The degree to which desertification during the Holocene resulted from climatic deterioration or alternatively from overgrazing has puzzled Quaternary scientists in many arid regions of the world. In the research reported upon here, a multi-disciplinary investigation of a 5-m deep, ~11,000-year-old sediment column excavated in a dry lake bed in southern Jordan revealed an early interval in which proxies of plant cover and sheep/goat stocking rates co-varied directly with climatic cycles. Beginning ~5.6 kcal BP, however, this pattern changed with fecal spherulite and phytolith densities failing to co-vary and with spherulites often greatly exceeding phytolith densities, which we suggest is indicative of overgrazing. Moreover, the lack of agreement between the high phytolith densities and other indicators of a desert landscape (i.e. geomorphic and palynologic) suggests that phytolith densities were inflated by fodder subsidies and as such are not entirely reflective of plant cover for this later interval. Given the co-incidental emergence of overgrazing with archaeological evidence for a marked rise in regional population, emergence of widespread trade, and expansion of the Timnian pastoral complex during Chalcolithic–early Bronze times, we argue that desertification was a consequence of socio-economic factors (e.g. higher stocking rates) associated with a shift from a subsistence to a market economy. In addition, we contend that the signature lithic artifact variety (tabular scraper) that appeared in great abundance during this period was directly tied to the emergent market economy and its secondary products (wool) in having been used to shear sheep. Moreover, in that these changes took place largely concurrent with local and regionally recognized evidence of a moist interval, we conclude that the mid- to late-Holocene desertification of the southern Levant was induced more by anthropogenic than climatic factors.

References

Abu-Azizeh, W ( 2013 ) The south-eastern Jordan’s Chalcolithic–Early Bronze Age pastoral nomadic complex: Patterns of mobility and interaction . Paléorient 39(1): 149 – 176 .

Google Scholar Crossref

Al Zaidaneen, J ( 2007 ) Ain Abu Nukhayla Botanic Study (unpublished manuscript).

Google Scholar

Albert, RM, Henry, DO ( 2004 ) Herding and agricultural activities at the early Neolithic site of Ayn Abū Nukhayla (Wadi Rum, Jordan). The results of phytolith and spherulite analyses . Paléorient 30(2): 81 – 92 .

Google Scholar Crossref

Albert, RM, Weiner, S ( 2001 ) Study of phytoliths in prehistoric ash layers using a quantitative approach . In: Meunier, JD, Colin, F (eds) Phytoliths: Applications in Earth Sciences and Human History. Lisse : A.A. Balkema Publishers , pp. 251 – 266 .

Google Scholar

Albert, RM, Bar-Yosef, O, Goldberg, P. ( 2003 ) Phytolith and mineralogical studies of hearths from the Middle Paleolithic levels of Hayonim cave (Galilee, Israel) . Journal of Archaeological Science 30: 461 – 480 .

Google Scholar Crossref

Al-Jaloudy, M ( 2001 ) Grassland and Pasture Crops, Country Pasture/Forage Resource Profiles, Jordan. Available at: http://www.fao.org/ag/AGP/AGPC/doc/Counprof/Jordan.htm.

Google Scholar

Avner, U ( 2006 ) Settlement patterns in the Wadi Arabah and the adjacent desert areas: A view from the Eilat region . In: Bienkowski, P, Galor, K (eds) Crossing the Rift: Resources, Routes, Settlement Patterns and Interaction in the Wadi Arabah. Oxford : Oxbow Books , pp. 51 – 74 .

Google Scholar

Avni, Y, Porat, N, Plakht, J. ( 2006 ) Geomorphic changes leading to natural desertification versus anthropogenic land conservation in an arid environment, the Negev Highlands, Israel . Geomorphology 82(3–4): 177 – 200 .

Google Scholar Crossref

Babenko, AN, Kisleva, NK, Plakht, I. ( 2007 ) Reconstruction of the Holocene vegetation in the Central Negev Desert, Israel, on the basis of palynological data on the Atzmaut zoogenic deposit . Russian Journal of Ecology 38(6): 417 – 426 .

Google Scholar Crossref

Baird, D ( 2014 ) Origins of caprine herding . Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 111(24): 8702 – 8703 .

Google Scholar Crossref | Medline

Barker, G, Gilbertson, D, Mattingly, D ( 2007 ) Archaeology and Desertification: Levant Supplementary Series, vol. 6. Oxford : Oxbow Books .

Google Scholar

Barkett, TA, Bell, CA ( 2011 ) Tabular scrapers: Function revisited . Journal of Near Eastern Archaeology 74(1): 56 – 59 .

Google Scholar Crossref

Bar-Matthews, M, Ayalon, A ( 2011 ) Mid-Holocene climate variations revealed by high-resolution speleothem records from Soreq Cave, Israel and their correlation with cultural changes . The Holocene 21(1): 163 – 171 . Available at: http://doi.org/10.1177/0959683610384165.

Google Scholar

Baruch, U ( 1990 ) Palynological evidence of human impact on vegetation as recorded in Late-Holocene lake sediments in Israel . In: Bottema, S, Entjes-Nieborg, G, vanZeist, W (eds) Man’s Role in the Shaping of Eastern Mediterranean Landscape. Rotterdam : A.A. Balkema Publishers , pp. 283 – 293 .

Google Scholar

Batello, C ( 2011 ) Farming systems in arid rangelands of Syria and Jordan . Available at: http://www.fao.org/ag/agp/AGPC/DOC/PUBLICAT/field2/pub03Syria.htm.

Google Scholar

Benecke, N ( 2009 ) Faunal remains of Tall Hujayrat al-Ghuzlan (Excavations 2000–2004) . In: Khalil, L, Schmidt, K (eds) Prehistoric Aqaba I. Rahden : Marie Leidorf , pp. 339 – 354 .

Google Scholar

Blench, R ( 1999 ) Rangeland degradation and socio-economic changes among the Bedu of Jordan; results of the 1995 IFAD Survey . In: Squires, VR, Sidahmed, AE (eds) Drylands: Sustainable Use of Rangelands in the Twenty-First Century. Rome : IFAD , pp. 397 – 423 .

Google Scholar

Blench, R ( 2004 ) The history and spread of donkeys in Africa . In: Fielding, D, Starkey, P (eds) Donkeys, People and Development. Brussels : ATHESA, CTA , pp. 22 – 30 .

Google Scholar

Brochier, JE, Villa, P, Giacomarra, M. ( 1992 ) Shepherds and sediments: Geo-ethnoarchaeology of pastoral sites . Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 11: 47 – 102 .

Google Scholar Crossref | ISI

Byrd, BF ( 2005 ) Reassessing the emergence of village life in the Near East . Journal of Archaeological Research 13: 231 – 290 .

Google Scholar Crossref | ISI

Canti, MG ( 1997 ) An investigation of microscopic calcareous spherulites from herbivore dungs . Journal of Archaeological Science 24: 219 – 231 .

Google Scholar Crossref

Canti, MG ( 1998 ) The micromorphological identification of faecal spherulites from archaeological and modern materials . Journal of Archaeological Science 25: 435 – 444 .

Google Scholar Crossref

Canti, MG ( 1999 ) The production and preservation of faecal spherulites: Animals, environment and taphonomy . Journal of Archaeological Science 26: 251 – 258 .

Google Scholar Crossref | ISI

Cordova, CE ( 2007 ) Millennial Landscape Change in Jordan: Geoarchaeology and Cultural Ecology. Tucson, AZ : University of Arizona Press .

Google Scholar

Cordova, CE, Kalchgruber, R, Winsborough, B ( 2014 ) Geology, landforms, and depositional systems in Wadi Rum . In: Henry, DO, Beaver, JE (eds) The Sands of Time: The Desert Neolithic Settlement of Ayn Abū Nukhayla. Berlin : ex oriente , pp. 13 – 28 .

Google Scholar

Dean, RE ( 2014 ) Hunting and herding at Ayn Abū Nukhayla: The vertebrate faunal assemblage . In: Henry, DO, Beaver, JE (eds) The Sands of Time: The Desert Neolithic Settlement of Ayn Abū Nukhayla. Berlin : ex oriente , pp. 69 – 90 .

Google Scholar

Eddy, F, Wendorf, F ( 1999 ) An Archaeological Investigation of the Central Sinai, Egypt. Boulder, CO : University of Colorado Press .

Google Scholar

Emery-Barbier, A ( 2014 ) Establishing the environment, seasonality and economy through plant micro-remains: Pollen and starch . In: Henry, DO, Beaver, JE (eds) The Sands of Time: The Desert Neolithic Settlement of Ayn Abū Nukhayla. Berlin : ex oriente , pp. 105 – 120 .

Google Scholar

Epstein, H ( 1971 ) The Origin of the Domestic Animals of Africa, vol. II. New York : Africana Publishing Co .

Google Scholar

Falconer, SE, Fall, PL ( 1995 ) Human impacts on the environment during the rise and collapse of civilization in the eastern Mediterranean . In: Steadman, DW, Mead, JI (eds) Late Quaternary Environments and Deep History: A Tribute to Paul S. Martin, vol. 3. Hot Springs, SD : The Mammoth Site of Hot Springs, Scientific Papers , pp. 84 – 101 .

Google Scholar

Finkelstein, I, Silberman, NA ( 2001 ) The Bible Unearthed: Archaeology’s New Vision of Ancient Israel and the Origin of Its Sacred Texts. New York : Free Press .

Google Scholar

Fujii, S ( 2003 ) Qa’ Abu Tulayha West, 2002 an interim report of the 6th and final season . Annual of the Department of Antiquities of Jordan 47: 195 – 223 .

Google Scholar

Fujii, S ( 2010 ) Domestication of runoff surface water: Current evidence and new perspectives from the Jafr pastoral Neolithic . In: Rollefson, GO, Gebel, HGK (eds) Neo-Lithics 2/10 the Newsletter of Southwest Asian Neolithic Research: Special Topic on the Domestication of Water. Berlin : ex oriente , pp. 14 – 32 .

Google Scholar

Fujii, S ( 2011 ) ‘Lost Property’ at Wadi Qusayr 173: Evidence for the transportation of tabular scrapers in the Jafr Basin, Southern Jordan . Levant 43(1): 1 – 14 .

Google Scholar Crossref

Garrard, A, Colledge, S, Martin, L ( 1996 ) The emergence of crop cultivation and caprine herding in the ‘marginal zone’ of the southern Levant . In: Harris, D (ed.) The Original and Spread of Agriculture and Pastoralism in Eurasia. Washington, DC : Smithsonian Press , pp. 204 – 226 .

Google Scholar

Geist, HJ, Lambin, EF ( 2004 ) Dynamic causal patterns of desertification . BioScience 54(9): 817 . Available at: http://doi.org/10.1641/0006-3568(2004)054[0817:DCPOD]2.0.CO;2.

Google Scholar

Gilead, I ( 1988 ) The Chalcolithic Period in the Levant . Journal of World Prehistory 3: 396 – 443 .

Google Scholar

Goring-Morris, N, Belfer-Cohen, A ( 2011 ) Neolithization processes in the Levant: The outer envelope . Current Anthropology 52(4): 195 – 208 .

Google Scholar Crossref

Grigson, C ( 1995 ) Plough and pasture in the early economy of the southern Levant . In: Levy, TE (ed.) The Archaeology of Society in the Holy Land. London : Leicester University Press , pp. 245 – 268 .

Google Scholar

Henry, DO ( 1994 ) Prehistoric cultural ecology in southern Jordan . Science 265: 336 – 341 .

Google Scholar Crossref | Medline

Henry, DO ( 1995 ) The Timnian and pastoral nomadism in the Chalcolithic . In: Henry, DO (ed.) Prehistoric Cultural Ecology and Evolution: Insights from Southern Jordan. New York : Plenum Press , pp. 353 – 374 .

Google Scholar Crossref

Henry, DO ( 2006 ) Cultural and geological influences on prehistoric site distributions in the Wadi Arabah . In: Bienkowski, P, Galor, K(eds) Crossing the Rift: Resources, Routes, Settlement Patterns and Interaction in the Wadi Arabah. Oxford : Oxbow Books , pp. 91 – 102 .

Google Scholar

Henry, DO ( 2014 a) Pulling it all together, answers to many questions . In: Henry, DO, Beaver, JE (eds) The Sands of Time: The Desert Neolithic Settlement of Ayn Abū Nukhayla. Berlin : ex oriente , pp. 315 – 346 .

Google Scholar

Henry, DO ( 2014 b) The problems, questions and getting the answers . In: Henry, DO, Beaver, JE (eds) The Sands of Time: The Desert Neolithic Settlement of Ayn Abū Nukhayla. Berlin : ex oriente , pp. 1 – 13 .

Google Scholar

Henry, DO, Beaver, JE (eds) ( 2014 a) The Sands of Time: The Desert Neolithic Settlement of Ayn Abū Nukhayla. Berlin : ex oriente .

Google Scholar

Henry, DO, Beaver, JE ( 2014 b) The stratigraphy, occupational phases and chronometry . In: Henry, DO, Beaver, JE (eds) The Sands of Time: The Desert Neolithic Settlement of Ayn Abū Nukhayla. Berlin : ex oriente , pp. 41 – 48 .

Google Scholar

Henry, DO, Nowell, A ( 2007 ) Time-space patterns observed in Pre-Pottery Neolithic B point attributes from Ayn Abū Nukhayla . Journal of Eurasian Prehistory 5(1): 3 – 20 .

Google Scholar

Henry, DO, Cochrane, M, Burns, C. ( 2013 ) Analysis and interpretation of lithic assemblages recovered from sites in the Southeast Araba Archaeological Survey . In: Parker, S, Smith, A (eds) The Roman Aqaba Report, vol. I. Boston, MA : ASOR Excavation Reports , pp. 1 – 15 .

Google Scholar

Henry, DO, Kadowaki, S, Bergin, S ( 2014 ) Reconstructing Early Neolithic social and economic organization through spatial analysis at Ayn Abū Nukhayla, southern Jordan . American Antiquity 79(3): 401 – 424 .

Google Scholar Crossref

Henry, DO, Kerry, K, Brauer, H. ( 2001 ) Survey of prehistoric sites, Wadi Araba, southern Jordan . Bulletin American Schools of Oriental Research 323: 1 – 19 .

Google Scholar Crossref

Hill, JB ( 2006 ) Human Ecology in the Wadi al-Hasa Land Use and Abandonment through the Holocene. Tucson, AZ : University of Arizona Press .

Google Scholar

Issar, AS ( 2003 ) Climate Changes during the Holocene and their Impact on Hydrological Systems. Cambridge : Cambridge University Press .

Google Scholar Crossref

Khalil, L, Eichmann, R, Schmidt, K ( 2003 ) Archaeological survey and excavations at the Wadi Al-Yutum and Al-Magass Area – Al-’Aqaba (ASEYM): A preliminary report on the third and fourth seasons excavations at Tall Hujayrat Al-Ghuzlan in 2002 and 2003, Wadi Al-Yutum . Annual of the Department of Antiquities of Jordan 47: 159 – 182 .

Google Scholar

Klimscha, F ( 2011 ) Long-range contacts in the Late Chalcolithic of the southern Levant. Excavations at Tall Hujayrat al-Ghuzlan and Tall al-Magass near Aqaba, Jordan . In: Mynářová, J (ed.) Long-Range Contacts in the Late Chalcolithic of the Southern Levant. Excavations at Tall Hujayrat al-Ghuzlan and Tall al-Magass near Aqaba, Jordan. Praha : Charles University , pp. 177 – 210 .

Google Scholar

Klimscha, F ( 2013 a) Another great transformation . Zeitschrift für Orient Archäologie 6, 2013(2014), 82 – 112 .

Google Scholar

Klimscha, F ( 2013 b) Innovations in Chalcolithic metallurgy in the Southern Levant during the 5th and 4th Millennium BC. Copper-production at Tall Hujayrat al-Ghuzlan and Tall al-Magass, Aqaba Area, Jordan . In: Burmeister, S, Hansen, S, Kunst, M. (eds) Metal Matters: Innovative Technologies and Social Change in Prehistory and Antiquity. Rahden : Marie Leidorf , pp. 1 – 64 .

Google Scholar

Koch, J, Schaldach, R, Kölking, C ( 2009 ) Modeling the impact of rangeland management strategies on (semi-)natural vegetation in Jordan . In: 18th World IMACS / MODSIM Congress , Cairns, QLD, Australia , .

Google Scholar

Köchy, M, Mathaj, M, Jeltsch, F. ( 2008 ) Resilience of stocking capacity to changing climate in arid to Mediterranean landscapes . Regional Environmental Change 8: 73 – 87 .

Google Scholar Crossref

Kohler-Rollefson, I ( 1988 ) The aftermath of the Levantine Neolithic Revolution in the light of ecological and ethnographic evidence . Paléorient 14: 87 – 93 .

Google Scholar Crossref

Kozloff, B ( 1981 ) Pastoral nomadism in Sinai: An ethno-archaeological study . Production pastorales et societe: bulletin d’ecologie et d’anthropologie des societies pastorales 8: 19 – 24 .

Google Scholar

Kuijt, I ( 2000 ) Life in Neolithic farming communities: An introduction . In: Kuijt, I (ed.) In Life in Neolithic Farming Communities. New York : Kluwer Academic/Plenum , pp. 3 – 13 .

Google Scholar

Kuijt, I, Bar-Yosef, O ( 1994 ) Radiocarbon chronology for the Levantine Neolithic: Observations and data . In: Bar-Yosef, O, Kra, RS (eds) Late Quaternary Chronology and Paleoclimates of the Eastern Mediterranean. Tucson, AZ : Radiocarbon , pp. 227 – 246 .

Google Scholar

Kuijt, I, Goring-Morris, N ( 2002 ) Foraging, farming, and social complexity in the Pre-Pottery Neolithic of the Southern Levant: A review and synthesis . Journal of World Prehistory 16(4): 361 – 440 .

Google Scholar Crossref

Lancaster, W, Lancaster, F ( 1991 ) Limitations on sheep and goat herding in the Eastern Badia of Jordan: An ethno-archaeological enquiry . Levant XXIII : 125 – 138 .

Google Scholar

Langgut, D, Neumann, FH, Stein, M. ( 2014 ) Dead Sea pollen record and history of human activity in the Judean Highlands (Israel) from the Intermediate Bronze into the Iron Ages (~2500–500 BCE) . Palynology 38(2): 280 – 302 . Available at: http://doi.org/10.1080/01916122.2014.906001.

Google Scholar

McConaughy, MA ( 1979 ) Formal and functional analysis of chipped stone tools from Bab edh-Dhra. Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation, University of Pittsburgh .

Google Scholar

McCorriston, J, Hayes, E ( 2014 ) Archaeobotanical finds from Ayn Abū Nukhayla . In: Henry, DO, Beaver, JE (eds) The Sands of Time: The Desert Neolithic Settlement of Ayn Abū Nukhayla. Berlin : ex oriente , pp. 139 – 144 .

Google Scholar

Migowski, C, Stein, M, Prasad, S. ( 2006 ) Holocene climate variability and cultural evolution in the Near East from the Dead Sea sedimentary record . Quaternary Research 66(3): 421 – 431 . Available at: http://doi.org/10.1016/j.yqres.2006.06.010.

Google Scholar

Niemi, TM, Smith, AM ( 1999 ) Initial results of the Southeastern Wadi Araba, Jordan geoarchaeological study: Implications for shifts in Late Quaternary aridity . Geoarchaeology 14(8): 791 – 820 .

Google Scholar Crossref

Notroff, J, Schmidt, K, Siegel, U. ( 2014 ) Reconstructing networks, linking spaces the view from the Aqaba region (Jordan) . Levant 46(2): 249 – 267 .

Google Scholar Crossref

Portillo, M, Albert, RM ( 2014 ) Early crop cultivation and caprine herding: The evidence from phytolith and fecal spherulite studies . In: Henry, DO, Beaver, JE (eds) The Sands of Time: The Desert Neolithic Settlement of Ayn Abū Nukhayla. Berlin : ex oriente , pp. 121 – 137 .

Google Scholar

Portillo, M, Albert, RM, Henry, DO ( 2009 ) Domestic activities and spatial distribution in Ain Abū Nukhayla (Wadi Rum, Southern Jordan): The use of phytoliths and spherulites studies . Quaternary International 193: 174 – 183 .

Google Scholar Crossref

Quintero, L, Wilke, PL, Rollefson, GO ( 2002 ) From flint mine to fan scraper: The late prehistoric Jafr industrial complex . Bulletin of American Schools of Oriental Research 327: 17 – 48 .

Google Scholar Crossref

Reynolds, JF, Stafford-Smith, DM, Lambin, E ( 2003 ) Do humans cause deserts? An old problem through the lens of a new framework: The Dahlem Desertification Paradigm . In: VIIth International Rangelands Congress , Durban , , pp. 2042 – 2048 .

Google Scholar

Rosen, AM ( 2007 ) Civilizing Climate: Social Responses to Climate Change in the Ancient Near East. Lanham, MD : Alta Mira Press .

Google Scholar

Rosen, SA ( 2011 a) Desert chronologies and periodization systems . In: Lovell, JL, Rowan, YM (eds) Culture, Chronology and Theory. Oxford : Oxbow Books , pp. 71 – 83 .

Google Scholar

Rosen, SA ( 2011 b) The desert and the pastoralist: An archaeological perspective on human-landscape interaction in the Negev over the millennia . Annals of Arid Zone 50(3–4): 1 – 15 .

Google Scholar

Rothenberg, B, Glass, J ( 1992 ) The beginnings and the development of early metallurgy and the settlement and chronology of the Western Arabah, from the Chalcolithic Period to Early Bronze Age IV . Levant 24: 141 – 157 .

Google Scholar Crossref

Rothenberg, B, Danin, A, Garfunkel, Z. ( 1979 ) Sinai: Pharoahs, Miners, Pilgrims and Soldiers. Washington, DC; New York : Joseph J. Binns Publisher .

Google Scholar

Rowan, Y, Golden, J ( 2009 ) The Chalcolithic period of the Southern Levant: A synthetic review . Journal of World Prehistory 22: 1 – 92 .

Google Scholar Crossref | ISI

Sasson, A ( 2008 ) Animal Husbandry in Ancient Israel: A Zooarchaeological Perspective on Livestock Exploitation, Herd Management and Economic Strategies. London : Equinox .

Google Scholar

Schmidt, K, Khalil, L (eds) ( 2009 ) Prehistoric Aqaba I. Orient Archäologie, vol. 23. Rahden : Marie Leidorf .

Google Scholar

Shahack-Gross, R, Marshall, F, Weiner, S ( 2003 ) Geo-ethnoarchaeology of pastoral sites: The identification of livestock enclosures in abandoned Maasai settlements . Journal of Archaeological Science 30: 439 – 459 .

Google Scholar Crossref | ISI

Simmons, AH ( 2000 ) Villages on the edge: Regional settlement change and the end of the Levantine Pre-Pottery Neolithic . In: Kuijt, I (ed.) Life in Neolithic Farming Communities. New York : Kluwer Academic , pp. 211 – 230 .

Google Scholar

Simmons, AH ( 2007 ) The Neolithic Revolution in the Near East: Transforming the Human Landscape. Tucson, AZ : University of Arizona Press .

Google Scholar

Simms, SR ( 1988 ) The archaeological structure of a Bedouin camp . Journal of Archaeological Science 15: 197 – 211 .

Google Scholar Crossref | ISI

Simms, SR, Russell, KW ( 1997 ) Tur Imdai Rockshelter: Archaeology of recent pastoralists in Jordan . Journal of Field Archaeology 24: 459 – 472 .

Google Scholar

Stiner, MC, Buitenhuis, H, Duru, G. ( 2014 ) A forager-herder trade-off, from broad-spectrum hunting to sheep management at Aşıklı Höyük, Turkey . Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 111(23): 8404 – 8409 .

Google Scholar Crossref | Medline

Tchernov, E, Horwitz, LK ( 1990 ) Herd management in the past and its impact on the landscape of the southern Levant . In: Bottema, S, Entjes-Nieborg, G, vanZeist, W (eds) Man’s Role in the Shaping of Eastern Mediterranean Landscape. Rotterdam : A.A. Balkema Publishers , pp. 207 – 218 .

Google Scholar

Tsartsidou, G, Lev-Yadun, S, Albert, RM. ( 2007 ) The phytolith archaeological record: Strengths and weaknesses based on a quantitative modern reference collection from Greece . Journal of Archaeological Science 34: 1262 – 1275 .

Google Scholar Crossref

Weninger, B, Jöris, O, Danzeglocke, U ( 2007 ) Cologne radiocarbon calibration and paleoclimate research package . Available at: http://www.calpal.de.

Google Scholar

Whiteford, W ( 2002 ) The Ecology of Desert Systems. London : Academic Press .

Google Scholar

Woolley, CL, Lawrence, TE ( 1915 ) Wilderness of Zin Annual of the Palestine Exploration Fund, 1914–1915. London : Harrison & Sons .

Google Scholar