







Homeostasis

Overview

The human organism consists of trillions of cells all working together for the maintenance of the entire organism. While cells may perform very different functions, all the cells are quite similar in their metabolic requirements. Maintaining a constant internal environment with all that the cells need to survive (oxygen, glucose, mineral ions, waste removal, and so forth) is necessary for the well-being of individual cells and the well-being of the entire body. The varied processes by which the body regulates its internal environment are collectively referred to as homeostasis.

What is Homeostasis?

Homeostasis in a general sense refers to stability or balance in a system. It is the body's attempt to maintain a constant internal environment. Maintaining a stable internal environment requires constant monitoring and adjustments as conditions change. This adjusting of physiological systems within the body is called homeostatic regulation.

Homeostatic regulation involves three parts or mechanisms: 1) the receptor, 2) the control center and 3) the effector.

The receptor receives information that something in the environment is changing. The control center or integration center receives and processes information from the receptor. And lastly, the effector responds to the commands of the control center by either opposing or enhancing the stimulus. This is an ongoing process that continually works to restore and maintain homeostasis. For example, in regulating body temperature there are temperature receptors in the skin, which communicate information to the brain, which is the control center, and the effector is our blood vessels and sweat glands in our skin.

Because the internal and external environments of the body are constantly changing and adjustments must be made continuously to stay at or near the set point, homeostasis can be thought of as a synthetic equilibrium.

Since homeostasis is an attempt to maintain the internal conditions of an environment by limiting fluctuations, it must involve a series of negative feedback loops.

Positive and Negative Feedback

When a change of variable occurs, there are two main types of feedback to which the system reacts:

Negative feedback: a reaction in which the system responds in such a way as to reverse the direction of change. Since this tends to keep things constant, it allows the maintenance of homeostasis. For instance, when the concentration of carbon dioxide in the human body increases, the lungs are signaled to increase their activity and expel more carbon dioxide. Thermoregulation is another example of negative feedback. When body temperature rises, receptors in the skin and the hypothalamus sense a change, triggering a command from the brain. This command, in turn, effects the correct response, in this case a decrease in body temperature.

Home Heating System Vs. Negative Feedback When you are at home, you set your thermostat to a desired temperature. Let's say today you set it at 70 degrees. The thermometer in the thermostat waits to sense a temperature change either too high above or too far below the 70 degree set point. When this change happens the thermometer will send a message to to the "Control Center", or thermostat,which in turn will then send a message to the furnace to either shut off if the temperature is too high or kick back on if the temperature is too low. In the home-heating example the air temperature is the "NEGATIVE FEEDBACK." When the Control Center receives negative feedback it triggers a chain reaction in order to maintain room temperature.

Positive feedback: a response is to amplify the change in the variable. This has a destabilizing effect, so does not result in homeostasis. Positive feedback is less common in naturally occurring systems than negative feedback, but it has its applications. For example, in nerves, a threshold electric potential triggers the generation of a much larger action potential. Blood clotting in which the platelets process mechanisms to transform blood liquid to solidify is an example of positive feedback loop. Another example is the secretion of oxytocin which provides a pathway for the uterus to contract, leading to child birth.

Harmful Positive Feedback Although Positive Feedback is needed within Homeostasis it also can be harmful at times. When you have a high fever it causes a metabolic change that can push the fever higher and higher. In rare occurrences the body temperature reaches 113 degrees Fahrenheit / 45 degrees Celsius and the cellular proteins stop working and the metabolism stops, resulting in death.

Summary: Sustainable systems require combinations of both kinds of feedback. Generally with the recognition of divergence from the homeostatic condition, positive feedbacks are called into play, whereas once the homeostatic condition is approached, negative feedback is used for "fine tuning" responses. This creates a situation of "metastability," in which homeostatic conditions are maintained within fixed limits, but once these limits are exceeded, the system can shift wildly to a wholly new (and possibly less desirable) situation of homeostasis.



Homeostatic systems have several properties

They are ultra-stable, meaning the system is capable of testing which way its variables should be adjusted.

Their whole organization (internal, structural, and functional) contributes to the maintenance of balance.

Physiology is largely a study of processes related to homeostasis. Some of the functions you will learn about in this book are not specifically about homeostasis (e.g. how muscles contract), but in order for all bodily processes to function there must be a suitable internal environment. Homeostasis is, therefore, a fitting framework for the introductory study of physiology.

Where did the term "Homeostasis" come from?

The concept of homeostasis was first articulated by the French scientist Claude Bernard (1813-1878) in his studies of the maintenance of stability in the "milieu interior." He said, "All the vital mechanisms, varied as they are, have only one object, that of preserving constant the conditions of life in the internal environment" (from Leçons sur les Phénonèmes de la Vie Commune aux Animaux et aux Végétaux, 1879). The term itself was coined by American physiologist Walter Cannon, author of The Wisdom of the Body (1932). The word comes from the Greek homoios (same, like, resembling) and stasis (to stand, posture).

Cruise Control on a car as a simple metaphor for homeostasis

When a car is put on cruise control it has a set speed limit that it will travel. At times this speed may vary by a few miles per hour but in general the system will maintain the set speed. If the car starts to go up a hill, the systems will automatically increase the amount of fuel given to maintain the set speed. If the car starts to come down a hill, the car will automatically decrease the amount of fuel given in order to maintain the set speed. It is the same with homeostasis- the body has a set limit on each environment. If one of these limits increases or decreases, the body will sense and automatically try to fix the problem in order to maintain the pre-set limits. This is a simple metaphor of how the body operates—constant monitoring of levels, and automatic small adjustments when those levels fall below (or rise above) a set point.

Pathways That Alter Homeostasis

A variety of homeostatic mechanisms maintain the internal environment within tolerable limits. Either homeostasis is maintained through a series of control mechanisms, or the body suffers various illnesses or disease. When the cells in the body begin to malfunction, the homeostatic balance becomes disrupted. Eventually this leads to disease or cell malfunction. Disease and cellular malfunction can be caused in two basic ways: either, deficiency (cells not getting all they need) or toxicity (cells being poisoned by things they do not need). When homeostasis is interrupted in your cells, there are pathways to correct or worsen the problem. In addition to the internal control mechanisms, there are external influences based primarily on lifestyle choices and environmental exposures that influence our body's ability to maintain cellular health.

Nutrition: If your diet is lacking in a specific vitamin or mineral your cells will function poorly, possibly resulting in a disease condition. For example, a menstruating woman with inadequate dietary intake of iron will become anemic. Lack of hemoglobin, a molecule that requires iron, will result in reduced oxygen-carrying capacity. In mild cases symptoms may be vague (e.g. fatigue), but if the anemia (British English: anaemia ) is severe the body will try to compensate by increasing cardiac output, leading to palpitations and sweatiness, and possibly to heart failure.

If your diet is lacking in a specific vitamin or mineral your cells will function poorly, possibly resulting in a disease condition. For example, a menstruating woman with inadequate dietary intake of iron will become anemic. Lack of hemoglobin, a molecule that requires iron, will result in reduced oxygen-carrying capacity. In mild cases symptoms may be vague (e.g. fatigue), but if the anemia (British English: ) is severe the body will try to compensate by increasing cardiac output, leading to palpitations and sweatiness, and possibly to heart failure. Toxins: Any substance that interferes with cellular function, causing cellular malfunction. This is done through a variety of ways; chemical, plant, insecticides, and/or bites. A commonly seen example of this is drug overdoses. When a person takes too much of a drug their vital signs begin to waver; either increasing or decreasing, these vital signs can cause problems including coma, brain damage and even death.

Any substance that interferes with cellular function, causing cellular malfunction. This is done through a variety of ways; chemical, plant, insecticides, and/or bites. A commonly seen example of this is drug overdoses. When a person takes too much of a drug their vital signs begin to waver; either increasing or decreasing, these vital signs can cause problems including coma, brain damage and even death. Psychological: Your physical health and mental health are inseparable. Our thoughts and emotions cause chemical changes to take place either for better as with meditation, or worse as with stress.

Your physical health and mental health are inseparable. Our thoughts and emotions cause chemical changes to take place either for better as with meditation, or worse as with stress. Physical: Physical maintenance is essential for our cells and bodies. Adequate rest, sunlight, and exercise are examples of physical mechanisms for influencing homeostasis. Lack of sleep is related to a number of ailments such as irregular cardiac rhythms, fatigue, anxiety and headaches.

Physical maintenance is essential for our cells and bodies. Adequate rest, sunlight, and exercise are examples of physical mechanisms for influencing homeostasis. Lack of sleep is related to a number of ailments such as irregular cardiac rhythms, fatigue, anxiety and headaches. Genetic/Reproductive: Inheriting strengths and weaknesses is part of our genetic makeup. Genes are sometimes turned off or on due to external factors which we can have some control over, but at other times little can be done to correct or improve genetic diseases. Beginning at the cellular level a variety of diseases come from mutated genes. For example, cancer can be genetically inherited or can be caused due to a mutation from an external source such as radiation or genes altered in a fetus when the mother uses drugs.

Inheriting strengths and weaknesses is part of our genetic makeup. Genes are sometimes turned off or on due to external factors which we can have some control over, but at other times little can be done to correct or improve genetic diseases. Beginning at the cellular level a variety of diseases come from mutated genes. For example, cancer can be genetically inherited or can be caused due to a mutation from an external source such as radiation or genes altered in a fetus when the mother uses drugs. Medical: Because of genetic differences some bodies need help in gaining or maintaining homeostasis. Through modern medicine our bodies can be given different aids, from anti-bodies to help fight infections, or chemotherapy to kill harmful cancer cells. Traditional and alternative medical practices have many benefits, but like any medical practice the potential for harmful effects is present. Whether by nosocomial infections, or wrong dosage of medication, homeostasis can be altered by that which is trying to fix it. Trial and error with medications can cause potential harmful reactions and possibly death if not caught soon enough.

The factors listed above all have their effects at the cellular level, whether harmful or beneficial. Inadequate beneficial pathways (deficiency) will almost always result in a harmful waver in homeostasis. Too much toxicity also causes homeostatic imbalance, resulting in cellular malfunction. By removing negative health influences, and providing adequate positive health influences, your body is better able to self-regulate and self-repair, thus maintaining homeostasis.

Homeostasis Throughout the Body

Each body system contributes to the homeostasis of other systems and of the entire organism. No system of the body works in isolation, and the well-being of the person depends upon the well-being of all the interacting body systems. A disruption within one system generally has consequences for several additional body systems. Here are some brief explanations of how various body systems contribute to the maintenance of homeostasis:

Nervous System

Since the nervous system does not store nutrients, it must receive a continuous supply from blood. Any interruption to the flow of blood may bring brain damage or death. The nervous system maintains homeostasis by controlling and regulating the other parts of the body. A deviation from a normal set point acts as a stimulus to a receptor, which sends nerve impulses to a regulating center in the brain. The brain directs an effector to act in such a way that an adaptive response takes place. If, for example, the deviation was a lowering of body temperature, the effector acts to increase body temperature. The adaptive response returns the body to a state of normalcy and the receptor, the regulating center, and the effector temporarily cease their activities. Since the effector is regulated by the very conditions it produced, this process is called control by negative feedback. This manner of regulating normalcy results in a fluctuation between two extreme levels. Not until body temperature drops below normal do receptors stimulate the regulating center and effectors act to raise body temperature. Regulating centers are located in the central nervous system, consisting of the brain and spinal cord. The hypothalamus is a portion of the brain particularly concerned with homeostasis; it influences the action of the medulla oblongata, a lower part of the brain, the autonomic nervous system, and the pituitary gland.

The nervous system has two major portions: the central nervous system and the peripheral nervous system. The peripheral nervous system consists of the cranial and spinal nerves. The autonomic nervous system is a part of peripheral nervous system and contains motor neurons that control internal organs. It operates at the subconscious level and has two divisions, the sympathetic and parasympathetic systems. In general, the sympathetic system brings about those results we associate with emergency situations, often called fight or flight reactions, and the parasympathetic system produces those effects necessary to our everyday existence.

Endocrine System

The endocrine system consists of glands which secrete hormones into the bloodstream. Each hormone has an effect on one or more target tissues. In this way the endocrine system regulates the metabolism and development of most body cells and body systems. To be more specific, the Endocrine system has sex hormones that can activate sebaceous glands, development of mammary glands, alter dermal blood flow and release lipids from adipocytes. MSH can stimulate melanocytes on our skin. Our bone growth is regulated by several hormones, and the endocrine system helps with the mobilization of calcitonin and calcium. In the muscular system, hormones adjust muscle metabolism, energy production, and growth. In the nervous system, hormones affect neural metabolism, regulate fluid/electrolyte balance and help with reproductive hormones that influence CNS development and behaviors. In the Cardiovascular system, we need hormones that regulate the production of RBC's (red blood cells), which elevate and lower blood pressure. Hormones also have anti-inflammatory effects and stimulate the lymphatic system. In summary, the endocrine system has a regulatory effect on basically every other body system.

Integumentary System

The integumentary system (the skin) is involved in protecting the body from invading microbes (mainly by forming a thick impenetrable layer), regulating body temperature through sweating and vasodilation/vasoconstriction, or shivering and piloerection (goose bumps), and regulating ion balances in the blood. Stimulation of mast cells also produce changes in blood flow and capillary permeability which can effect the blood flow in the body and how it is regulated. It also helps synthesize vitamin D which interacts with calcium and phosphorus absorption needed for bone growth, maintenance, and repair. Hair on the skin guards entrance into the nasal cavity or other orifices, preventing invaders from getting further into our bodies. Our skin also helps maintain balance by excretion of water and other solutes (i.e.) the keratinized epidermis limits fluid loss through skin. It also provides mechanical protection against environmental hazards. We need to remember that our skin is integumentary; it is our first line of defense.

Skeletal System

As the structural framework for the human body, the skeletal system consists mainly of the 206 or so bones of the skeletal system but also includes cartilages, ligaments, and other connective tissues that stabilize and interconnect them. Bones work in conjunction with the muscular system to aid in posture and locomotion. Many bones of the skeleton function as levers, which change the magnitude and direction of forces generated by skeletal muscle. Protection is a pivotal role occupied by the skeletal system, as many vital organs are encased within the skeletal cavities (e.g. cranial and spinal), and bones form much of the structural basis for other body cavities (ex: thoracic and pelvic cavities). The skeletal system also serves as an important mineral reserve. For example, if blood levels of calcium or magnesium are low and the minerals are not available in the diet, they will be taken from the bones. Also, the skeletal system provides calcium needed for all muscular contraction. Finally, red blood cells, lymphocytes and other cells relating to the immune response are produced and stored in the bone marrow.

Muscular System

The muscular system is one of the most versatile systems in the body. The muscular system contains the heart, which constantly pumps blood through the body. The muscular system is also responsible for involuntary (e.g. goose bumps, digestion, breathing) and voluntary (e.g. walking, picking up objects) actions. Muscles also help protect organs in the body's cavities. The muscles in your body contract, which increases your body heat when you're cold. The act of shivering occurs when the internal temperature drops. Muscles around vital organs contract, breaking down ATP and thereby expanding heat, which is then distributed to the rest of the body.

Cardiovascular System

The cardiovascular system, in addition to needing to maintain itself within certain levels, plays a role in maintenance of other body systems by transporting hormones (heart secretes Atrial Natriuretic Peptide and Brain Natriuretic Peptide, or ANP and BNP, respectively) and nutrients (oxygen, EPO to bones,etc.), taking away waste products, and providing all living body cells with a fresh supply of oxygen and removing carbon dioxide. Homeostasis is disturbed if the cardiovascular or lymphatic systems are not functioning correctly. Our skin, bones, muscles, lungs, digestive tract, and nervous, endocrine, lymphatic, urinary and reproductive systems use the cardiovascular system as its "road" or "highway" as far as distribution of things such as nutrients, oxygen, waste products, hormones, drugs, etc. There are many risk factors for an unhealthy cardiovascular system. Some diseases associated are typically labeled "uncontrollable" or "controllable." The main uncontrollable risk factors are age, gender, and a family history of heart disease, especially at an early age.

The cardiovascular system also contains sensors to monitor blood pressure, called baroreceptors, that work by detecting how stretched a blood vessel is. This information is relayed to the Medulla Oblongata in the brain where action is taken to raise or lower blood pressure via the autonomic nervous system.

Lymphatic System

The lymphatic system has three principal roles. First is the maintenance of blood and tissue volume. Excess fluid that leaves the capillaries when under pressure would build up and cause edema. Secondly, the lymphatic system absorbs fatty acids and triglycerides from fat digestion so that these components of digestion do not enter directly into the blood stream. Third, the lymphatic system is involved in defending the body against invading microbes, and the immune response. This system assists in maintenance, such as bone and muscle repair after injuries. Another defense is maintaining the acidic pH of urine to fight infections in the urinary system. The tonsils are our bodies "helpers" to defend us against infections and toxins absorbed from the digestive tract. The tonsils also protect against infections entering into our lungs.

Respiratory System

The respiratory system works in conjunction with the cardiovascular system to provide oxygen to cells within every body system for cellular metabolism. The respiratory system also removes carbon dioxide. Since CO2 is mainly transported in the plasma as bicarbonate ions, which act as a chemical buffer, the respiratory system also helps maintain proper blood pH levels, a fact that is very important for homeostasis. As a result of hyperventilation, CO2 is decreased in blood levels. This causes the pH of body fluids to increase. If acid levels rise above 7.45, the result is respiratory alkalosis. On the other hand, too much CO2 causes pH to fall below 7.35 which results in respiratory acidosis. The respiratory system also helps the lymphatic system by trapping pathogens and protecting deeper tissues within. Note that when you have increased thoracic space it can provide abdominal pressure through the contraction of respiratory muscles. This can assist in defecation.

The organs of the respiratory system include the nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi and lungs. Together these organs permit the movement of air into the tiny, thin walled sacs of the lungs called alveoli. It is in the alveoli that oxygen from the air is exchanged for the waste product carbon dioxide, which is carried to lungs by the blood so that it can be eliminated from the body.

Digestive System

Without a regular supply of energy and nutrients from the digestive system, all body systems would soon suffer. The digestive system absorbs organic substances, vitamins, ions, and water that are needed all over the body. In the skin, the digestive tract provides lipids for storage in the subcutaneous layer. Note that food undergoes three types of processes in the body: digestion, absorption, and elimination. If one of these is not working, you will have problems that will be extremely noticeable. Mechanics of digestion can include chemical digestion, movements, ingestion absorption, and elimination. In order to maintain a healthy and efficient digestive system, we have to remember the components involved. If these are disturbed, digestive health may be compromised.

Urinary System

Toxic nitrogenous wastes accumulate as proteins and nucleic acids are broken down and used for other purposes. The urinary system rids the body of these wastes. The urinary system is also directly involved in maintaining proper blood volume (and indirectly blood pressure) and ion concentration within the blood. One other contribution is that the kidneys produce a hormone (erythropoietin) that stimulates red blood cell production. The kidneys also play an important role in maintaining the correct water content of the body and the correct salt composition of extracellular fluid. External changes that lead to excess fluid loss trigger feedback mechanisms that act to inhibit fluid loss.

Reproductive System

The Reproductive System is unique in that it does little to contribute to the homeostasis of the organism. Rather than being tied to the maintenance of the organism, the reproductive system relates to the maintenance of the species. Having said that, the sex hormones do have an effect on other body systems, and an imbalance can lead to various disorders (e.g. a woman whose ovaries are removed early in life is at much higher risk of osteoporosis).

Excretory System

Excretory System is responsible for removing wastes, excess water and salt in the urine. Regulates the volume and pH of the internal environment. The human excretory system maintains homeostasis by removing metabolic waste such as water, salt and metabolite concentrations in the blood. The kidneys, which are the primary excretory organs, are major organs of homeostasis because they excrete nitrogenous wastes, and regulate water-salt balance and acid base balance. This section will examine the kidney in details.

Thermoregulation

The living bodies have been characterized with a number of automated processes, which make them self-sustainable in the natural environment. Among these many processes are that of reproduction, adjustment with external environment, and instinct to live, which are gifted by nature to living beings.

The survival of living beings greatly depends on their capability to maintain a stable body temperature irrespective of temperature of surrounding environment. This capability of maintaining body temperature is called thermoregulation. Cold blooded animals, such as reptiles, have somewhat different means of temperature regulation than warm blooded (or homeothermic) animals, such as humans and other mammals. This section is most relevant when considering warm blooded organisms.

Body temperature depends on the heat produced minus the heat lost. Heat is lost by radiation, convection, and conduction, but the net loss by all three processes depends on a gradient between the body and the outside. Thus, when the external temperature is low, radiation is the most important form of heat loss. When there is a high external temperature, evaporation is the most important form of heat loss. The balance of heat produced and heat lost maintains a constant body temperature. However, temperature does vary during the day, and this set point is controlled by the hypothalamus.

Body temperature is usually about 37.4°C, but does vary during the day by about 0.8°C. The lowest daily temperature is when the person is asleep. Temperature receptors are found in the skin, the great veins, the abdominal organs and the hypothalamus. While the ones in the skin provide the sensation of coldness, the hypothalamic (central core) temperature receptors are the most important. The core body temperature is usually about 0.7-1.0°C higher than axillary or oral temperature.

When body temperature drops due to external cold, an important component of protection is vaso-constriction of skin and limb blood vessels. This drops the surface temperature, providing an insulating layer (such as the fat cell layer) between the core temperature and the external environment. Likewise, if the temperature rises, blood flow to the skin increases, maximizing the potential for loss by radiation and evaporation. Thus, if you dilated the skin blood vessels by alcohol ingestion this might give a nice warm glow, but it would increase heat loss (if the external temperature was still low). The major adjustments in cold are to shiver to increase heat production, and constrict blood vessels in the periphery and skin. This helps to minimize heat loss through the skin, and directs blood to the vital internal organs.

Besides the daily variation in body temperature, there are other cyclic variations. In women, body temperature falls prior to ovulation and rises by about 1°C at ovulation, largely due to progesterone increasing the set point. Thyroid hormone and pyrogens also increase the set point. The basal metabolic rate (BMR) is about 30 calories/sq m/h. It is higher in children than in adults, partly as a result of different surface area to body mass ratio. Due to this relationship, young children are more likely to drop their temperature rapidly; there is greater temperature variation in children than in adults. It is increased by thyroid hormone and decreased by thyroid hormone lack. Different foods can affect BMR and the Respiratory Quotient of foods differ. Carbohydrate 1.0; Protein = 1.0; Fats = 0.7

Body Composition



Extracellular Fluid Cellular Fluid Volume plasma – 3 litres interstitial – 10 litres 30 litres Osmolality (mOsm) 290 290 Na + (mmol/l) 140 15 Ca 2+ (mmol/l) 2.2 < 10 -6 Cl - (mmol/l) 110 10 HCO 3 - (mmol/l) 30 10 K + (mmol/l) 4 150 Mg 2+ (mmol/l) 1.5 15 PO 4 3+ (mmol/l) 2 40 pH 7.4 7.1 Potential Difference (mV)

-70

Blood pressure is expressed as two different numbers. The first number is called the "systolic" blood pressure, and the second is the "diastolic" blood pressure. Systolic blood pressure is the pressure at the time of the cardiac cycle when the heart contracts, forcing blood out(called systole). This is the time of greatest pressure. The Diastolic number comes from the time in the cardiac cycle when pressure is at its lowest, while the heart is refilling with blood. This phase is called Diastole. The blood pressure in large arteries is about 120/80 mmHg. By the time this comes to the capillaries it has partly lost its pulsatile nature and has a pressure of about 35 mmHg. The pressure falls rapidly along the capillary to 15 mmHg at the venous end. This hydrostatic pressure tends to force fluid out of the capillary into the interstitium (the fluid between cells) but balance is maintained by the colloid osmotic pressure (due to protein, principally albumin) of 26 mmHg. Net water movement is small (about 2%) and thus colloid osmotic pressure is the same at the arterial and venous end of the capillary.

At the arterial end of the capillary there is a net outward force of about 11 mmHg while at the venous end the net inward force is about 9 mmHg (ie. -9). There is an imbalance between water movement out and movement back in which leads to an imbalance of about 3 litres/day, which is removed as lymph. There is some albumin in the interstitial tissue and it varies in different organs but the concentration may be up to 10 or 20% of plasma. This gives an interstitial oncotic pressure which causes movement of fluid into the interstitium. However the bulk movement of water is not the way nutrients get to cells. Nutrients diffuse down their concentration gradient as the capillary is very permeable to all small molecules.

The extracellular volume is approximately thirteen litres in a seventy kg person. Ten litres are in the interstitial space and three litres in plasma. The capillaries are the interface between the two compartments and are permeable to most substances with a molecular weight less than 20,000. Thus nutrients can readily diffuse across the wall and go from blood to cell. Despite the high permeability of the capillary water is maintained inside due to the oncotic pressure and only about 2% of the plasma flowing through the capillary moves across the wall.

The blood volume is about 5 litres of which about 3 litres are plasma and about 2 litres red blood cells. The red blood cell volume (haematocrit) is about 43% and the relationship between plasma and blood volume and haematocrit is Blood Volume = Plasma Volume 100/(100 - Ht). Most of the blood is usually in the veins (70%).

Capillaries differ in their permeability throughout the body. Brain capillaries are relatively impermeable due to tight junctions between endothelial cells lining the blood vessels. This is known as the blood brain barrier, or BBB, and helps prevent toxins from entering the brain.

In order of less permeability:

Brain < Muscle < Glomerulus < Liver sinusoids.

The capillaries, while having a large surface area, only contain about 7% of the blood volume. The arteries and arterioles contain about 15%. Most of the blood is in the veins.

Body Fluid Distribution

The cell membrane is a bilipid layer that is permeable to water and lipid soluble particles. However, it is impermeable to charged particles. It is the osmolality controlling factor. Osmolality in the cell and interstitial fluid are the same but the anionic and cationic compositions differ. Made of albumin, the capillary membrane is permeable to everything except proteins. The membranes in different tissues differ. There are fenestrae (or pores) to promote better flow of fluids. Particles weighing over 40,000 have low permeability. It is the oncotic pressure controlling factor. Capillaries in the brain are relatively impermeable while capillaries in liver sinusoids and glomeruli are extremely permeable.



Water (litres) Sodium (mmol) Potassium (mmol) Total 43 3700 4000 Intracellular 30 400

Bone - 1500 300 Extracellular 13 1820 52 Plasma 3 420 12 Interstitial 10 1400 40 Usual Intake 1.5 180 70 Range 0.7-5 5-400 50-400

Dehydration and Volume Depletion

Plasma osmolality is about 290 mosmol/l contributed mainly by sodium (140 mmol/l) and it's accompanying anions. In dehydration water is lost from the body. The rise in osmolality that occurs in the plasma (also sodium rises) causes water to initially move out of the cells along the osmotic gradient. Thus cell volume is initially reduced but cell homeostatic processes subsequently return it towards normal by taking up solute.

In dehydration water is removed from the plasma and thus haematocrit and albumin which have not been lost will have a higher concentration. In volume depletion water and electrolytes are both lost and thus there will be little effect on either sodium concentration or osmolality. As osmolality is not altered there will be no force to pull water out of the cells and cell volume is not affected.

In volume depletion due to blood loss the haematocrit acutely is the same but the resultant fall in blood pressure causes fluid to come out of the interstitium into the vascular compartment and albumin and haematocrit both decrease. When there is volume depletion due to electrolyte and water loss by vomiting or diarrhoea there will be little or no effect on plasma osmolality or sodium concentration. However there will be a small increase in haematocrit and plasma albumin because the volume is lost from the extracellular space and as blood cells and albumin are not lost this increases the concentration.

In volume depletion forces are activated that retain sodium and water in the body. The sodium retention works to a major extent by the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system which is activated by a fall in blood pressure caused by volume depletion. In dehydration, the high osmolality activates ADH secretion which causes water retention. As there is also volume depletion, this activates the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system which causes sodium to be retained. This retention would tend to cause a rise in sodium concentration which is already high but the water retention would correct this. There is no effective receptor that monitors and controls Na concentration by altering sodium excretion. Sodium retaining hormones are predominantly regulated by the volume and blood pressure. Initially in blood loss the haematocrit is not altered but falls as fluid comes in from the interstitial space.

Water Balance

Vasopressin, also called Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH), is the principal compound controlling water balance by decreasing water output by the kidney, and thus decreased urination. It perceives the need by monitoring plasma osmolality and if this is high, vasopressin is secreted. Vasopressin is formed in the hypothalamus and travels down axons to the posterior pituitary where it is stored.

Plasma osmolality is the usual factor regulating vasopressin release but other factors alter the release. Pain and emotion release vasopressin together with the other posterior pituitary hormone oxytocin. Alcohol inhibits the release of vasopressin and thus causes a diuresis. A low plasma volume also releases vasopressin which in high concentration can cause vasoconstriction. These different factors can overcome the usual physiological control of osmolality.

Osmoreceptors in the hypothalamus monitor the plasma osmolality and send a signal down the axon that releases vasopressin from the posterior pituitary gland. Vasopressin travels by the blood to the kidney and binds to a receptor on the basolateral membrane and by a series of cellular events alters the permeability of the luminal membrane to water, thereby increasing the water permeability of the collecting duct and due to osmotic gradients created in the kidney causes water to be retained by the body (ie. an antidiuresis) which provides the other name for vasopressin of antidiuretic hormone.

Vasopressin released by the pituitary binds to a receptor on the basolateral membrane and activates adenyl cyclase which increases cyclic AMP levels in the kidney. This by a series of reactions, some of which involve calcium, cause microfilaments to contract and insert preformed water channels (aquaporins) into the luminal membrane increasing water permeability.

A high plasma osmolality is the important physiological stimulus causing vasopressin release. Urea in plasma in a normal person only has a concentration of 6 mmol/l and thus contributes to only a small part of plasma osmolality. Even if plasma urea is elevated to 30 mmol/l it would not have a significant effect on vasopressin release as membranes (including those of the osmoreceptor cells) are permeable to urea. If there is excessive ADH water is retained and the osmolality and sodium concentration would fall (hyponatraemia). If there is no ADH water is lost and osmolality and sodium concentration would rise (hypernatraemia). While ADH is released if the plasma volume falls the most important factor to restore volume is retention of sodium by the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone and other salt retaining systems.

Sodium Balance



Amount Concentration Amount in body 3700 mmol

Intracellular 400 mmol 15 mmol/l Extracellular 1800 mmol 140 mmol/l Plasma 420 mmol 140 mmol/l Interstitial 1400 mmol 140 mmol/l Bone 1500 mmol

Amount in diet

Hunter Gatherer 20 mmol/day

Western 180 mmol/day

Japanese 300 mmol/day

Obligatory Need < 5 mmol/day



Sodium is an important cation distributed primarily outside the cell. The cell sodium concentration is about 15 mmol/l but varies in different organs and with an intracellular volume of 30 litres about 400 mmol are inside the cell. The plasma and interstitial sodium is about 140 mmol/l with an extracellular volume of about 13 litres, 1800 mmol are in the extracellular space. The total body sodium, however, is about 3700 mmol as there is about 1500 mmol stored in bones.

The usual sodium intake of an Australian diet is about 180 mmol/d but varies widely (50-400 mmol/day) depending on habit and cultural influences. The body has potent sodium retaining mechanisms and even if a person is on 5 mmol Na+/day they can maintain sodium balance. Extra sodium is lost from the body by reducing the activity of the renin angiotensin aldosterone system which leads to increased sodium loss from the body. Sodium is lost through the kidney, sweat and faeces. In states of sodium depletion aldosterone levels increase and in states of sodium excess aldosterone levels decrease. The major physiological controller of aldosterone secretion is the plasma angiotensin II level which increases aldosterone secretion. A high plasma potassium also increases aldosterone secretion because besides retaining Na+ high plasma aldosterone causes K+ loss by the kidney. Plasma Na+ levels have little effect on aldosterone secretion.

A low renal perfusion pressure stimulates the release of renin, which forms angiotensin I which is converted to angiotensin II. Angiotensin II will correct the low perfusion pressure by causing constriction of blood vessels and by increasing sodium retention by a direct effect on the proximal renal tubule and by an effect operated through aldosterone. The perfusion pressure to the adrenal gland has little direct effect on aldosterone secretion and the low blood pressure operates to control aldosterone via the renin angiotensin system.

In addition to aldosterone and angiotensin II other factors influence sodium excretion. Thus in high sodium states due either to excess intake or cardiac disease (+ others) atrial peptide is secreted from the heart and by a series of actions causes loss of sodium by the kidney. Elevated blood pressure will also tend to cause Na+ loss and a low blood pressure usually leads to sodium retention. Aldosterone also acts on the sweat ducts and colonic epithelium to conserve sodium. When aldosterone has been activated to retain sodium the plasma sodium tends to rise. This immediately causes release of ADH which causes water to be retained, thus retaining Na+ and H2O in the right proportion to restore plasma volume.

Potassium Balance



Amount Concentration Amount in body 4000 mmol

Intracellular 3000 + mmol 110 mmol/l Extracellular 53 mmol 4 mmol/l Plasma 12 mmol 4 mmol/l Interstitial 40 mmol 4 mmol/l Bone 300 mmol

Amount in diet



Hunter Gatherer 200 – 400 mmol/day

Western 50 – 100 mmol/day

Obligatory Need 30 – 50 mmol/day



Potassium is predominantly an intracellular ion and most of the total body potassium of about 4000 mmol is inside the cells and the next largest proportion (300-500 mmol) is in the bones. Cell K+ concentration is about 150 mmol/l but varies in different organs. Extracellular potassium is about 4.0 mmol/l and with an extracellular value of about 13 litres, 52 mmol (ie. less than 1.5%) is present here and only 12 mmol in the plasma.

In an unprocessed diet potassium is much more plentiful than sodium and is present as an organic salt while sodium is added as NaCl. In a hunter gatherer K+ intake may be as much as 400 mmol/d while in the Western diet it is 70 mmol/d or less if a person has a minimal amount of fresh fruit and vegetables. Processing of foods replaces K+ with NaCl. While the body can excrete a large K+ load it is unable to conserve K+. On a zero K+ intake or in a person with K+ depletion there will still be a loss of K+ of 30-50 mmol/d in the urine and faeces.

If there is a high potassium intake, e.g. 100 mmol, this would potentially increase the extracellular K+ level 2 times before the kidney could excrete the extra potassium. The body buffers the extra potassium by equilibrating it within the cells. The acid base status controls the distribution between plasma and cells. A high pH (ie. alkalosis >7.4) favours movement of K+ into the cells whilst a low pH (ie. acidosis) causes movement out of the cell. A high plasma potassium increases aldosterone secretion and this increases the potassium loss from the body, restoring balance. This change of distribution with the acid base status means that the plasma K+ may not reflect the total body content. Thus a person with an acidosis (pH 7.1) and a plasma K+ of 6.5 mmol/l could be depleted of total body potassium. This occurs in diabetic acidosis. Conversely a person who is alkalotic with a plasma K+ of 3.4 mmol/l may have normal total body potassium.

Calcium and Phosphate Balance



Amount Concentration Amount in body



Interstitial (0.9%) 270 mmol 9 mmol/l Cytoplasm <1 mmol 10-6 mmol/l Cell organelles 270 mmol 9 mmol/l Extracellular (0.1%) 30 mmol 2.2 mmol/l Plasma 7 mmol 2.2 mmol/l Interstitial 23 mmol 2.2 mmol/l Bone (99%) 27.5 mol (1.1 kg)

Amount in diet 1200 mg/day 40 mmol/day Amount absorbed 300 mg/day 10 mmol/day Amount excreted 300 mg/day 10 mmol/day Obligatory Need 100 mg/day 3 mmol/day Bone => Plasma 500 mmol/day



Calcium is a very important electrolyte. 99% or more is deposited in bone but the remainder is importantly associated with nerve conduction, muscle contraction, hormone release and cell signalling. The plasma concentration of Ca++ is 2.2 mmol/l and phosphate 1.0 mmol/l. The solubility product of Ca and P is close to saturation in plasma. The concentration of Ca++ in the cytoplasm is < 10-6 mmol/l but the concentration of Ca++ in the cell is much higher as calcium is taken up (and is able to be released from) cell organelles.

In the Australian diet there is about 1200 mg/d of calcium. Even if it was all soluble it is not all absorbed as it combines with phosphates in the intestinal secretions. In addition absorption is regulated by active Vitamin D and increased amounts increase Ca++ absorption. Absorption is controlled by Vitamin D while excretion is controlled by parathyroid hormones. However, the distribution from bone to plasma is controlled by both the parathyroid hormones and vitamin D. There is a constant loss of calcium by the kidney even if there was none in the diet. The excretion of calcium by the kidney and its distribution between bone and the rest of the body is primarily controlled by parathyroid hormone.

Calcium in plasma exists in 3 forms. Ionized, non ionized and protein bound. It is the ionized calcium concentration that is monitored by the parathyroid gland and if low, parathyroid hormone secretion is increased. This acts to increase ionized calcium levels by increasing bone re-absorption, decreasing renal excretion and acting on the kidney to increase the rate of formation of active Vitamin D, and thereby increase gut absorption of calcium.

The usual amount of phosphate in the diet is about 1 g/d but not all is absorbed. Any excess is excreted by the kidney and this excretion is increased by parathyroid hormone. Parathyroid hormone also causes phosphate to come out of bone. Plasma phosphate has no direct effect on parathyroid hormone secretion. However if it is elevated it combines with Ca++ decreasing the ionized Ca++ in plasma, thereby increasing parathyroid hormone secretion.

Case Study

Heat stroke and Heat exhaustion

If you have ever performed heavy manual labor or competed in an athletic event on a very hot day, you may have experienced symptoms of heat exhaustion. Typically these include an elevated core body temperature (above 104F or 40C), profuse sweating, pale color, muscle cramps, dizziness, and in some extreme circumstances, fainting or loss of consciousness.

Heat exhaustion occurs as a consequence of disruption of the body's own system of thermoregulation, the means by which it adjusts temperature. Sweating is the principal means through which the body cools itself down, but diverting blood from other regions toward the skin also serves this purpose. Although sweat allows excess heat to dissipate as the moisture reaches the skin surface, it can also have dangerous implications for blood pressure and volume. As sweating increases, blood volume can drop precipitously, meaning that the brain and other body systems are at risk for insufficient oxygen and nutrient supplies. Furthermore, diverting blood away from other systems and towards the skin compounds the changes in blood volume and blood pressure induced through sweating.

Heat stroke is a far more serious condition. This happens when the body's temperature rises out of control due to the failure of the thermoregulating system. If the body is unable to reduce its temperature due to outside or physical influences, the brain will start to malfunction. Delirium and loss of consciousness set in. The center of the brain controlling the sweat glands will stop functioning, halting the production of sweat. This causes the body's temperature to rise even faster. Furthermore, with the increase of the body's temperature, the metabolic process will speed up causing even more heat in the body. If left untreated this will result in death. One of the easiest ways to spot heat stroke is the skin. If it is flushed due to the increase of blood flow but dry because the sweat glands have stopped secreting, the individual will need prompt medical attention.

Other Examples

Thermoregulation The skeletal muscles can shiver to produce heat if the body temperature is too low. Non-shivering thermogenesis involves the decomposition of fat to produce heat. Sweating cools the body with the use of evaporation.

Chemical regulation The pancreas produces insulin and glucagon to control blood-sugar concentration. The lungs take in oxygen and give off carbon dioxide, which regulates pH in the blood. The kidneys remove urea, and adjust the concentrations of water and a wide variety of ions.



Main examples of homeostasis in mammals are as follows:

The regulation of the amounts of water and minerals in the body. This is known as osmoregulation. This happens primarily in the kidneys.

The removal of metabolic waste. This is known as excretion. This is done by the excretory organs such as the kidneys and lungs.

The regulation of body temperature. This is mainly done by the skin.

The regulation of blood glucose level. This is mainly done by the liver and the insulin and glucagon secreted by the pancreas in the body.

Most of these organs are controlled by hormones secreted from the pituitary gland, which in turn is directed by the hypothalamus.

Review Questions I

Answers for these questions can be found here

1. Meaning of Homeostasis:

A) contributor and provider

B) expand

C) same or constant

D) receiver



2. What is the normal pH value for body fluid?

A) 7.15-7.25

B) 7.35-7.45

C) 7.55- 7.65

D) 7.00-7.35

E) 6.5-7.5



3. An example of the urinary system working with the respiratory system to regulate blood pH would be

A) When you hold your breath the kidneys will remove CO 2 from your blood

B) If you exercise a lot your urine will become more acidic

C) If you have emphysema the kidneys will remove fewer bicarbonate ions from circulation

D) If you hyperventilate the kidneys will counteract the alkalinity by adding hydrogen ions into the blood stream

E) None of the above-the urinary system never works with the respiratory system



4. The urge to breathe comes in direct response to:

A) How long it has been since you last took a breath

B) The oxygen concentration of your surrounding environment

C) The build-up of nitrogen within your blood stream

D) The pH of your blood

E) The build-up of blood pressure that occurs when you don't breathe



5. In response to a bacterial infection my body's thermostat is raised. I start to shiver and produce more body heat. When my body temperature reaches 101 degrees, I stop shivering and my body temperature stops going up. This is an example of:

A) Negative feedback

B) A malfunctioning control system

C) Positive feedback

D) A negative impact



6. Which of the following is an example of a positive feedback?

A) Shivering to warm up in a cold winter storm

B) A cruise control set on your car applies more gas when going up a hill

C) You sweat on a hot summer's day and the blood vessels in your skin vasodilate

D) You get cut and platelets form a clot. This in turn activates the fibrin clotting system and more blood forms clots



7. Where is the body's "thermostat" found?

A) Within the nervous system, in the Hypothalamus

B) Within the integumentary system, in the skin

C) Within the brain, in the corpus callosum

D) Within the Urinary system, in the kidneys



8. What system has little to contribute to the homeostasis of the organism?

A) Urinary System

B) Reproductive System

C) Respiratory System

D) Nervous System



9. Select the phrase(s) below that best describe(s) homeostasis.

A) Fluctuating within a homeostatic range

B) Maintaining a constant internal environment

C) Dynamic equilibrium

D) Deviating



10. In which part of the nephron does ADH act?

A)PCT

B)DCT

C)Loop of Henle

D)None

Review Answers

1=C

2=B

3=C

4=D

5=A

6=D

7=A

8=B

9=B

10=B

Glossary

Control Center or Integration Center: receives and processes information from the receptor

receives and processes information from the receptor Effector: responds to the commands of the control center by either opposing or enhancing the stimulus

responds to the commands of the control center by either opposing or enhancing the stimulus Homeostasis: refers to stability, balance or equilibrium

refers to stability, balance or equilibrium Negative Feedback: a reaction in which the system responds in such a way as to reverse the direction of change

a reaction in which the system responds in such a way as to reverse the direction of change Positive Feedback: a response is to amplify the change in the variable

a response is to amplify the change in the variable Receptor: receives information that something in the environment is changing





Cell Physiology

Cell Structure and Function

What is a Cell?

A cell is a structure as well as a functional unit of life. Every living thing has cells: bacteria, protozoans, fungi, plants, and animals are the main group of living things. Some organisms are made up of just one cell are called unicellular. (e.g. bacteria and protozoans), but animals, including human beings, are multi-cellular. An adult human body is composed of about 100,000,000,000,000 cells! Each cell has basic requirements to sustain it, and the body's organ systems are largely built around providing the many trillions of cells with those basic needs (such as oxygen, food, and waste removal).

There are about 200 different kinds of specialized cells in the human body. When many identical cells are organized together it is called a tissue (such as muscle tissue, nervous tissue, etc). Various tissues organized together for a common purpose are called organs (e.g. the stomach is an organ, and so is the skin, the brain, and the uterus).

Ideas about cell structure have changed considerably over the years. Early biologists saw cells as simple membranous sacs containing fluid and a few floating particles. Today's biologists know that cells are inconceivably more complex than this. Therefore, a strong knowledge of the various cellular organelles and their functions is important to any physiologist. If a person's cells are healthy, then that person is healthy. All physiological processes, disease, growth and development can be described at the cellular level.

Specialized Cells of the Human Body

Although there are specialized cells - both in structure and function - within the body, all cells have similarities in their structural organization and metabolic needs (such as maintaining energy levels via conversion of carbohydrate to ATP and using genes to create and maintain proteins).

Here are some of the different types of specialized cells within the human body.

Nerve Cells : Also called neurons, these cells are in the nervous system and function to process and transmit information (it is hypothesized). They are the core components of the brain, spinal cord, and peripheral nerves. They use chemical synapses that can evoke electrical signals, called action potentials, to relay signals throughout the body.

: Also called neurons, these cells are in the nervous system and function to process and transmit information (it is hypothesized). They are the core components of the brain, spinal cord, and peripheral nerves. They use chemical synapses that can evoke electrical signals, called action potentials, to relay signals throughout the body. Epithelial cells : Functions of epithelial cells include secretion, absorption, protection, transcellular transport, sensation detection, and selective permeability. Epithelium lines both the outside (skin) and the inside cavities and lumen of bodies.

: Functions of epithelial cells include secretion, absorption, protection, transcellular transport, sensation detection, and selective permeability. Epithelium lines both the outside (skin) and the inside cavities and lumen of bodies. Exocrine cells : These cells secrete products through ducts, such as mucus, sweat, or digestive enzymes. The products of these cells go directly to the target organ through the ducts. For example, the bile from the gallbladder is carried directly into the duodenum via the bile duct.

: These cells secrete products through ducts, such as mucus, sweat, or digestive enzymes. The products of these cells go directly to the target organ through the ducts. For example, the bile from the gallbladder is carried directly into the duodenum via the bile duct. Endocrine cells : These cells are similar to exocrine cells, but secrete their products directly into the bloodstream instead of through a duct. Endocrine cells are found throughout the body but are concentrated in hormone-secreting glands such as the pituitary. The products of the endocrine cells go throughout the body in the bloodstream but act on specific organs by receptors on the cells of the target organs. For example, the hormone estrogen acts specifically on the uterus and breasts of females because there are estrogen receptors in the cells of these target organs.

: These cells are similar to exocrine cells, but secrete their products directly into the bloodstream instead of through a duct. Endocrine cells are found throughout the body but are concentrated in hormone-secreting glands such as the pituitary. The products of the endocrine cells go throughout the body in the bloodstream but act on specific organs by receptors on the cells of the target organs. For example, the hormone estrogen acts specifically on the uterus and breasts of females because there are estrogen receptors in the cells of these target organs. Blood Cells : The most common types of blood cells are: red blood cells (erythrocytes) . The main function of red blood cells is to collect oxygen in the lungs and deliver it through the blood to the body tissues. Gas exchange is carried out by simple diffusion. various types of white blood cells (leukocytes) . They are produced in the bone marrow and help the body to fight infectious disease and foreign objects in the immune system. White cells are found in the circulatory system, lymphatic system, spleen, and other body tissues.

: The most common types of blood cells are:

Cell Size

Cells are the smallest structural & functional living units within our body, but play a big role in making our body function properly. Many cells never have a large increase in size like eggs, after they are first formed from a parental cell. Typical stem cells reproduce, double in size, then reproduce again. Most Cytosolic contents such as the endomembrane system and the cytoplasm easily scale to larger sizes in larger cells. If a cell becomes too large, the normal cellular amount of DNA may not be adequate to keep the cell supplied with RNA. Large cells often replicate their chromosomes to an abnormally high amount or become multinucleated. Large cells that are primarily for nutrient storage can have a smooth surface membrane, but metabolically active large cells often have some sort of folding of the cell surface membrane in order to increase the surface area available for transport functions.

Cellular Organization

Several different molecules interact to form organelles within our body. Each type of organelle has a specific function. Organelles perform the vital functions that keep our cells alive.

Cell Membranes

The boundary of the cell, sometimes called the plasma membrane, separates internal metabolic events from the external environment and controls the movement of materials into and out of the cell. This membrane is very selective about what it allows to pass through; this characteristic is referred to as "selective permeability." For example, it allows oxygen and nutrients to enter the cell while keeping toxins and waste products out. The plasma membrane is a double phospholipid membrane, or a lipid bilayer, with the nonpolar hydrophobic tails pointing toward the inside of the membrane and the polar hydrophilic heads forming the inner and outer surfaces of the membrane.

The molecular structure of the cell membrane.

22

Protein and Cholesterol

Proteins and cholesterol molecules are scattered throughout the flexible phospholipid membrane. Peripheral proteins attach loosely to the inner or outer surface of the plasma membrane. Integral proteins lie across the membrane, extending from inside to outside. A variety of proteins are scattered throughout the flexible matrix of phospholipid molecules, somewhat like icebergs floating in the ocean, and this is termed the fluid mosaic model of the cell membrane.

The phospholipid bilayer is selectively permeable. Only small, uncharged polar molecules can pass freely across the membrane. Some of these molecules are H 2 O and CO 2 , hydrophobic (nonpolar) molecules like O 2 , and lipid soluble molecules such as hydrocarbons. Other molecules need the help of a membrane protein to get across. There are a variety of membrane proteins that serve various functions:

Channel proteins : Proteins that provide passageways through the membranes for certain hydrophilic or water-soluble substances such as polar and charged molecules. No energy is used during transport, hence this type of movement is called facilitated diffusion.

: Proteins that provide passageways through the membranes for certain hydrophilic or water-soluble substances such as polar and charged molecules. No energy is used during transport, hence this type of movement is called facilitated diffusion. Transport proteins : Proteins that spend energy (ATP) to transfer materials across the membrane. When energy is used to provide passageway for materials, the process is called active transport.

: Proteins that spend energy (ATP) to transfer materials across the membrane. When energy is used to provide passageway for materials, the process is called active transport. Recognition proteins : Proteins that distinguish the identity of neighboring cells. These proteins have oligosaccharide or short polysaccharide chains extending out from their cell surface.

: Proteins that distinguish the identity of neighboring cells. These proteins have oligosaccharide or short polysaccharide chains extending out from their cell surface. Adhesion proteins : Proteins that attach cells to neighboring cells or provide anchors for the internal filaments and tubules that give stability to the cell.

: Proteins that attach cells to neighboring cells or provide anchors for the internal filaments and tubules that give stability to the cell. Receptor proteins : Proteins that initiate specific cell responses once hormones or other trigger molecules bind to them.

: Proteins that initiate specific cell responses once hormones or other trigger molecules bind to them. Electron transfer proteins: Proteins that are involved in moving electrons from one molecule to another during chemical reactions.

Passive Transport Across the Cell Membrane

Passive transport describes the movement of substances down a concentration gradient and does not require energy use.

Bulk flow is the collective movement of substances in the same direction in response to a force, such as pressure. Blood moving through a vessel is an example of bulk flow.

is the collective movement of substances in the same direction in response to a force, such as pressure. Blood moving through a vessel is an example of bulk flow. Simple diffusion , or diffusion, is the net movement of substances from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration. This movement occurs as a result of the random and constant motion characteristic of all molecules, (atoms or ions) and is independent from the motion of other molecules. Since, at any one time, some molecules may be moving against the gradient and some molecules may be moving down the gradient, although the motion is random, the word "net" is used to indicate the overall, eventual end result of the movement.

, or diffusion, is the net movement of substances from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration. This movement occurs as a result of the random and constant motion characteristic of all molecules, (atoms or ions) and is independent from the motion of other molecules. Since, at any one time, some molecules may be moving against the gradient and some molecules may be moving down the gradient, although the motion is random, the word "net" is used to indicate the overall, eventual end result of the movement. Facilitated diffusion is the diffusion of solutes through channel proteins in the plasma membrane. Water can pass freely through the plasma membrane without the aid of specialized proteins (though facilitated by aquaporins).

is the diffusion of solutes through channel proteins in the plasma membrane. Water can pass freely through the plasma membrane without the aid of specialized proteins (though facilitated by aquaporins). Osmosis is the diffusion of water molecules across a selectively permeable membrane. When water moves into a body by osmosis, hydrostatic pressure or osmotic pressure may build up inside the body.

is the diffusion of water molecules across a selectively permeable membrane. When water moves into a body by osmosis, hydrostatic pressure or osmotic pressure may build up inside the body. Dialysis is the diffusion of solutes across a selectively permeable membrane.

Active Transport Across the Cell Membrane

Active transport is the movement of solutes against a gradient and requires the expenditure of energy, usually in the form of ATP. Active transport is achieved through one of these two mechanisms:

Protein Pumps

Transport proteins in the plasma membrane transfer solutes such as small ions (Na + , K + , Cl - , H + ), amino acids, and monosaccharides.

, K , Cl , H ), amino acids, and monosaccharides. The proteins involved with active transport are also known as ion pumps .

. The protein binds to a molecule of the substance to be transported on one side of the membrane, then it uses the released energy (ATP) to change its shape, and releases it on the other side.

The protein pumps are specific, there is a different pump for each molecule to be transported.

Protein pumps are catalysts in the splitting of ATP → ADP + phosphate, so they are called ATPase enzymes . The sodium-potassium pump (also called the Na + /K + -ATPase enzyme) actively moves sodium out of the cell and potassium into the cell. These pumps are found in the membrane of virtually every cell, and are essential in transmission of nerve impulses and in muscular contractions.

.

Cystic fibrosis is a genetic disorder that results in a mutated chloride ion channel. By not regulating chloride secretion properly, water flow across the airway surface is reduced and the mucus becomes dehydrated and thick.

Vesicular Transport

Vesicles or other bodies in the cytoplasm move macromolecules or large particles across the plasma membrane. Types of vesicular transport include:

Exocytosis, which describes the process of vesicles fusing with the plasma membrane and releasing their contents to the outside of the cell. This process is common when a cell produces substances for export. Endocytosis, which describes the capture of a substance outside the cell when the plasma membrane merges to engulf it. The substance subsequently enters the cytoplasm enclosed in a vesicle.

There are three kinds of endocytosis: Phagocytosis or cellular eating, occurs when the dissolved materials enter the cell. The plasma membrane engulfs the solid material, forming a phagocytic vesicle.

or cellular eating, occurs when the dissolved materials enter the cell. The plasma membrane engulfs the solid material, forming a phagocytic vesicle. Pinocytosis or cellular drinking occurs when the plasma membrane folds inward to form a channel allowing dissolved substances to enter the cell. When the channel is closed, the liquid is encircled within a pinocytic vesicle.

or cellular drinking occurs when the plasma membrane folds inward to form a channel allowing dissolved substances to enter the cell. When the channel is closed, the liquid is encircled within a pinocytic vesicle. Receptor-mediated endocytosis occurs when specific molecules in the fluid surrounding the cell bind to specialized receptors in the plasma membrane. As in pinocytosis, the plasma membrane folds inward and the formation of a vesicle follows. Note: Certain hormones are able to target specific cells by receptor-mediated endocytosis.

Parts of the Cell

Cytoplasm

The gel-like material within the cell membrane is referred to as the cytoplasm. It is a fluid matrix, the cytosol, which consists of 80% to 90% water, salts, organic molecules and many enzymes that catalyze reactions, along with dissolved substances such as proteins and nutrients. The cytoplasm plays an important role in a cell, serving as a "molecular soup" in which organelles are suspended and held together by a fatty membrane.

Within the plasma membrane of a cell, the cytoplasm surrounds the nuclear envelope and the cytoplasmic organelles. It plays a mechanical role by moving around inside the membrane and pushing against the cell membrane helping to maintain the shape and consistency of the cell and again, to provide suspension to the organelles. It is also a storage space for chemical substances indispensable to life, which are involved in vital metabolic reactions, such as anaerobic glycolysis and protein synthesis.

The cell membrane keeps the cytoplasm from leaking out. It contains many different organelles which are considered the insoluble constituents of the cytoplasm, such as the mitochondria, lysosomes, peroxysomes, ribosomes, several vacuoles and cytoskeletons, as well as complex cell membrane structures such as the endoplasmic reticulum and the Golgi apparatus that each have specific functions within the cell.

Cytoskeleton

Threadlike proteins that make up the cytoskeleton continually reconstruct to adapt to the cell's constantly changing needs. It helps cells maintain their shape and allows cells and their contents to move. The cytoskeleton allows certain cells such as neutrophils and macrophages to make amoeboid movements.

The network is composed of three elements: microtubules , actin filaments, and intermediate fibers.





Microtubules

Microtubules function as the framework along which organelles and vesicles move within a cell. They are the thickest of the cytoskeleton structures. They are long hollow cylinders, composed of protein subunits, called tubulin. Microtubules form mitotic spindles, the machinery that partitions chromosomes between two cells in the process of cell division. Without mitotic spindles cells could not reproduce.

Microtubules, intermediate filaments, and microfilaments are three protein fibers of decreasing diameter, respectively. All are involved in establishing the shape or movements of the cytoskeleton, the internal structure of the cell.

A photograph of microfilaments.

Microfilaments

Microfilaments provide mechanical support for the cell, determine the cell shape, and in some cases enable cell movements. They have an arrow-like appearance, with a fast growing plus or barbed end and a slow growing minus or pointed end. They are made of the protein actin and are involved in cell motility. They are found in almost every cell, but are predominant in muscle cells and in the cells that move by changing shape, such as phagocytes (white blood cells that scour the body for bacteria and other foreign invaders).

Organelles

Organelles are bodies embedded in the cytoplasm that serve to physically separate the various metabolic activities that occur within cells. The organelles are each like separate little factories, each organelle is responsible for producing a certain product that is used elsewhere in the cell or body.

Cells of all living things are divided into two broad categories: prokaryotes and eukaryotes. Bacteria (and archea) are prokaryotes, which means they lack a nucleus or other membrane-bound organelles. Eukaryotes include all protozoans, fungi, plants, and animals (including humans), and these cells are characterized by a nucleus (which houses the chromosomes) as well as a variety of other organelles. Human cells vary considerably (consider the differences between a bone cell, a blood cell, and a nerve cell), but most cells have the features described below.

A comparison of Eukaryote and Prokaryote cells.

Nucleus

Controls the cell; houses the genetic material (DNA). The nucleus is the largest of the cells organelles. Cells can have more than one nucleus or lack a nucleus all together. Skeletal muscle cells contain more than one nucleus whereas red blood cells do not contain a nucleus at all. The nucleus is bounded by the nuclear envelope, a phospholipid bilayer similar to the plasma membrane. The space between these two layers is the nucleolemma Cisterna.

The nucleus contains the DNA, as mentioned above, the hereditary information in the cell. Normally the DNA is spread out within the nucleus as a threadlike matrix called chromatin. When the cell begins to divide, the chromatin condenses into rod-shaped bodies called chromosomes, each of which, before dividing, is made up of two long DNA molecules and various histone molecules. The histones serve to organize the lengthy DNA, coiling it into bundles called nucleosomes. Also visible within the nucleus are one or more nucleoli, each consisting of DNA in the process of manufacturing the components of ribosomes. Ribosomes are shipped to the cytoplasm where they assemble amino acids into proteins. The nucleus also serves as the site for the separation of the chromosomes during cell division.

A cross-sectional diagram of a nucleus.

Chromosomes

A rough sketch of a chromosome.

Inside each cell nucleus are chromosomes. Chromosomes are made up of chromatin, which is made up of protein and deoxyribonucleic acid strands. Deoxyribonucleic acid is DNA, the genetic material that is in the shape of a twisted ladder, also called the double helix. Humans have 23 pairs of chromosomes. Down Syndrome and Cri du Chat Syndrome result from having an abnormal number of chromosomes.

Centrioles

Centrioles are rod like structures composed of 9 bundles which contain three microtubules each. Two perpendicularly placed centrioles surrounded by proteins make up the centrosome. Centrioles are very important in cellular division, where they arrange the mitotic spindles that pull the chromosome apart.

Centrioles and basal bodies act as microtubule organizing centers. A pair of centrioles (enclosed in a centrosome) located outside the nuclear envelope gives rise to the microtubules that make up the spindle apparatus used during cell division. Basal bodies are at the base of each flagellum and cilium and appear to organize their development.

Ribosomes

Ribosomes play an active role in the complex process of protein synthesis, where they serve as the structures that facilitate the joining of amino acids. Each ribosome is composed of a large and small subunit which are made up of ribosomal proteins and ribosomal RNAs. They can either be found in groups called polyribosomes within the cytoplasm or found alone. Occasionally they are attached to the endoplasmic reticulum.





A cutaway view inside a mitochondria.

Mitochondria

Mitochondria are the organelles that function as the cell "powerhouse", generating ATP, the universal form of energy used by all cells. It converts food nutrients such as glucose, to a fuel (ATP) that the cells of the body can use. Mitochondria are tiny sac-like structures found near the nucleus. Little shelves called cristae are formed from folds in the inner membrane. Cells that are metabolically active such as muscle, liver and kidney cells have high energy requirements and therefore have more mitochondria.

Mitochondria are unique in that they have their own mitochondrial DNA (separate from the DNA that is in the nucleus). It is believed that eukaryotes evolved from one cell living inside another cell, and mitochondria share many traits with free-living bacteria (similar chromosome, similar ribosomes, etc).

Endoplasmic Reticulum

Endoplasmic means "within the plasm" and reticulum means "network".

A complex three dimensional internal membrane system of flattened sheets, sacs and tubes, that play an important role in making proteins and shuttling cellular products; also involved in metabolisms of fats, and the production of various materials. In cross-section, they appear as a series of maze-like channels, often closely associated with the nucleus. When ribosomes are present, the rough ER connects polysaccharide groups to the polypeptides as they are assembled by the ribosomes. Smooth ER, without ribosomes, is responsible for various activities, including the synthesis of lipids and hormones, especially in cells that produce these substances for export from the cell.

Rough endoplasmic reticulum has characteristic bumpy appearance due to the multitude of ribosomes coating it. It is the site where proteins not destined for the cytoplasm are synthesized.

Smooth endoplasmic reticulum provides a variety of functions, including lipid synthesis and degradation, and calcium ion storage. In liver cells, the smooth ER is involved in the breakdown of toxins, drugs, and toxic byproducts from cellular reactions.

Golgi Apparatus

"Packages" cellular products in sacs called vesicles so that the products can cross the cell membrane and exit the cell. The Golgi apparatus is the central delivery system for the cell. It is a group of flattened sacs arranged much like a stack of bowls. They function to modify and package proteins and lipids into vesicles, small spherically shaped sacs that bud from the ends of a Golgi apparatus. Vesicles often migrate to and merge with the plasma membrane, releasing their contents outside the cell. The Golgi apparatus also transports lipids and creates lysosomes and organelles involved in digestion.

Vacuoles

Spaces in the cytoplasm that sometimes serve to carry materials to the cell membrane for discharge to the outside of the cell. Vacuoles are formed during endocytosis when portions of the cell membrane are pinched off.

Lysosomes

Lysosomes are sac-like compartments that contain a number of powerful degradative enzymes. They are built in the Golgi apparatus. They break down harmful cell products and waste materials, cellular debris, and foreign invaders such as bacteria, and then force them out of the cell. Tay-Sachs disease and Pompe's disease are just two of the malfunctions of lysosomes or their digestive proteins.

Peroxisomes

Organelles in which oxygen is used to oxidize substances, breaking down lipids and detoxifying certain chemicals. Peroxisomes self replicate by enlarging and then dividing. They are common in liver and kidney cells that break down potentially harmful substances. Peroxisomes can convert hydrogen peroxide, a toxin made of H 2 O 2 to H 2 O.

Extracellular structures

Extracellular matrix

Human cells, like other animal cells, do not have a rigid cell wall. Human cells do have an important and variable structure outside of their cell membrane called the extracellular matrix. Sometimes this matrix can be extensive and solid (examples = calcified bone matrix, cartilage matrix), while other times it consists of a layer of extracellular proteins and carbohydrates. This matrix is responsible for cells binding to each other and is incredibly important in how cells physically and physiologically interact with each other.

Flagella

Many prokaryotes have flagella, allowing, for example, an E. coli bacteria to propel its way up the urethra to cause a UTI (Urinary Tract Infection). Human cells, however (and in fact most eukaryotic cells) lack flagella. This makes sense since humans are multicellular, and individual cells do not need to swim around. The obvious exception to this is with sperm, and indeed each sperm is propelled by a single flagellum. The flagellum of sperm is composed of microtubules.

Cilia

Cilia are especially notable on the single-celled protozoans, where they beat in synchrony to move the cells nimbly through the water. They are composed of extensions of the cell membrane that contain microtubules. When present in humans they are typically found in large numbers on a single surface of the cells, where rather than moving cells, they move materials. The mucociliary escalator of the respiratory system consists of mucus-secreting cells lining the trachea and bronchi, and ciliated epithelial cells that move the mucus ever-upward. In this manner mold spores, bacteria, and debris are caught in the mucus, removed from the trachea, and pushed into the esophagus (to be swallowed into a pit of acid). In the oviducts cilia move the ovum from the ovary to the uterus, a journey which takes a few days.

A magnified view of several cells, with visible cilia.

Cell Junctions

The plasma membranes of adjacent cells are usually separated by extracellular fluids that allow transport of nutrients and wastes to and from the bloodstream. In certain tissues, however, the membranes of adjacent cells may join and form a junction. Three kinds of cell junctions are recognized:

Desmosomes are protein attachments between adjacent cells. Inside the plasma membrane, a desmosome bears a disk shaped structure from which protein fibers extend into the cytoplasm. Desmosomes act like spot welds to hold together tissues that undergo considerable stress, such as our skin or heart muscle.

Tight junctions are tightly stitched seams between cells. The junction completely encircles each cell, preventing the movement of material between the cell. Tight junctions are characteristic of cells lining the digestive tract, where materials are required to pass through cells,rather than intercellular spaces, to penetrate the bloodstream.

Gap junctions are narrow tunnels that directly connect the cytoplasm of two neighbouring cells, consisting of proteins called connexons. These proteins allow only the passage of ions and small molecules. In this manner, gap junctions allow communication between cells through the exchange of materials or the transmission of electrical impulses.





Cell Metabolism

Cell metabolism is the total energy released and consumed by a cell. Metabolism describes all of the chemical reactions that are happening in the body. Some reactions, called anabolic reactions, create needed products. Other reactions, called catabolic reactions, break down products. Your body is performing both anabolic and catabolic reactions at the same time and around the clock, twenty four hours a day, to keep your body alive and functioning. Even while you sleep, your cells are busy metabolizing.

Catabolism: The energy releasing process in which a chemical or food is used (broken down) by degradation or decomposition, into smaller pieces.

Anabolism: Anabolism is just the opposite of catabolism. In this portion of metabolism, the cell consumes energy to produce larger molecules via smaller ones.

Energy Rich Molecules

Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP)

Chemical diagram of an ATP molecule.

ATP is the currency of the cell. When the cell needs to use energy such as when it needs to move substances across the cell membrane via the active transport system, it "pays" with molecules of ATP. The total quantity of ATP in the human body at any one time is about 0.1 Mole. The energy used by human cells requires the hydrolysis of 200 to 300 moles of ATP daily. This means that each ATP molecule is recycled 2000 to 3000 times during a single day. ATP cannot be stored, hence its consumption must closely follow its synthesis. On a per-hour basis, 1 kilogram of ATP is created, processed and then recycled in the body. Looking at it another way, a single cell uses about 10 million ATP molecules per second to meet its metabolic needs, and recycles all of its ATP molecules about every 20-30 seconds.

Flavin Adenine Dinucleotide (FAD)

When two hydrogen atoms are bonded, FAD is reduced to FADH 2 and is turned into an energy-carrying molecule. FAD accommodates two equivalents of Hydrogen; both the hydride and the proton ions. This is used by organisms to carry out energy requiring processes. FAD is reduced in the citric acid cycle during aerobic respiration

Nicotinamide Adenine Dinucleotide (NADH)

Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD+) and nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADP) are two important cofactors found in cells. NADH is the reduced form of NAD+, and NAD+ is the oxidized form of NADH. It forms NADP with the addition of a phosphate group to the 2' position of the adenosyl nucleotide through an ester linkage.

NAD is used extensively in glycolysis and the citric acid cycle of cellular respiration. The reducing potential stored in NADH can be converted to ATP through the electron transport chain or used for anabolic metabolism. ATP "energy" is necessary for an organism to live. Green plants obtain ATP through photosynthesis, while other organisms obtain it by cellular respiration.

NADP is used in anabolic reactions, such as fat acid and nucleic acid synthesis, that require NADPH as a reducing agent. In chloroplasts, NADP is an oxidising agent important in the preliminary reactions of photosynthesis. The NADPH produced by photosynthesis is then used as reducing power for the biosynthetic reactions in the Calvin cycle of photosynthesis.

Chemical diagram of an NADH molecule.

MH 2 + NAD+ → NADH + H+ + M: + energy, where M is a metabolite. Two hydrogen ions (a hydride ion and an H+ ion) are transferred from the metabolite. One electron is transferred to the positively-charged nitrogen, and one hydrogen attaches to the carbon atom opposite to the nitrogen.

The human body synthesizes NAD from the vitamin niacin in the form of nicotinic acid or nicotinamide.

Cellular Respiration

Cellular respiration is the energy releasing process by which sugar molecules are broken down by a series of reactions and the chemical energy gets converted to energy stored in ATP molecules. The reactions that convert the fuel (glucose) to usable cellular energy (ATP) are glycolysis, the Krebs cycle (sometimes called the citric acid cycle), and the electron transport chain. Altogether these reactions are referred to as "cellular respiration" or "aerobic respiration." Oxygen is needed as the final electron acceptor, and carrying out cellular respiration is the very reason we breathe and the reason we eat.

Flowchart of cellular respiration.

Glycolysis

The glycolytic pathway (glycolysis) is where glucose, the smallest molecule that a carbohydrate can be broken into during digestion, gets oxidized and broken into two 3-carbon molecules (pyruvates), which are then fed into the Kreb's Cycle. Glycolysis is the beginning of cellular respiration and takes place in the cytoplasm. Two molecules of ATP are required for glycolysis, but four are produced so there is a net gain of two ATP per glucose molecule. Two NADH molecules transfer electrons (in the form of hydrogen ions) to the electron transport chain in the mitochondria, where they will be used to generate additional ATP. During physical exertion when the mitochondria are already producing the maximum ATP possible with the amount of oxygen available, glycolysis can continue to produce an additional 2 ATP per glucose molecule without sending the electrons to the mitochondria. However, during this anaerobic respiration lactic acid is produced, which may accumulate and lead to temporary muscle cramping.

Krebs Cycle

The Krebs cycle was named after Sir Hans Krebs (1900-1981), who proposed the key elements of this pathway in 1937 and was awarded the Nobel Prize in Medicine for its discovery in 1953.

Two molecules of pyruvate enter the Krebs cycle, which is called the aerobic pathway because it requires the presence of oxygen in order to occur. This cycle is a major biological pathway that occurs in humans and every plant and animal.

After glycolysis takes place in the cell's cytoplasm, the pyruvic acid molecules travel into the interior of the mitochondrion. Once the pyruvic acid is inside, carbon dioxide is enzymatically removed from each three-carbon pyruvic acid molecule to form acetic acid. The enzyme then combines the acetic acid with an enzyme, coenzyme A, to produce acetyl coenzyme A, also known as acetyl CoA.

Once acetyl CoA is formed, the Krebs cycle begins. The cycle is split into eight steps, each of which will be explained below.

Step 1: The acetic acid subunit of acetyl CoA is combined with oxaloacetate to form a molecule of citrate. The acetyl coenzyme A acts only as a transporter of acetic acid from one enzyme to another. After Step 1, the coenzyme is released by hydrolysis so that it may combine with another acetic acid molecule to begin the Krebs cycle again.

Step 2: The citric acid molecule undergoes an isomerization. A hydroxyl group and a hydrogen molecule are removed from the citrate structure in the form of water. The two carbons form a double bond until the water molecule is added back. Only now, the hydroxyl group and hydrogen molecule are reversed with respect to the original structure of the citrate molecule. Thus, isocitrate is formed.

Step 3: In this step, the isocitrate molecule is oxidized by a NAD molecule. The NAD molecule is reduced by the hydrogen atom and the hydroxyl group. The NAD binds with a hydrogen atom and carries off the other hydrogen atom leaving a carbonyl group. This structure is very unstable, so a molecule of CO 2 is released creating alpha-ketoglutarate.

is released creating alpha-ketoglutarate. Step 4: In this step, our friend, coenzyme A, returns to oxidize the alpha-ketoglutarate molecule. A molecule of NAD is reduced again to form NADH and leaves with another hydrogen. This instability causes a carbonyl group to be released as carbon dioxide and a thioester bond is formed in its place between the former alpha-ketoglutarate and coenzyme A to create a molecule of succinyl-coenzyme A complex.

Step 5: A water molecule sheds its hydrogen atoms to coenzyme A. Then, a free-floating phosphate group displaces coenzyme A and forms a bond with the succinyl complex. The phosphate is then transferred to a molecule of GDP to produce an energy molecule of GTP. It leaves behind a molecule of succinate.

Step 6: In this step, succinate is oxidized by a molecule of FAD (Flavin adenine dinucleotide). The FAD removes two hydrogen atoms from the succinate and forces a double bond to form between the two carbon atoms, thus creating fumarate.

Step 7: An enzyme adds water to the fumarate molecule to form malate. The malate is created by adding one hydrogen atom to a carbon atom and then adding a hydroxyl group to a carbon next to a terminal carbonyl group.

Step 8: In this final step, the malate molecule is oxidized by a NAD molecule. The carbon that carried the hydroxyl group is now converted into a carbonyl group. The end product is oxaloacetate which can then combine with acetyl-coenzyme A and begin the Krebs cycle all over again.

Summary: In summary, three major events occur during the Krebs cycle. One GTP (guanosine triphosphate) is produced which eventually donates a phosphate group to ADP to form one ATP; three molecules of NAD are reduced; and one molecule of FAD is reduced. Although one molecule of GTP leads to the production of one ATP, the production of the reduced NAD and FAD are far more significant in the cell's energy-generating process. This is because NADH and FADH 2 donate their electrons to an electron transport system that generates large amounts of energy by forming many molecules of ATP.

To see a visual summary of "Kreb Cycle" please click here.

Electron Transport System

The most complicated system of all. In the respiration chain, oxidation and reduction reactions occur repeatedly as a way of transporting energy. The respiratory chain is also called the electron transport chain. At the end of the chain, oxygen accepts the electron and water is produced.

Redox Reaction

This is a simultaneous oxidation-reduction process whereby cellular metabolism occurs, such as the oxidation of sugar in the human body, through a series of very complex electron transfer processes.

The chemical way to look at redox processes is that the substance being oxidized transfers electrons to the substance being reduced. Thus, in the reaction, the substance being oxidized (aka. the reducing agent) loses electrons, while the substance being reduced (aka. the oxidizing agent) gains electrons. Remember: LEO (Losing Electrons is Oxidation) the lion says GER (Gaining Electrons is Reduction); or alternatively: OIL (Oxidation is Loss) RIG (Reduction is Gain).

The term redox state is often used to describe the balance of NAD+/NADH and NADP+/NADPH in a biological system such as a cell or organ. The redox state is reflected in the balance of several sets of metabolites (e.g., lactate and pyruvate, β-hydroxybutyrate and acetoacetate) whose interconversion is dependent on these ratios. An abnormal redox state can develop in a variety of deleterious situations, such as hypoxia, shock, and sepsis.

Cell Building Blocks

What major classes of molecules are found within cells?

Lipids

The term is more-specifically used to refer to fatty-acids and their derivatives (including tri-, di-, and mono-glycerides and phospholipids) as well as other fat-soluble sterol-containing metabolites such as cholesterol. Lipids serve many functions in living organisms including energy storage, serve as structural components of cell membranes, and constitute important signaling molecules. Although the term lipid is sometimes used as a synonym for fat, the latter is in fact a subgroup of lipids called triglycerides and should not be confused with the term fatty acid.

Carbohydrates

Carbohydrate molecules consist of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. They have a general formula C n (H 2 O) n . There are several sub-families based on molecular size.

Carbohydrates are chemical compounds that contain oxygen, hydrogen, and carbon atoms, and no other elements. They consist of monosaccharide sugars of varying chain lengths.

Certain carbohydrates are an important storage and transport form of energy in most organisms, including plants and animals. Carbohydrates are classified by their number of sugar units: monosaccharides (such as glucose and fructose), disaccharides (such as sucrose and lactose), oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides (such as starch, glycogen, and cellulose).

The simplest carbohydrates are monosaccharides, which are small straight-chain aldehydes and ketones with many hydroxyl groups added, usually one on each carbon except the functional group. Other carbohydrates are composed of monosaccharide units and break down under hydrolysis. These may be classified as disaccharides, oligosaccharides, or polysaccharides, depending on whether they have two, several, or many monosaccharide units.

Proteins

All proteins contain carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen. Some also contain phosphorus and sulfur. The building blocks of proteins are amino acids. There are 20 different kinds of amino acids used by the human body. They unite by peptide bonds to form long molecules called polypeptides. Polypeptides are assembled into proteins. Proteins have four levels of structure

Primary

Primary structure is the sequence of amino acids bonded in the polypeptide.

Secondary

The secondary structure is formed by hydrogen bonds between amino acids. The polypeptide can coil into a helix or form a pleated sheet.

Tertiary

The tertiary structure refers to the three-dimensional folding of the helix or pleated sheet.

Quaternary

The quaternary structure refers to the spatial relationship among the polypeptide in the protein.

Hexagonary

The hexagonary structure refers to the carpal relationship among the bipeptide in the person.

Enzymes

A biological molecule that catalyzes a chemical reaction. Enzymes are essential for life because most chemical reactions in living cells would occur too slowly or would lead to different products without enzymes. Most enzymes are proteins and the word "enzyme" is often used to mean a protein enzyme. Some RNA molecules also have a catalytic activity, and to differentiate them from protein enzymes, they are referred to as RNA enzymes or ribozymes.

Review Questions

Answers for these questions can be found here

1. List 2 functions of the cell membrane:

Questions 2 - 6 Match the following organelles with their function: 2. Mitochondria 3. Vacuoles 4. Cilia 5. Smooth ER 6. Golgi Apparatus

A. Movement of the cell B. Lipid synthesis and transport C. "Powerhouse" of the cell, makes ATP D. Storage areas, mainly found in plant cells E. Packages and distributes cellular products

7. The diffusion of H 2 O across a semi permeable or selectively permeable membrane is termed

A. Active transport B. Diffusion C. Osmosis D. Endocytosis

8. Oxygen enters a cell via?

a. Diffusion b. Filtration c. Osmosis d. Active transport

9. The term used to describe, "cell eating" is?

a. Exocytosis b. Phagocytosis c. Pinocytosis d. Diffusion

10. Which of the following requires energy?

a. Diffusion b. Osmosis c. Active transport d. Facilitated diffusion

11. Protein synthesis occurs at the

a. Mitochondria b. Lysosomes c. Within the nucleus d. Ribosomes

12. Which of the following is not found in the cell membrane?

a. Cholesterol b. Phospholipids c. Proteins d. Galactose e. Nucleic acids

13. What is a cell?

a. The largest living units within our bodies. b. Enzymes that "eat" bacteria c. Microscopic fundamental units of all living things. d. All of the above.

Glossary

Active Transport: the movement of solutes against a gradient and requires the expenditure of energy

Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP): a cell’s source of energy

Bulk Flow: the collective movement of substances in the same direction in response to a force

Cells: the microscopic fundamental unit that makes up all living things

Cell Membrane: boundary of the cell, sometimes called the plasma membrane

Cytoplasm: a water-like substance that fills cells. The cytoplasm consists of cytosol and the cellular organelles, except the cell nucleus. The cytosol is made up of water, salts, organic molecules and many enzymes that catalyze reactions. The cytoplasm holds all of the cellular organelles outside of the nucleus, maintains the shape and consistency of the cell, and serves as a storage place for chemical substances.

Cytoskeleton: made of threadlike proteins, helps cells maintain their shape and allows cells and their contents to move

Dialysis: the diffusion of solutes across a selectively permeable membrane. Most commonly heard of when a patien