In my previous post, I started discussing the idea of intersection impls, which are a possible extension to specialization. I am specifically looking at the idea of making it possible to add blanket impls to (e.g.) implement Clone for any Copy type. We saw that intersection impls, while useful, do not enable us to do this in a backwards compatible way.

Today I want to dive a bit deeper into specialization. We’ll see that specialization actually couples together two things: refinement of behavior and reuse of code. This is no accident, and its normally a natural thing to do, but I’ll show that, in order to enable the kinds of blanket impls I want, it’s important to be able to tease those apart somewhat.

This post doesn’t really propose anything. Instead it merely explores some of the implications of having specialization rules that are not based purely on “subsets of types”, but instead go into other areas.

Requirements for backwards compatibility

In the previous post, my primary motivating example focused on the Copy and Clone traits. Specifically, I wanted to be able to add an impl like the following (we’ll call it “impl A”):

impl < T : Copy > Clone for T { // impl A default fn clone ( & self ) -> Point { * self } }

The idea is that if I have a Copy type, I should not have to write a Clone impl by hand. I should get one automatically.

The problem is that there are already lots of Clone impls “in the wild” (in fact, every Copy type has one, since Copy is a subtrait of Clone , and hence implementing Copy requires implememting Clone too). To be backwards compatible, we have to do two things:

continue to compile those Clone impls without generating errors;

impls without generating errors; give those existing Clone impls precedence over the new one.

The last point may not be immediately obvious. What I’m saying is that if you already had a type with a Copy and a Clone impl, then any attempts to clone that type need to keep calling the clone() method you wrote. Otherwise the behavior of your code might change in subtle ways.

So for example imagine that I am developing a widget crate with some types like these:

struct Widget < T > { data : Option < T > } impl < T : Copy > Copy for Widget < T > { } // impl B impl < T : Clone > Clone for Widget < T > { // impl C fn clone ( & self ) -> Widget < T > { Widget { data : self .data .clone () } } }

Then, for backwards compatibility, we want that if I have a variable widget of type Widget<T> for any T (including cases where T: Copy , and hence Widget<T>: Copy ), then widget.clone() invokes impl C.

Thought experiment: Named impls and explicit specialization

For the purposes of this post, I’d like to engage now in a thought experiment. Imagine that, instead of using type subsets as the basis for specialization, we gave every impl a name, and we could explicitly specify when one impl specializes another using that name. When I say that an impl X specializes an impl Y, I mean primarily that items in the impl X override items in impl Y:

When we go looking for an associated item, we use the one in X first.

However, in the specialization RFC as it currently stands, specializing is also tied to reuse. In particular:

If there is no item in X, then we go looking in Y.

The point of this thought experiment is to show that we may want to separate these two concepts.

To avoid inventing syntax, I’ll use a #[name] attribute to specify the name of an impl and a #[specializes] attribute to declare when one impl specializes another. So we might declare our two Clone impls from the previous section as follows:

# [ name = "A" ] impl < T : Copy > Clone for T { ... } #[name = "B" ] #[specializes = "A" ] impl < T : Clone > Clone for Widget < T > { ... }

Interestingly, it turns out that this scheme of using explicit names interacts really poorly with the reuse aspects of the specialization RFC. The Clone trait is kind of too simple to show what I mean, so let’s consider an alternative trait, Dump , which has two methods:

trait Dump { fn display ( & self ); fn debug ( & self ); }

Now imagine that I have a blanket implementation of Dump that applies to any type that implements Debug . It defines both display and debug to print to stdout using the Debug trait. Let’s call this “impl D”.

# [ name = "D" ] impl < T > Dump where T : Debug , { default fn display ( & self ) { self .debug () } default fn debug ( & self ) { println! ( "{:?}" , self ); } }

Now, maybe I’d like to specialize this impl so that if I have an iterator over items that also implement Display , then display dumps out their debug instead. I don’t want to change the behavior for debug , so I leave that method unchanged. This is sort of analogous to subtyping in an OO language: I am refining the impl for Dump by tweaking how it behaves in certain scenarios. We’ll call this impl E.

# [ name = "E" ] #[specializes = "D" ] impl < T > Dump where T : Display + Debug , { fn display ( & self ) { println! ( "{}" , value ); } }

So far, everything is fine. In fact, if you just remove the #[name] and #[specializes] annotations, this example would work with specialization as currently implemented. But imagine that we did a slightly different thing. Imagine we wrote impl E but without the requirement that T: Debug (everything else is the same). Let’s call this variant impl F.

# [ name = "F" ] #[specializes = "D" ] impl < T > Dump where T : Display , { fn display ( & self ) { println! ( "{}" , value ); } }

Now we no longer have the “subset of types” property. Because of the #[specializes] annotation, impl F specializes impl D, but in fact it applies to an overlapping, but different set of types (those that implement Display rather than those that implement Debug ).

But losing the “subset of types” property makes the reuse in impl F invalid. Impl F only defines the display() method and it claims to inherit the debug() method from Impl D. But how can it do that? The code in impl D was written under the assumption that the types we are iterating over implement Debug , and it uses methods from the Debug trait. Clearly we can’t reuse that code, since if we did so we might not have the methods we need.

So the takeaway here is that if an impl A wants to reuse some items from impl B, then impl A must apply to a subset of impl B’s types. That guarantees that the item from impl B will still be well-typed inside of impl A.

What does this mean for copy and clone?

“Interesting thought experiment,” you are thinking, “but how does this relate to Copy and Clone ?” Well, it turns out that if we ever want to be able to add add things like an autoconversion impl between Copy and Clone (and Ord and PartialOrd , etc), we are going to have to move away from “subsets of types” as the sole basis for specialization. This implies we will have to separate the concept of “when you can reuse” (which requires subset of types) from “when you can override” (which can be more general).

Basically, in order to add a blanket impl backwards compatibly, we have to allow impls to override one another in situations where reuse would not be possible. Let’s go through an example. Imagine that – at timestep 0 – the Dump trait was defined in a crate dump , but without any blanket impl:

// In crate `dump`, timestep 0 trait Dump { fn display ( & self ); fn debug ( & self ); }

Now some other crate widget implements Dump for its type Widget , at timestep 1:

// In crate `widget`, timestep 1 extern crate dump ; struct Widget < T > { ... } // impl G: impl < T : Debug > Debug for Widget < T > { ... } // impl H: impl < T > Dump for Widget < T > { fn display ( & self ) { ... } fn debug ( & self ) { ... } }

Now, at timestep 2, we wish to add an implementation of Dump that works for any type that implements Debug (as before):

// In crate `dump`, timestep 2 impl<T> Dump // impl I where T: Debug, { default fn display(&self) { self.debug() } default fn debug(&self) { println!("{:?}", self); } }

If we assume that this set of impls will be accepted – somehow, under any rules – we have created a scenario very similar to our explicit specialization. Remember that we said in the beginning that, for backwards compatibility, we need to make it so that adding the new blanket impl (impl I) does not cause any existing code to change what impl it is using. That means that Widget<T>: Dump also needs to be resolved to impl H, the original impl from the crate widget : even if impl I also applies.

This basically means that impl H overrides impl I (that is, in cases where both impls apply, impl H takes precedence). But impl H cannot reuse from impl I, since impl H does not apply to a subset of blanket impl’s types. Rather, these impls apply to overlapping but distinct sets of types. For example, the Widget impl applies to all Widget<T> , even in cases where T: Debug does not hold. But the blanket impl applies to i32 , which is not a widget at all.

Conclusion

This blog post argues that if we want to support adding blanket impls backwards compatibly, we have to be careful about reuse. I actually don’t think this is a mega-big deal, but it’s an interesting observation, and one that wasn’t obvious to me at first. It means that “subset of types” will always remain a relevant criteria that we have to test for, no matter what rules we wind up with (which might in turn mean that intersection impls remain relevant).

The way I see this playing out is that we have some rules for when one impl specializes one another. Those rules do not guarantee a subset of types and in fact the impls may merely overlap. If, additionally, one impl matches a subst of the other’s types, then that first impl may reuse items from the other impl.

PS: Why not use names, anyway?

You might be thinking to yourself right now “boy, it is nice to have names and be able to say explicitly what we specialized by what”. And I would agree. In fact, since “specializable” impls must mark their items as default, you could easily imagine a scheme where those impls had to also be given a name at the same time. Unfortunately, that would not at all support my copy-clone use case, since in that case we want to add the base impl after the fact, and hence the extant specializing impls would have to be modified to add a #[specializes] annotation. Also, we tried giving impls names back in the day; it felt quite artificial, since they don’t have an identity of their own, really.

Since this is a continuation of my previous post, I’ll just re-use the same internals thread for comments.