BERLIN—German efficiency has taken a hit this year as many of the country’s most recognizable corporate names wrestle with a slowing local economy, questionable business decisions and trouble shifting to a digital world.

In the past week, Deutsche Bank AG abandoned its global ambitions and initiated layoffs, and the chief executive of BMW AG said he would step down. Profit warnings from BASF SE and Daimler AG—which issued its second in less than a month on Friday—have rattled markets.

Those...