While Big Bang is almost universally accepted as the most plausible account of the origin of the universe, it is still only a theory, not proven fact, and in principle should be open to any scientists to test it against alternative cosmological possibilities. Yet Arp found himself being treated as a pariah. Warned in the early 1980s that his research programme was going nowhere, he refused to change course. “The committee that allocates time on the telescopes finally told me that I could no longer make those kinds of investigations,” he recalled, (though he admitted that he had refused to submit a research proposal at all on the grounds that everyone knew what he was up to). In 1985 Arp, who described his experiences in Quasars, Redshifts and Controversies (1989), took scientific refuge at the Max Planck Institute in Munich.