Error handling seems to be one of the more controversial areas of Go. Some are pleased with it, while others hate it with passion. Nevertheless, there is a handful of best practices that will make dealing with errors less painful if you're a sceptic and even better if you like it as it is.

Know when to panic

The idiomatic way of reporting errors in Go is having the error as the last return value of a funtion. However, Go also offers an alternative error mechanism called panic that is similar to what is known as exceptions in other programming languages.

Despite not being suitable everywhere, panics are useful in several specific scenarios.

When the user explicitly asks: Okay

In certain cases, the user might want to panic and thus abort the whole application if an important part of it can not be initialized. Go's standard library is ripe with examples of variants of functions that panic instead of returning an error, e.g. regexp.MustCompile. As long as there remains a function that does this in an idiomatic way ( regexp.Compile ), providing the user with a nifty shortcut is okay.

When setting up: Maybe

A scenario that, in a way, intersects with the previous one, is the setting up phase of an application. In most cases, if preparations fail, there is no point in continuing. One case of this might be a web application failing to bind the required port or being unable to connect to the database server. In that case, there's not much left to do, so panicking is acceptable, even if not explicitly requested by the user.

This behavior can also be observed in the standard library: the net/http muxer will panic if a pattern is invalid in any way.

func ( mux * ServeMux ) Handle ( pattern string , handler Handler ) { mux . mu . Lock () defer mux . mu . Unlock () if pattern == "" { panic ( "http: invalid pattern " + pattern ) } if handler == nil { panic ( "http: nil handler" ) } if mux . m [ pattern ]. explicit { panic ( "http: multiple registrations for " + pattern ) } // ...

Otherwise: Not really

Although there might be other cases where panic is useful, returned errors remain preferable in most scenarios.

Predefine errors

It's not unusual to see code returning errors like this

func doStuff () error { if someCondition { return errors . New ( "no space left on the device" ) } else { return errors . New ( "permission denied" ) } }

The wrongdoing here is that it's not convenient to check which error has been returned. Comparing strings is error prone: misspelling a string in comparison will result in an error that cannot be caught at compile time, while a cosmetic change of the returned error will break the checking just as much.

Given a small set of errors, the best way to handle this is to predefine each error publicly at the package level.

var ErrNoSpaceLeft = errors . New ( "no space left on the device" ) var ErrPermissionDenied = errors . New ( "permission denied" ) func doStuff () error { if someCondition { return ErrNoSpaceLeft } else { return ErrPermissionDenied } }

Now the previous problems aren't anymore.

if err == ErrNoSpaceLeft { // handle this particular error }

Provide information

Sometimes, an error can happen because of a whole lot of different reasons. Wikipedia lists 41 different HTTP client errors. Let's say we want to treat them as errors in Go ( net/http does not). What's more, we'd like to be able to look into the specifics of the error we received and find out whether the error was 404, 410 or 418.

In the last paragraph we developed a pattern for discerning errors from one another, but here it gets a bit messy. Predefining 41 separate errors like this:

var ErrBadRequest = errors . New ( "HTTP 400: Bad Request" ) var ErrUnauthorized = errors . New ( "HTTP 401: Unauthorized" ) // ...

will make our code and documentation messy and our fingers sore.

A custom error type is the best solution to this problem. Go's implicit interfaces make creating one easy: to conform to the error interface, we only need to have an Error() method that returns a string.

type HTTPError struct { Code int Description string } func ( h HTTPError ) Error () string { return fmt . Sprintf ( "HTTP %d: %s" , h . Code , h . Description ) }

Not only does this act like a regular error, it also contains the status code as an integer. We can then use it as follows:

func request () error { return HTTPError { 404 , "Not Found" } } func main () { err := request () if err != nil { // an error occured if err .( HTTPError ). Code == 404 { // handle a "not found" error } else { // handle a different error } } }

The only minor annoyance left here is the need to do a type assertion to a concrete error type. But it's a small price to pay compared to the fragility of parsing the error code from a string.

Provide stack traces

Errors as they exist in Go remain inferior to panics in one important way: they do not provide important information about where in the call stack the error happened.

A solution to this problem has recently been created by the Juju team at Canonical. Their package errgo provides the functionality of wrapping an error into another one that records where the error happened.

Building up on the HTTP error handling example, we'll now put this to use.

package main import ( "fmt" "github.com/juju/errgo" ) type HTTPError struct { Code int Description string } func ( h HTTPError ) Error () string { return fmt . Sprintf ( "HTTP %d: %s" , h . Code , h . Description ) } func request () error { return errgo . Mask ( HTTPError { 404 , "Not Found" }) } func main () { err := request () fmt . Println ( err .( errgo . Locationer ). Location ()) realErr := err .( errgo . Wrapper ). Underlying () if realErr .( HTTPError ). Code == 404 { // handle a "not found" error } else { // handle a different error } }

Our code has changed in several ways. Firstly, we wrap an error into an errgo -provided type. This code now prints the information on where the error happened. On my machine it outputs

/private/tmp/example.go:19

referencing a line in request() .

However, our code has become somewhat messier. To get to the real HTTPError we need to do more unwrapping. Sadly, I'm not aware of a real way to make this nicer, so it's all about tradeoffs. If your codebase is small and you can always tell where the error came from, you might not need to use errgo at all.

What about concrete types?

Some might point out that a portion of the type assertions could have been avoided if we returned a concrete type from a function instead of an error interface.

However, doing that in conjunction with the := operator will bring trouble. As a result, the error variable will not be reusable.

func f1 () HTTPError { ... } func f2 () OSError { ... } func main () { // err automatically declared as HTTPError err := f1 () // OSError is a completely different type // The compiler does not allow this err = f2 () }

To avoid this, errors are best returned using the error type. Standard library avoids returning concrete types as well, e.g. os package states:

Often, more information is available within the error. For example, if a call that takes a file name fails, such as Open or Stat, the error will include the failing file name when printed and will be of type *PathError, which may be unpacked for more information.

This concludes my list of best practices for errors in Go. As in other areas, a different mindset has to be adopted when coming into Go from elsewhere. "Different" does not imply "worse" though and deciding on a set of conventions is vital to making Go development even better.