political environment, long-term goals might either complement or contradict the National Space Policy. Considering each successor to the Executive Branch will have the opportunity to enact a National Space Policy, long-term plans under the act have the potential of creating political friction as they will overlap a new administration. Multi-year funding Section 202(f) requires the Administrator to submit a multi-year budget starting with fiscal year 2018 and for each subsequent fiscal year. 35 Starting in fiscal year 2018, any appropriations of NASA will be no-year 36 or multiyear, unless otherwise required by law. 37 The act disallows the House of Representatives from considering any other appropriation for NASA that is not no-year or multi-year, unless the Chair of the House Committee on Science, Space and Technology files a statement to the effect one-year funding is suitable. 38 Section 202(f) appropriates $250,000,000 for fiscal year 2017 to supplement spending for aeronautics and exploration programs, projects, or activities experiencing development challenges and for repair, maintenance, and upgrades of NASA infrastructure. Section 202(f) makes available necessary funding for each subsequent fiscal year so that the amount is $250,000,000 for these areas. 39 Accountability Cost overruns in NASA programs are a frequent occurrence and the focus of concern and much media attention. Section 202(g) takes on the issue of cost overruns by creating accountability for NASA programs that overrun their cost projections. 40 Section 202(g) stipulates accountability for programs that exceed their life-cycle cost projections by at least 15 percent, but less than 30 percent: the directorate head of any NASA program of head of program of another agency, for which NASA is the agent for acquisition or procurement to be available to testify before the House Science, Space and Technology Committee and before the Senate Committee on Commerce, Science, and Transportation if so requested, and

the relevant directorate staff to update the staff of these Committees on the status of the program at least once during each fiscal quarter. 41 Section 202(g) requires any program that exceeds 30 percent to be cancelled with no additional funds being expended except for termination costs. Congress may authorize continuation of the program no later than six months after the end of the first fiscal year in which the program began to exceed the 30-percent limit. 42 Section 202(g) also requires the NASA Inspector General to submit a report recommending a mechanism for the automatic removal of an Administrator who has failed to reach certain goals no later than six months after the Act is authorized. Such a mechanism would take into account: the number of programs of NASA that exceed cost projections during the tenure of the Administrator;

the number of programs of NASA experiencing significant delays with respect to targeted milestones, launches, or deployments during the tenure of the Administrator; and

lack of adherence to, or failure to complete, benchmarks in the long-term plans developed by the Administrator pursuant to Section 202(e). 43 The mechanism for automatic removal of the Administrator must be implemented no later than 60 days after the receipt of the report. Section 202(i) brings another level of culpability to commercial launch providers that would be found in private contracts and represents a positive step to integrate true commercial space and the subsequent private liability into the scheme of US government launch services. There is a question whether the mechanism sought in Section 202(g) would pass constitutional muster, as the factors in Section 202(g) would not reach an impeachable offense per Article II, Section 4 of the Constitution. 44 There is also an argument that an automatic removal mechanism mandated in Section 202(g) would violate the Administrator’s right to due process and specifically procedural due process under the 14th Amendment of the Constitution, which could lead a federal court to find Section 202(g) unconstitutional if it was challenged. 45 An alternative would be to amend Section 202(g) to require a hearing before the House Committee of Science, Space and Technology and the Senate Committee on Commerce, Science, and Transportation to consider the Administrator’s removal. This would satisfy the due process requirement of the 14th Amendment. Transition of technologies and capabilities Section 202(h) requires NASA to transition technology and capabilities to corporations, individuals, academic institutions, and non-profit organizations when it is practicable, appropriate, and does not threaten national security. Section 202(h) stipulates intellectual property rights will not be infringed upon by these transfers. 46 Liability insurance and financial responsibility requirements Section 202(i) amends 51 U.S.C. § 20138 –Insurance and Indemnification by adding section 20138(g). 47 The new section requires commercial providers of launch services under the NASA Launch Services Program to obtain liability insurance or demonstrate financial responsibility sufficient to compensate for a maximum probable loss 48 from third-party claims for death, bodily injury, property damage, or loss from a launch or reentry and claims by a federal, state, or local government for damage. 49 A contractor under the NASA Launch Services Program is required to obtain insurance related to one launch and reentry in the amount of at least $500,000,000 for claims involving a third party and $100,000,000 for claims involving damage to local, state or Federal governments. 50 Section 202(i)(1) extends the subject matter of the federal court and requires any claim by a third party for death, bodily injury, or property damage or loss under a contract with the NASA Launch Services Program to be filed in federal district court. This extension of the federal court’s subject matter jurisdiction is similar in scope to the law granting the federal district court exclusive jurisdiction over similar claims arising out of commercial launch/reentry license issued by the FAA per 51 U.S.C. § 50914(g). 51 Section 202(i) is likely motivated in part by the explosion of an Antares rocket and the resulting damage to the launch facilities at Wallops Island in Virginia on October 28, 2014, and the subsequent dispute about financial liability to repair the damage. It is also dissimilar to state-limited liability laws in that it appears commercial space launch providers would not limited immunity for death or bodily injury incurred under the NASA Launch Services Program. This is a positive development in that Section 202(i) brings another level of culpability to commercial launch providers that would be found in private contracts and represents a positive step to integrate true commercial space and the subsequent private liability into the scheme of US government launch services. Sec. 203. Human Mission to Mars Whereas Section 202 of the Act creates a fundamental policy shift in NASA’s priorities, oversight and its funding, Section 203 takes a step further and specifically addresses one of the more controversial aspects of NASA: a human mission to Mars. The bearing of NASA towards a human mission to Mars over the past decade has been lackadaisical and otherwise used as a talking point for public relations and favorable political optics without a concerted effort to fulfill that aspiration. Section 203(a) directly addresses a human mission to Mars and articulates a policy stance, noting in its findings that NASA continues to act contrary to a study and report by the National Research Council that, in part, called for Mars to be a “horizon goal” for human exploration. 52 Specifically, the act concludes: NASA continues to request funding levels, follow strategies, and pursue missions that the National Research Council report identified as problematic;

NASA has yet to provide adequate details or funding requests for a plan to successfully send American astronauts to Mars; and

Billions of dollars have been invested in the Space Launch System and Orion capsule, which represent core elements of deep space exploration systems farthest along in development. 53 In light of these findings, the Act takes the following policy stance in Section 203(b): That NASA should request budget levels, and Congress should continue to appropriate funds and carry out stringent oversight necessary, to keep the Space Launch System and Orion capsule on track and on budget;

That Congress should prioritize funding within NASA to meet the budget requirements of sending American astronauts to Mars;

That NASA should utilize the Moon and cislunar space in order to accomplish the goal of sending American astronauts to Mars; and

That NASA should utilize commercial assets, when practicable and available, to support exploration beyond Earth orbit, including to Mars. 54 In support of this policy direction, Section 203 stipulates the following: Until Americans land on Mars, NASA’s main human spaceflight priority shall be to land Americans on Mars. 55

Whenever possible, NASA aeronautics and exploration directorates shall seek to avoid developing technologies and capabilities that do not have applicability across multiple directorates, programs, or activities, including missions to Mars. 56

NASA shall, whenever practicable and not restricted by law—seek to secure specific investments in capabilities and technologies needed for deep space exploration; and clearly communicate what capabilities and technologies are being pursued through international partnerships. 57 Strategic planning To facilitate a human mission to Mars, Section 203(f) of the act requires strategic planning from NASA via the long-term planning provisions in Section 202(e). Specifically, Section 203(f) requires the NASA to designate under its first 20-year plan a five-year period when it intends to for American astronauts to land on Mars, and update this range when in any successive 20-year plans before a landing occurs. 58 If the goal of landing humans on Mars is a target, Section 203 is a proactive policy step for not only that, but also to cease the procrastination and gapfiller programs that have epitomized NASA’s existence for the past decade. Section 203(f) also instructs NASA to address the concerns raised in the National Research Council Report to include concerns directed at budget projections, launch frequency of the Space Launch System, and the value of the Asteroid Redirect Mission. 59 With respect to the Asteroid Redirect Mission, Section 203(f) calls for its cancellation, unless NASA can persuasively demonstrate the usefulness of the mission. 60 Section 203(f) also requires NASA to explain how it intends to avoid missions that lead to dead-end technologies, and explain what approach it will take to look at all options to maximize early launches of SLS. 61 Finally, Section 203(f) requires each 10-year and 20-year plan to specify how NASA proposes to expand a permanent human presence beyond LEO. 62 The approach Section 203 takes is bold considering NASA’s marking-time approach to a human mission to Mars, and is consistent with the Pioneering Doctrine outlined in Section 202. However, an undertaking of this magnitude needs the political support of the Executive Branch and the National Space Policy to harmonize a human mission to Mars as a stated goal and not just political fiat. Otherwise, competing political interests will continue to undermine each other, with NASA being pulled in opposing directions and little or no tangible benefit for the money spent, much in the same way SLS is currently playing out. Irrespective of the political factor, there also needs to be agreement on the architecture of the mission, and while the Act lays a good foundation to direct NASA down that path, NASA needs to flesh out the details of the how and when of a human mission to include whether a such a mission would benefit as a public-private partnership. Surely, there are competing views and staunch commercial space advocates will decry the intent of Section 203. Nonetheless, if the goal of landing humans on Mars is a target, Section 203 is a proactive policy step for not only landing humans on Mars, but also to cease the procrastination and gapfiller programs that have epitomized NASA’s existence for the past decade. Sec. 204. Human Presence in Low Earth Orbit. Section 204 takes the position the United States should maintain a continuous human presence in LEO and activities involving the transport of crew, LEO development, and on-orbit facilities to house government astronauts 63 and science experiments should be relegated to the commercial sector to the great extent practicable. 64 International Space Station Section 204(b) requires NASA to prepare a plan to address the remaining life of the International Space Station (ISS), which must be included in the first and subsequent 10-year plans mandated per Section 202(e)(1). 65 The plan must: Describe how NASA intends to maximize the scientific utilization of the International Space Station, including specific objectives, such as astronaut missions and science experiments, to be carried out during the remaining life of the station;

Explore options for turning over the International Space Station to commercial operators;

Identify a transition strategy for the end of the United States commitment to the International Space Station;

Be coordinated in conjunction with all countries partner to the International Space Station;

Explore options for NASA’s continued involvement in the International Space Station in the event it is turned over to commercial operators; and

Seek to ensure a return on investment to United States taxpayers. 66 Section 204(b) postures that ISS should be fully funded per the President’s annual budget for the remainder of its needed life. 67 When commercial habitats become available, which meet NASA’s published requirements and upon the completion of a successful demonstration, 68 NASA must implement the transition strategy required by Section 204(b)(1)(D). 69 Commercial habitats Section 204(c) gives a nod to commercial habitat providers like Bigelow Aerospace and addresses NASA’s use of commercial habitats post-ISS. Section 204(c) requires NASA and the Commercial Space Transportation Advisory Committee (COMSTAC) to develop and publish necessary requirements for on-orbit habitats to meet NASA’s human exploration and science missions. 70 Section 204(c) further requires NASA to establish, no later than December 31, 2018, a Commercial Habitat Pilot Program that meets NASA’s requirements per Section 204(c)(1) to demonstrate the feasibility of using commercially-built on-orbit habitats. Under the pilot program, NASA is required to enter into at least one competitively-bid agreement with a commercial provider to demonstrate the viability and capabilities of commercial LEO platforms. A commercial entity entering into an agreement with NASA would be required to fund the development and the construction of the demonstration platform. 71 Significantly, this is the antithesis of programs like Commercial Crew, where the government is subsidizing the development of a commercial launch capability that NASA will eventually contract to use. This puts the onus on private industry to finance the development and construction costs of a prototype. It may provide an impetus for the financial sector to become involved and may lead to partnerships in the industry, especially if the end result is government contracts for the orbital platforms. The downside is this approach will limit the entrants to some of the major players, such as Bigelow Aerospace, Lockheed Martin, and Boeing. Section 205 provides a much-needed domestic focus of the orbital space debris issue to emphasize remediation. In the event a private entity successful funds the development and construction of an orbital platform, Section 204(c) requires NASA to enter an agreement with that entity where NASA must provide the launch through the Commercial Resupply Services Program and include a contingent contract that allows NASA to utilize at least 50 percent of the orbital platform for an initial three-year period. 72 Section 204(c) is silent on what happens if a private entity cannot fund the development and fabrication of a prototype orbital habitat, and whether NASA would be authorized to use discretionary funds to facilitate development and construction in that case. Commercial partnerships for resupply and crew of the ISS and future LEO platforms Section 204(d) requires NASA to continue to utilize partnerships with commercial entities for re-supply and transportation of government astronauts for the duration of US presence in LEO. 73 Section 204(d) takes the position NASA should continue to request budget levels necessary for the commercial crew and cargo programs, and Congress should continue to appropriate the necessary funds and provide rigorous oversight to keep the programs on track and on budget. 74 Priority for United States engines Section 204(e) provides a reciprocal mandate to the one found in Title I, Section 106(a) of the act, whereby NASA must consider any bid after December 31, 2022 75 that proposes to use an engine built in the United States as 25 percent less than the total cost of the bid. 76 Similar to the reciprocal requirement in Title I, Section 106(a), the ambiguity of the application of this political calculus potentially leaves bids open to challenge in the Federal Court of Claims and otherwise moot as all US-domiciled vehicles will likely use US-built engines by 2023. Section 204(e) also encourages NASA to utilize international partnerships to the extent they are not prohibited by law, and to continue to enter into Space Act Agreements and other mechanisms to partner with the commercial space providers. 77 Sec. 205 Space Debris Remediation Section 205(a) recognizes the growing hazard orbital space debris poses to safety and cost-effectiveness of future civil, commercial and national security space activities, and that the United States does not have a coherent plan to develop remediation capabilities. 78 Section 205 requires the Administrator to cooperate with NOAA, DoD, and the FAA to submit a report to Congress within one year of the date of the act’s authorization, which will report on the feasibility of orbital space debris remediation. 79 The report must provide the following: An assessment of the types of orbital space debris and orbital altitudes that are the highest priority for remediation;

A cost-benefit analysis of remediating the high priority space debris objects;

An assessment of the available technologies and policies to perform such remediation and any gaps that need to be addressed;

The feasibility of conducting a competitive bid process or prize competition to develop private sector space debris remediation services that can be purchased by the United States government; and

An assessment of Federal agency roles and responsibilities to provide oversight of remediation activities. 80 Section 205 provides a much-needed domestic focus of the orbital space debris issue to emphasize remediation. Nonetheless, Section 205 should also require the Department of State to join with the other agencies to collaborate in the mandated report because the issue of orbital space debris remediation will involve international law, including the obligations of the United States under the Outer Space Treaty, and will have international geopolitical ramifications. These areas are the prerogative of Foggy Bottom and their diplomatic and legal resources. Additionally, the mandated report under Section 205(b) should also include the following: An assessment of the international legal implications of orbital space debris remediation, including its effect on US obligations under the Outer Space Treaty, and its effect on customary international law;

An assessment of the geopolitical consequences of orbital debris remediation, especially with regards to the potential assessment of remediation methodologies by geopolitical rivals as it relates to the concern of “space weapons” and anti-satellite weapons (ASATs) and its subsequent soft-power effect; and

The effects of orbital space debris remediation on national security, including the potential of escalation of threats to the space assets of the US and its allies by geopolitical rivals that might or might not manifest in response to orbital space debris remediation technologies and activities. Sec. 206. GAO Report on Insuring NASA Class C and D Payloads and Cargo. Section 206 requires the Comptroller General to submit a report to the House Committee on Science, Space and Technology and the Senate Committee on Commerce, Science and Transportation no later than one-year after the authorization of the Act, which will report of the viability of NASA insuring its Class C and Class D 81 payloads and cargo. 82 The required report must include: The feasibility of insuring such payloads for a period of time that begins at the time of ignition and end at the time when the payload is deployed into its intended orbit; or 1-year after the date on which the payload is deployed into its intended orbit;

Any risk such insurance will place on United States taxpayers;

Any effect of such insurance on launch prices; and

The feasibility of requiring launch providers to include in launch bids the cost of providing first party insurance of such payloads. 83 Section 206 is likely in part a response to the loss of cargo on two commercial cargo missions in 2014 and 2015. Addressing the issue of insuring cargo is a natural progression to commercial space involvement as the commercial space model becomes dominant in transporting government medium- to low-priority payloads. Closing Thoughts Title II of the American Space Renaissance Act takes a proactive step to bring purpose and direction to NASA in a time when it appears to be meandering from project to project with no definitive objectives. Title II looks to restore accountability to NASA’s programs in an atmosphere that otherwise labels NASA’s efforts as a job program. Title II recognizes NASA does indeed have a place in the era of commercial space and that the future is not necessarily one of private space acting alone but instead a symbiotic correlation between civil and commercial space. That being said, the provisions of Title II will find resistance in the political sphere, the science lobby, and the space advocacy community. Notwithstanding, the steps proposed by Title II present an earnest effort to revitalize NASA to create a long-term outlook instead of frequent public relations presentations. Endnotes As of this writing, Congressman Doug Lamborn (R-CO, 5th District) has co-sponsored the American Space Renaissance Act. Sec. 201 consists of the definitions of the term “Administrator”, which means Administrator of NASA, and “NASA”, which means the National Aeronautics and Space Administration. American Space Renaissance Act, 114th Congress, 2D Session, Title II, Sec. 202(b), p. 34. This appears to be referring to resource development and rights, which 51 U.S.C. § 51303 purportedly creates. However, the tenor of this policy could be read as seeking to lay a sovereign claim in outer space to the benefit of “others”, which likely alludes to private U.S. citizens. Notably, the policy statement brandishes the term “use” as found in Article I of the Outer Space Treaty, but like the application of the term in § 51303, reciting the word “use” does not mean it avoids the prohibition in Article II of the Outer Space Treaty. American Space Renaissance Act, 114th Congress, 2D Session, Title II, Sec. 202(c)(1)(A), pp. 34-35. Id. at Sec. 202(c)(1)(A), pp. 35-36. Id. at Sec. 202(c)(1)(A), p. 36. Id. at Sec. 202(c), pp. 36-37. Id. at Sec. 202(c)(1), pp. 37-38. The issue of the delimitation between the atmosphere and outer space frequently finds itself on the agenda for the Legal Subcommittee for COPUOS, including the last meeting in April 2016. The position of the State Department on this issue has been fairly consistent in tenor since the Eisenhower Administration in that “…on matters relating to the definition and delimitation of outer space. As we have stated on previous occasions, the United States is of the view that there is no need to seek a legal definition or delimitation for outer space. The current framework has presented no practical difficulties and indeed, activities in outer space are flourishing. Given this situation, an attempt to define or delimit outer space would be an unnecessary theoretical exercise that could potentially complicate existing activities and that might not be able to adapt to continuing technological developments. The current framework has served us well, and we should continue to operate under it until there is a demonstrated need and a practical basis for developing a definition or delimitation. This [Legal] Subcommittee can operate most effectively and make its most significant contributions when it focuses its attention on practical problems, which are not apparent here.” American Space Renaissance Act, 114th Congress, 2D Session, Title II, Sec. 202(c)(2)(A), pp. 37-38. Id. at Sec. 202(c)(2)(B-D), p. 37-39. Id. at Sec. 202(d)(1), pp. 39-40. Id. at Sec. 202(d)(2)(A), p. 40. Id. at Sec. 202(d)(2)(B)(i), p. 40. Id. at Sec. 202(d)(2)(B)(ii), p. 40. Id. at Sec. 202(d)(2)(B)(iii), p. 41. Id. at Sec. 202(d)(2)(C)(i-v), p. 41. Id. at Sec. 202(d)(2)(D), pp. 41-42. Id. at Sec. 202(d)(2)(E)(i), p. 42. Id. at Sec. 202(d)(2)(E)(ii)(I-IV), p. 41. Id. at Sec. 202(d)(2)(E)(iii), pp. 42-43. Id. at Sec. 202(d)(2)(E)(iii), p. 43. Id. at Sec. 202(d)(2)(F), p. 43. Id. at Sec. 202(d)(2)(G)(i-iii), pp. 43-44. Id. at Sec. 202(d)(2)(H), p. 44. Id. at Sec. 202(d)(I)(B), p. 44. Id. at Sec. 202(d)(2)(J), p. 44. Id. at Sec. 202(d)(2)(K), p. 45. Id. at Sec. 202(d)(L)(I-III), pp. 44-45. Id. at Sec. 202(d)(2)(L), p. 45. Id. at Sec. 202(e)(2), p. 46. Id. at Sec. 202(e)(3), p. 46. Id. at Sec. 202(e)(4), p. 46. Id. at Sec. 202(f)(1), p. 46. A “no-year” appropriation is an appropriation available for an indefinite period of time. American Space Renaissance Act, 114th Congress, 2D Session, Title II, Sec. 202(f)(2)(A), p. 46. Id. at Sec. 202(f)(2)(B), p. 47. Id. at Sec. 202(f)(3)(A-B), pp. 47-48. For purposes of Section 202(g), “cost projection” means the cost commitment of such program as outlined in the Program Memorandum officially documenting the outcome of Key Decision Point A (a pre-phase event at which the Decision Authority determines the readiness of a program/project to progress to the next phase of the life cycle or to the next KDP), and for the purposes of this subsection is subject to the concurrence of the Committee on Appropriations and the Committee on Science Space, and Technology of the House of Representatives and the Committee on Appropriations and the Committee on Commerce, Science, and Transportation of the Senate. See Id. at Sec. 202(g)(3). American Space Renaissance Act, 114th Congress, 2D Session, Title II, Sec. 202(g)(1)(A)(i-ii), pp. 48-49. Id. at Sec. 202(g)(1)(B), p. 49. Id. at Sec. 202(g)(2)(A), pp. 49-50. Impeachment is the means specified by the Constitution by which an official of the executive or judicial branch may be removed from office for misconduct. Historically, maladministration has not been determined to be an impeachable offense. There is an argument the position of Administrator creates a significant property interest that cannot be deprived without an opportunity for a hearing , especially since the position of Administrator is created through the Constitutional power and process of Congress. See e.g. Cleveland Board of Education v. Loudermill, 470 U.S. 532, 542 (1985). American Space Renaissance Act, 114th Congress, 2D Session, Title II, Sec. 202(h), p. 51. Coverage of insurance or demonstration of financial responsibility is intended to protect the Government and its personnel, contractors and subcontractors of the government provider, customers, and government astronauts per 51 U.S.C. § 50902(c). See American Space Renaissance Act, 114th Congress, 2D Session, Title II, Sec. 202(i)(1), p. 53. Maximum probable loss is a loss calculation applied to a risk event. Section 202(i)(1) requires the Administrator to determine the maximum probable loss for activities carried out under the amended § 20138(g). American Space Renaissance Act, 114th Congress, 2D Session, Title II, Sec. 202(i)(1), p. 52. Id. at Sec. 202(i)(1), p. 53. Id. at Sec. 202(i)(1), p. 55. American Space Renaissance Act, 114th Congress, 2D Session, Title II, Sec. 203(a)(2), p.56 Id. at Sec. 203(a)(3-5), p.56 Id. at Sec. 203(b)(1-4), pp. 56-57. Id. at Sec. 203(c), p. 57. Id. at Sec. 203(d), p. 57. Id. at Sec. 203(e), pp. 57-58. Id. at Sec. 203(f)(1), p. 58. Id. at Sec. 203(f)(2), p. 58. Id. at Sec. 203(f)(2)(A), p. 58. Id. at Sec. 203(f)(2)(B-C), pp. 58, 59. Id. at Sec. 203(f)(3), p. 59. 51 U.S.C. § 50902(c) creates the category of federal employees identified as “government astronaut” who will utilize contracted commercial space launches to travel to and from the International Space Station. American Space Renaissance Act, 114th Congress, 2D Session, Title II, Sec. 204(a), pp. 59-60. Id. at Sec. 204(b), p. 60. Id. at Sec. 204(b)(1)(A-G), pp. 60-61. Id. at Sec. 204(b)(2), p. 61. See Id. at Sec. 204(c)(1-2), pp. 61-62. Id. at Sec. 204(b)(3), p. 61. Id. at Sec. 204(c)(1), pp. 61-62. Id. at Sec. 204(c)(2), p. 62. Id. at Sec. 204(c)(2)(A-B), pp. 62-63. Id. at Sec. 204(d)(1), p. 63. Id. at Sec. 204(c)(2), p. 62. Title I, Section 106(a) mandates the 25% assumption to begin after January 1, 2023. Section 204(e) might be edited to change its mandate to January 1, 2023 as well. American Space Renaissance Act, 114th Congress, 2D Session, Title II, Sec. 204(e), pp. 63-64. Id. at Sec. 204(f-g), p.64. American Space Renaissance Act, 114th Congress, 2D Session, Title II, Sec. 205(a), pp. 64-65. Id. at Sec. 205(b), p. 65. Id. at Sec. 205(b)(1-5), pp. 65-66. Class C and Class D cargo is medium to low priority cargo/payloads. See NASA Procedural Requirements, Risk Classification for NASA Payloads (Updated w/change 3), NPR 8705.4, Appendix B, Expiration Date June 14, 2018. American Space Renaissance Act, 114th Congress, 2D Session, Title II, Sec. 206, p.66. Id. at Sec. 206(1-3), pp. 66-67. Home









